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Signals and Systems
with MATLAB ® Computing
and Simulink ® Modeling

Third Edition
Steven T. Karris

Includes

step-by-step
mn
N –1 – j2π ------- procedures
∑ x [n ]e
N
X[ m ] =
n=0 for designing

analog and

digital filters

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
 Students and working professionals will find Signals and
Signals and Systems Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ®
with MATLAB ® Computing Modeling, Third Edition, to be a concise and easy-to-learn
and Simulink ® Modeling text. It provides complete, clear, and detailed explanations
of the principal analog and digital signal processing
Third Edition concepts and analog and digital filter design illustrated
with numerous practical examples.

This text includes the following chapters and appendices:

• Elementary Signals • The Laplace Transformation • The Inverse Laplace Transformation
• Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms • State Variables and State Equations • The
Impulse Response and Convolution • Fourier Series • The Fourier Transform • Discrete
Time Systems and the Z Transform • The DFT and The FFT Algorithm • Analog and Digital
Filters • Introduction to MATLAB ® • Introduction to Simulink ® • Review of Complex
Numbers • Review of Matrices and Determinants
Each chapter contains numerous practical applications supplemented with detailed
instructions for using MATLAB and Simulink to obtain accurate and quick solutions.

Steven T. Karris is the president and founder of Orchard Publications, has undergraduate and
graduate degrees in electrical engineering, and is a registered professional engineer in California
and Florida. He has more than 35 years of professional engineering experience and more than 30
years of teaching experience as an adjunct professor, most recently at UC Berkeley, California.

Orchard Publications
Visit us on the Internet
www.orchardpublications.com
or email us: info@orchardpublications.com

ISBN-10: 0-9
9744239-9
9-8
8 $74.95 U.S.A.

ISBN-13: 978 0-9

9744239-9
9-9
9
Signals and Systems
with MATLAB® Computing
and Simulink® Modeling
Third Edition

Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Signals and Systems with MATLAB® Computing and Simulink Modeling®, Third Edition

Copyright © 2007 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, info@orchardpublications.com

Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of the Microsoft™ Corporation and The
MathWorks™ Inc. They are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006932532

ISBN−10: 0−9744239−9−8

ISBN−13: 978−0−9744239−9−9

Copyright TX 5−471−562
 Preface

This text contains a comprehensive discussion on continuous and discrete time signals and
systems with many MATLAB® and several Simulink® examples. It is written for junior and
senior electrical and computer engineering students, and for self−study by working professionals.
The prerequisites are a basic course in differential and integral calculus, and basic electric circuit
theory.
This book can be used in a two−quarter, or one semester course. This author has taught the
subject material for many years and was able to cover all material in 16 weeks, with 2½ lecture
hours per week.
To get the most out of this text, it is highly recommended that Appendix A is thoroughly
reviewed. This appendix serves as an introduction to MATLAB, and is intended for those who
are not familiar with it. The Student Edition of MATLAB is an inexpensive, and yet a very
powerful software package; it can be found in many college bookstores, or can be obtained directly
from
The MathWorks™ Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 01760−2098
Phone: 508 647−7000, Fax: 508 647−7001
http://www.mathworks.com
e−mail: info@mathworks.com
The elementary signals are reviewed in Chapter 1, and several examples are given. The purpose of
this chapter is to enable the reader to express any waveform in terms of the unit step function, and
subsequently the derivation of the Laplace transform of it. Chapters 2 through 4 are devoted to
Laplace transformation and circuit analysis using this transform. Chapter 5 is an introduction to
state−space and contains many illustrative examples. Chapter 6 discusses the impulse response.
Chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to Fourier series and transform respectively. Chapter 9 introduces
discrete−time signals and the Z transform. Considerable time was spent on Chapter 10 to present
the Discrete Fourier transform and FFT with the simplest possible explanations. Chapter 11
contains a thorough discussion to analog and digital filters analysis and design procedures. As
mentioned above, Appendix A is an introduction to MATLAB. Appendix B is an introduction to
Simulink, Appendix C contains a review of complex numbers, and Appendix D is an introduction
to matrix theory.
New to the Second Edition
This is an extensive revision of the first edition. The most notable change is the inclusion of the
solutions to all exercises at the end of each chapter. It is in response to many readers who
expressed a desire to obtain the solutions in order to check their solutions to those of the author
and thereby enhancing their knowledge. Another reason is that this text is written also for self−
study by practicing engineers who need a review before taking more advanced courses such as
digital image processing.
Another major change is the addition of a rather comprehensive summary at the end of each
chapter. Hopefully, this will be a valuable aid to instructors for preparation of view foils for
presenting the material to their class.
New to the Third Edition
The most notable change is the inclusion of Simulink modeling examples. The pages where they
appear can be found in the Table of Contents section of this text. Another change is the
improvement of the plots generated by the latest revisions of the MATLAB® Student Version,
Release 14.

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
info@orchardpublications.com

2
Table of Contents
1 Elementary Signals 1−1
1.1 Signals Described in Math Form .............................................................................1−1
1.2 The Unit Step Function ..........................................................................................1−2
1.3 The Unit Ramp Function ......................................................................................1−10
1.4 The Delta Function ............................................................................................... 1−11
1.4.1 The Sampling Property of the Delta Function ............................................1−12
1.4.2 The Sifting Property of the Delta Function ................................................1−13
1.5 Higher Order Delta Functions...............................................................................1−14
1.6 Summary ................................................................................................................1−22
1.7 Exercises.................................................................................................................1−23
1.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ................................................................1−24
MATLAB Computing
Pages 1−20, 1−21
Simulink Modeling
Page 1−18

2 The Laplace Transformation 2−1

2.1 Definition of the Laplace Transformation...............................................................2−1
2.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform ...............................................2−2
2.2.1 Linearity Property ........................................................................................2−3
2.2.2 Time Shifting Property .................................................................................2−3
2.2.3 Frequency Shifting Property ........................................................................2−4
2.2.4 Scaling Property ...........................................................................................2−4
2.2.5 Differentiation in Time Domain Property ...................................................2−4
2.2.6 Differentiation in Complex Frequency Domain Property ...........................2−6
2.2.7 Integration in Time Domain Property .........................................................2−6
2.2.8 Integration in Complex Frequency Domain Property .................................2−8
2.2.9 Time Periodicity Property ............................................................................2−8
2.2.10 Initial Value Theorem..................................................................................2−9
2.2.11 Final Value Theorem .................................................................................2−10
2.2.12 Convolution in Time Domain Property.....................................................2−11
2.2.13 Convolution in Complex Frequency Domain Property.............................2−12
2.3 The Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time.......................................2−14
2.3.1 The Laplace Transform of the Unit Step Function u 0 ( t ) ..........................2−14
2.3.2 The Laplace Transform of the Ramp Function u 1 ( t ) ................................2−14
2.3.3 The Laplace Transform of t n u0 ( t ) ..............................................................2−15

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition i
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 2.3.4 The Laplace Transform of the Delta Function δ ( t ) ................................. 2−18
2.3.5 The Laplace Transform of the Delayed Delta Function δ ( t – a ) .............. 2−18
2.3.6 The Laplace Transform of e –at u 0 ( t ) .......................................................... 2−19
– at
2.3.7 The Laplace Transform of t n e u 0 ( t ) ....................................................... 2−19
2.3.8 The Laplace Transform of sin ω t u 0 t ......................................................... 2−20
2.3.9 The Laplace Transform of cos ω t u0 t ......................................................... 2−20
2.3.10 The Laplace Transform of e –at sin ω t u 0 ( t ) ................................................. 2−21
2.3.11 The Laplace Transform of e –at cos ω t u 0 ( t ) ................................................. 2−22
2.4 The Laplace Transform of Common Waveforms .................................................. 2−23
2.4.1 The Laplace Transform of a Pulse............................................................... 2−23
2.4.2 The Laplace Transform of a Linear Segment .............................................. 2−23
2.4.3 The Laplace Transform of a Triangular Waveform .................................... 2−24
2.4.4 The Laplace Transform of a Rectangular Periodic Waveform.................... 2−25
2.4.5 The Laplace Transform of a Half−Rectified Sine Waveform ..................... 2−26
2.5 Using MATLAB for Finding the Laplace Transforms of Time Functions ............ 2−27
2.6 Summary ................................................................................................................ 2−28
2.7 Exercises................................................................................................................. 2−31
The Laplace Transform of a Sawtooth Periodic Waveform ............................... 2−32
The Laplace Transform of a Full−Rectified Sine Waveform.............................. 2−32
2.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises................................................................. 2−33

3 The Inverse Laplace Transform 3−1

3.1 The Inverse Laplace Transform Integral ..................................................................3−1
3.2 Partial Fraction Expansion........................................................................................3−1
3.2.1 Distinct Poles..................................................................................................3−2
3.2.2 Complex Poles ................................................................................................3−5
3.2.3 Multiple (Repeated) Poles..............................................................................3−8
3.3 Case where F(s) is Improper Rational Function.....................................................3−13
3.4 Alternate Method of Partial Fraction Expansion...................................................3−15
3.5 Summary .................................................................................................................3−19
3.6 Exercises..................................................................................................................3−21
3.7 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .................................................................3−22
MATLAB Computing
Pages 3−3, 3−4, 3−5, 3−6, 3−8, 3−10, 3−12, 3−13, 3−14, 3−22

4 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms 4−1

4.1 Circuit Transformation from Time to Complex Frequency.................................... 4−1
4.1.1 Resistive Network Transformation ............................................................... 4−1
4.1.2 Inductive Network Transformation .............................................................. 4−1
4.1.3 Capacitive Network Transformation ............................................................ 4−1

ii Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 4.2 Complex Impedance Z(s).........................................................................................4−8
4.3 Complex Admittance Y(s) .....................................................................................4−11
4.4 Transfer Functions .................................................................................................4−13
4.5 Using the Simulink Transfer Fcn Block.................................................................4−17
4.6 Summary.................................................................................................................4−20
4.7 Exercises .................................................................................................................4−21
4.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises.................................................................4−24
MATLAB Computing
Pages 4−6, 4−8, 4−12, 4−16, 4−17, 4−18, 4−26, 4−27, 4−28, 4−29, 4−34
Simulink Modeling
Page 4−17

5 State Variables and State Equations 5−1

5.1 Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form................................... 5−1
5.2 Solution of Single State Equations ........................................................................ 5−6
5.3 The State Transition Matrix ................................................................................. 5−9
5.4 Computation of the State Transition Matrix ...................................................... 5−11
5.4.1 Distinct Eigenvalues ................................................................................. 5−11
5.4.2 Multiple (Repeated) Eigenvalues ............................................................. 5−15
5.5 Eigenvectors......................................................................................................... 5−18
5.6 Circuit Analysis with State Variables.................................................................. 5−22
5.7 Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform.......................... 5−30
5.8 Summary .............................................................................................................. 5−38
5.9 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 5−41
5.10 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 5−43
MATLAB Computing
Pages 5−14, 5−15, 5−18, 5−26, 5−36, 5−48, 5−51
Simulink Modeling
Pages 5−27, 5−37, 5−45

6 The Impulse Response and Convolution 6−1

6.1 The Impulse Response in Time Domain ................................................................ 6−1
6.2 Even and Odd Functions of Time .......................................................................... 6−4
6.3 Convolution ............................................................................................................ 6−7
6.4 Graphical Evaluation of the Convolution Integral................................................. 6−8
6.5 Circuit Analysis with the Convolution Integral ................................................... 6−18
6.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 6−21
6.7 Exercises................................................................................................................ 6−23

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition iii
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 6.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises................................................................ 6−25
MATLAB Applications
Pages 6−12, 6−15, 6−30

7 Fourier Series 7−1

7.1 Wave Analysis......................................................................................................... 7−1
7.2 Evaluation of the Coefficients................................................................................. 7−2
7.3 Symmetry in Trigonometric Fourier Series ............................................................. 7−6
7.3.1 Symmetry in Square Waveform..................................................................... 7−8
7.3.2 Symmetry in Square Waveform with Ordinate Axis Shifted ........................ 7−8
7.3.3 Symmetry in Sawtooth Waveform................................................................. 7−9
7.3.4 Symmetry in Triangular Waveform ............................................................... 7−9
7.3.5 Symmetry in Fundamental, Second, and Third Harmonics........................ 7−10
7.4 Trigonometric Form of Fourier Series for Common Waveforms.......................... 7−10
7.4.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Square Waveform ................................... 7−11
7.4.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Sawtooth Waveform............................... 7−14
7.4.3 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Triangular Waveform ............................. 7−16
7.4.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Half−Wave Rectifier Waveform............. 7−17
7.4.5 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Full−Wave Rectifier Waveform.............. 7−20
7.5 Gibbs Phenomenon ............................................................................................... 7−24
7.6 Alternate Forms of the Trigonometric Fourier Series .......................................... 7−24
7.7 Circuit Analysis with Trigonometric Fourier Series............................................. 7−28
7.8 The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series........................................................ 7−31
7.9 Symmetry in Exponential Fourier Series .............................................................. 7−33
7.9.1 Even Functions ........................................................................................... 7−33
7.9.2 Odd Functions ............................................................................................ 7−34
7.9.3 Half-Wave Symmetry ................................................................................. 7−34
7.9.4 No Symmetry .............................................................................................. 7−34
7.9.5 Relation of C –n to C n ................................................................................ 7−34
7.10 Line Spectra.......................................................................................................... 7−36
7.11 Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series................................................ 7−41
7.12 Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series ........................................... 7−44
7.13 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Using Excel® ................................................ 7−46
7.14 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Using MATLAB® ........................................ 7−47
7.15 Summary ............................................................................................................... 7−50
7.16 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 7−53
7.17 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 7−55
MATLAB Computing
Pages 7−38, 7−47

iv Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Simulink Modeling
Page 7−31

8 The Fourier Transform 8−1

8.1 Definition and Special Forms ................................................................................ 8−1
8.2 Special Forms of the Fourier Transform ................................................................ 8−2
8.2.1 Real Time Functions.................................................................................. 8−3
8.2.2 Imaginary Time Functions ......................................................................... 8−6
8.3 Properties and Theorems of the Fourier Transform .............................................. 8−9
8.3.1 Linearity...................................................................................................... 8−9
8.3.2 Symmetry.................................................................................................... 8−9
8.3.3 Time Scaling............................................................................................. 8−10
8.3.4 Time Shifting............................................................................................ 8−11
8.3.5 Frequency Shifting ................................................................................... 8−11
8.3.6 Time Differentiation ................................................................................ 8−12
8.3.7 Frequency Differentiation ........................................................................ 8−13
8.3.8 Time Integration ...................................................................................... 8−13
8.3.9 Conjugate Time and Frequency Functions.............................................. 8−13
8.3.10 Time Convolution .................................................................................... 8−14
8.3.11 Frequency Convolution............................................................................ 8−15
8.3.12 Area Under f ( t ) ........................................................................................ 8−15
8.3.13 Area Under F ( ω ) ...................................................................................... 8−15
8.3.14 Parseval’s Theorem................................................................................... 8−16
8.4 Fourier Transform Pairs of Common Functions.................................................. 8−18
8.4.1 The Delta Function Pair .......................................................................... 8−18
8.4.2 The Constant Function Pair .................................................................... 8−18
8.4.3 The Cosine Function Pair ........................................................................ 8−19
8.4.4 The Sine Function Pair............................................................................. 8−20
8.4.5 The Signum Function Pair........................................................................ 8−20
8.4.6 The Unit Step Function Pair .................................................................... 8−22
– jω 0 t
8.4.7 The e u0 ( t ) Function Pair .................................................................... 8−24
8.4.8 The ( cos ω 0 t ) ( u 0 t ) Function Pair ............................................................... 8−24
8.4.9 The ( sin ω 0 t ) ( u 0 t ) Function Pair ............................................................... 8−25
8.5 Derivation of the Fourier Transform from the Laplace Transform .................... 8−25
8.6 Fourier Transforms of Common Waveforms ...................................................... 8−27
8.6.1 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t + T ) – u 0 ( t – T ) ] ....................................... 8−27
8.6.2 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – 2T ) ] ........................................... 8−28
8.6.3 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t + T ) + u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – T ) – u0 ( t – 2T ) ] ........... 8−29

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition v
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 8.6.4 The Transform of f ( t ) = A cos ω 0 t [ u0 ( t + T ) – u 0 ( t – T ) ] .............................. 8−30
8.6.5 The Transform of a Periodic Time Function with Period T..................... 8−31
∞
8.6.6 The Transform of the Periodic Time Function f ( t ) = A ∑
n = –∞
δ ( t – nT ) .... 8−32

8.7 Using MATLAB for Finding the Fourier Transform of Time Functions............ 8−33
8.8 The System Function and Applications to Circuit Analysis............................... 8−34
8.9 Summary .............................................................................................................. 8−42
8.10 Exercises............................................................................................................... 8−47
8.11 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 8−49
MATLAB Computing
Pages 8−33, 8−34, 8−50, 8−54, 8−55, 8−56, 8−59, 8−60

9 Discrete−Time Systems and the Z Transform 9−1

9.1 Definition and Special Forms of the Z Transform ............................................... 9−1
9.2 Properties and Theorems of the Z Transform...................................................... 9−3
9.2.1 Linearity ..................................................................................................... 9−3
9.2.2 Shift of f [ n ]u 0 [ n ] in the Discrete−Time Domain ..................................... 9−3
9.2.3 Right Shift in the Discrete−Time Domain ................................................ 9−4
9.2.4 Left Shift in the Discrete−Time Domain................................................... 9−5
n
9.2.5 Multiplication by a in the Discrete−Time Domain................................. 9−6
– naT
9.2.6 Multiplication by e in the Discrete−Time Domain ........................... 9−6
9.2.7 Multiplication by n and n2 in the Discrete−Time Domain ..................... 9−6
9.2.8 Summation in the Discrete−Time Domain ............................................... 9−7
9.2.9 Convolution in the Discrete−Time Domain ............................................. 9−8
9.2.10 Convolution in the Discrete−Frequency Domain ..................................... 9−9
9.2.11 Initial Value Theorem ............................................................................... 9−9
9.2.12 Final Value Theorem............................................................................... 9−10
9.3 The Z Transform of Common Discrete−Time Functions.................................. 9−11
9.3.1 The Transform of the Geometric Sequence .............................................9−11
9.3.2 The Transform of the Discrete−Time Unit Step Function ......................9−14
9.3.3 The Transform of the Discrete−Time Exponential Sequence .................9−16
9.3.4 The Transform of the Discrete−Time Cosine and Sine Functions ..........9−16
9.3.5 The Transform of the Discrete−Time Unit Ramp Function....................9−18
9.4 Computation of the Z Transform with Contour Integration .............................9−20
9.5 Transformation Between s− and z−Domains .......................................................9−22
9.6 The Inverse Z Transform ...................................................................................9−25

vi Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 9.6.1 Partial Fraction Expansion ..................................................................... 9−25
9.6.2 The Inversion Integral............................................................................ 9−32
9.6.3 Long Division of Polynomials ................................................................ 9−36
9.7 The Transfer Function of Discrete−Time Systems ............................................ 9−38
9.8 State Equations for Discrete−Time Systems ...................................................... 9−45
9.9 Summary............................................................................................................. 9−48
9.10 Exercises ............................................................................................................. 9−53
9.11 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises............................................................. 9−55
MATLAB Computing
Pages 9−35, 9−37, 9−38, 9−41, 9−42, 9−59, 9−61
Simulink Modeling
Page 9−44
Excel Plots
Pages 9−35, 9−44

10 The DFT and the FFT Algorithm 10−1

10.1 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) ............................................................10−1
10.2 Even and Odd Properties of the DFT ................................................................10−9
10.3 Common Properties and Theorems of the DFT ..............................................10−10
10.3.1 Linearity ...............................................................................................10−10
10.3.2 Time Shift ............................................................................................10−11
10.3.3 Frequency Shift....................................................................................10−12
10.3.4 Time Convolution ...............................................................................10−12
10.3.5 Frequency Convolution .......................................................................10−13
10.4 The Sampling Theorem ...................................................................................10−13
10.5 Number of Operations Required to Compute the DFT ..................................10−16
10.6 The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) ..................................................................10−17
10.7 Summary...........................................................................................................10−28
10.8 Exercises ...........................................................................................................10−31
10.9 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises...........................................................10−33
MATLAB Computing
Pages 10−5, 10−7, 10−34
Excel Analysis ToolPak
Pages 10−6, 10−8

11 Analog and Digital Filters

11.1 Filter Types and Classifications......................................................................... 11−1
11.2 Basic Analog Filters........................................................................................... 11−2

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition vii
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 11.2.1 RC Low−Pass Filter ............................................................................... 11−2
11.2.2 RC High−Pass Filter .............................................................................. 11−4
11.2.3 RLC Band−Pass Filter.............................................................................11−7
11.2.4 RLC Band−Elimination Filter ................................................................11−8
11.3 Low−Pass Analog Filter Prototypes ..................................................................11−10
11.3.1 Butterworth Analog Low−Pass Filter Design .......................................11−14
11.3.2 Chebyshev Type I Analog Low−Pass Filter Design..............................11−25
11.3.3 Chebyshev Type II Analog Low−Pass Filter Design ............................11−38
11.3.4 Elliptic Analog Low−Pass Filter Design ...............................................11−39
11.4 High−Pass, Band−Pass, and Band−Elimination Filter Design..........................11−41
11.5 Digital Filters ....................................................................................................11−51
11.6 Digital Filter Design with Simulink..................................................................11−70
11.6.1 The Direct Form I Realization of a Digital Filter.................................11−70
11.6.2 The Direct Form II Realization of a Digital Filter................................11−71
11.6.3 The Series Form Realization of a Digital Filter ....................................11−73
11.6.4 The Parallel Form Realization of a Digital Filter .................................11−75
11.6.5 The Digital Filter Design Block............................................................11−78
11.7 Summary ...........................................................................................................11−87
11.8 Exercises ...........................................................................................................11−91
11.9 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ...........................................................11−97
MATLAB Computing
Pages 11−3, 11−4, 11−6, 11−7, 11−9, 11−15, 11−19, 11−23, 11−24, 11−31,
11−35, 11−36, 11−37, 11−38, 11−40, 11−41, 11−42, 11−43, 11−45, 11−46,
11−48, 11−50, 11−55, 11−56, 11−57, 11−60, 11−62, 11−64, 11−67, 11−68,
and 11−97 through 11−106
Simulink Modeling
Pages 11−71, 11−74, 11−77, 11−78, 11−80, 11−82, 11−83, 11−84

A Introduction to MATLAB A−1

A.1 MATLAB® and Simulink® ........................................................................... A−1
A.2 Command Window ......................................................................................... A−1
A.3 Roots of Polynomials ....................................................................................... A−3
A.4 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots ................................................. A−4
A.5 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values .............................................. A−6
A.6 Rational Polynomials ....................................................................................... A−8
A.7 Using MATLAB to Make Plots..................................................................... A−10
A.8 Subplots ......................................................................................................... A−18
A.9 Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation .............................................. A−18
A.10 Script and Function Files .............................................................................. A−26
A.11 Display Formats ............................................................................................. A−31

viii Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 MATLAB Computing
Pages A−3 through A−8, A−10, A−13, A−14, A−16, A−17,
A−21, A−22, A−24, A−27

B Introduction to Simulink B−1

B.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB............................................................. B−1
B.2 Simulink Demos ............................................................................................... B−20
MATLAB Computing
Page B−4
Simulink Modeling
Pages B−7, B−12, B−14, B−18

C A Review of Complex Numbers C−1

C.1 Definition of a Complex Number....................................................................... C−1
C.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers ............................................... C−2
C.3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers.................................................................. C−3
C.4 Division of Complex Numbers ........................................................................... C−4
C.5 Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers.......................................... C−4
MATLAB Computing
Pages C−6, C−7, C−8
Simulink Modeling
Page C−7

D Matrices and Determinants D−1

D.1 Matrix Definition.............................................................................................D−1
D.2 Matrix Operations ...........................................................................................D−2
D.3 Special Forms of Matrices................................................................................D−6
D.4 Determinants .................................................................................................D−10
D.5 Minors and Cofactors ....................................................................................D−12
D.6 Cramer’s Rule ................................................................................................D−17
D.7 Gaussian Elimination Method.......................................................................D−19
D.8 The Adjoint of a Matrix ................................................................................D−21
D.9 Singular and Non−Singular Matrices ............................................................D−21
D.10 The Inverse of a Matrix .................................................................................D−22
D.11 Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices ......................................D−24
D.12 Exercises.........................................................................................................D−31

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition ix
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 MATLAB Computing
Pages D−3, D−4, D−5, D−7, D−8, D−9, D−10,
D−12, D−19, D−23, D−27, D−29
Simulink Modeling
Page D−3
Excel Spreadsheet
Page D−28

References R−1

Index IN−1

x Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1
Elementary Signals

T
his chapter begins with a discussion of elementary signals that may be applied to electric
networks. The unit step, unit ramp, and delta functions are then introduced. The sampling
and sifting properties of the delta function are defined and derived. Several examples for
expressing a variety of waveforms in terms of these elementary signals are provided. Throughout
this text, a left justified horizontal bar will denote the beginning of an example, and a right justi-
fied horizontal bar will denote the end of the example. These bars will not be shown whenever an
example begins at the top of a page or at the bottom of a page. Also, when one example follows
immediately after a previous example, the right justified bar will be omitted.

1.1 Signals Described in Math Form

Consider the network of Figure 1.1 where the switch is closed at time t = 0 .
R t = 0

+
+ v out open terminals
−
vS −

Figure 1.1. A switched network with open terminals

We wish to describe v out in a math form for the time interval – ∞ < t < +∞ . To do this, it is conve-
nient to divide the time interval into two parts, – ∞ < t < 0 , and 0 < t < ∞ .
For the time interval – ∞ < t < 0 , the switch is open and therefore, the output voltage v out is zero.
In other words,
v out = 0 for – ∞ < t < 0 (1.1)

For the time interval 0 < t < ∞ , the switch is closed. Then, the input voltage v S appears at the
output, i.e.,
v out = v S for 0 < t < ∞ (1.2)

Combining (1.1) and (1.2) into a single relationship, we obtain

⎧ 0 –∞ < t < 0
v out = ⎨ (1.3)
⎩ vS 0 < t < ∞

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−1
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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

We can express (1.3) by the waveform shown in Figure 1.2.

v out
vS

0
t
Figure 1.2. Waveform for v out as defined in relation (1.3)

The waveform of Figure 1.2 is an example of a discontinuous function. A function is said to be dis-
continuous if it exhibits points of discontinuity, that is, the function jumps from one value to
another without taking on any intermediate values.

1.2 The Unit Step Function u 0 ( t )

A well known discontinuous function is the unit step function u 0 ( t ) * which is defined as

⎧0 t<0
u0 ( t ) = ⎨ (1.4)
⎩1 t>0

It is also represented by the waveform of Figure 1.3.

u0 ( t )
1
0 t

Figure 1.3. Waveform for u 0 ( t )

In the waveform of Figure 1.3, the unit step function u 0 ( t ) changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at
t = 0 . But if it changes at t = t 0 instead, it is denoted as u 0 ( t – t 0 ) . In this case, its waveform and
definition are as shown in Figure 1.4 and relation (1.5) respectively.

1
u0 ( t – t0 )
t
0 t0
Figure 1.4. Waveform for u 0 ( t – t 0 )

* In some books, the unit step function is denoted as u ( t ) , that is, without the subscript 0. In this text, however, we
will reserve the u ( t ) designation for any input when we will discuss state variables in Chapter 5.

1−2 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Unit Step Function

⎧0 t < t0
u0 ( t – t0 ) = ⎨ (1.5)
⎩1 t > t0

If the unit step function changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at t = – t 0 , it is denoted as u 0 ( t + t 0 ) . In

this case, its waveform and definition are as shown in Figure 1.5 and relation (1.6) respectively.
u0 ( t + t0 )
1

−t0 0 t
Figure 1.5. Waveform for u 0 ( t + t 0 )

⎧0 t < –t0
u0 ( t + t0 ) = ⎨ (1.6)
⎩1 t > –t0

Example 1.1
Consider the network of Figure 1.6, where the switch is closed at time t = T .
R t = T

+
+ v out open terminals
−
vS −

Figure 1.6. Network for Example 1.1

Express the output voltage v out as a function of the unit step function, and sketch the appropriate
waveform.
Solution:
For this example, the output voltage v out = 0 for t < T , and v out = v S for t > T . Therefore,

v out = v S u 0 ( t – T ) (1.7)

and the waveform is shown in Figure 1.7.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−3
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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

vS u0 ( t – T )
v out

t
0 T
Figure 1.7. Waveform for Example 1.1

Other forms of the unit step function are shown in Figure 1.8.

Τ −Τ
t t t
0 0 0
(a) (b) (c)
−A −A −A
–A u0 ( t ) –A u0 ( t – T ) –A u0 ( t + T )

Au 0 ( – t ) Au 0 ( – t + T ) Au 0 ( – t – T )
A A A

t t −Τ 0
t
0 (d) 0 Τ (e) (f)

Τ −Τ
t t 0 t
0 (g) 0 (h) (i)
−A −A −A
–A u0 ( –t ) –A u0 ( – t + T ) –A u0 ( – t – T )

Figure 1.8. Other forms of the unit step function

Unit step functions can be used to represent other time−varying functions such as the rectangular
pulse shown in Figure 1.9.

u0 ( t )
1
1
t t t
0 1 0 0
(c)
(a) (b)
–u0 ( t – 1 )
Figure 1.9. A rectangular pulse expressed as the sum of two unit step functions

1−4 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Unit Step Function

Thus, the pulse of Figure 1.9(a) is the sum of the unit step functions of Figures 1.9(b) and 1.9(c)
and it is represented as u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – 1 ) .

The unit step function offers a convenient method of describing the sudden application of a volt-
age or current source. For example, a constant voltage source of 24 V applied at t = 0 , can be
denoted as 24u 0 ( t ) V . Likewise, a sinusoidal voltage source v ( t ) = V m cos ωt V that is applied to
a circuit at t = t 0 , can be described as v ( t ) = ( V m cos ωt )u 0 ( t – t 0 ) V . Also, if the excitation in a
circuit is a rectangular, or triangular, or sawtooth, or any other recurring pulse, it can be repre-
sented as a sum (difference) of unit step functions.

Example 1.2
Express the square waveform of Figure 1.10 as a sum of unit step functions. The vertical dotted
lines indicate the discontinuities at T, 2T, 3T , and so on.

v(t)
A
{ }
T 2T 3T
t
0
–A | ~

Figure 1.10. Square waveform for Example 1.2

Solution:

Line segment { has height A , starts at t = 0 , and terminates at t = T . Then, as in Example 1.1, this
segment is expressed as
v1 ( t ) = A [ u0 ( t ) – u0 ( t – T ) ] (1.8)

Line segment | has height – A , starts at t = T and terminates at t = 2T . This segment is

expressed as
v 2 ( t ) = – A [ u 0 ( t – T ) – u 0 ( t – 2T ) ] (1.9)

Line segment } has height A , starts at t = 2T and terminates at t = 3T . This segment is expressed
as
v 3 ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t – 2T ) – u 0 ( t – 3T ) ] (1.10)

Line segment ~ has height – A , starts at t = 3T , and terminates at t = 4T . It is expressed as

v 4 ( t ) = – A [ u 0 ( t – 3T ) – u 0 ( t – 4T ) ] (1.11)

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−5
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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

Thus, the square waveform of Figure 1.10 can be expressed as the summation of (1.8) through
(1.11), that is,
v ( t ) = v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t ) + v3 ( t ) + v4 ( t )
= A [ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – T ) ] – A [ u 0 ( t – T ) – u 0 ( t – 2T ) ] (1.12)
+A [ u 0 ( t – 2T ) – u 0 ( t – 3T ) ] – A [ u 0 ( t – 3T ) – u 0 ( t – 4T ) ]

Combining like terms, we obtain

v ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t ) – 2u 0 ( t – T ) + 2u 0 ( t – 2T ) – 2u 0 ( t – 3T ) + … ] (1.13)

Example 1.3
Express the symmetric rectangular pulse of Figure 1.11 as a sum of unit step functions.
i(t)
A

t
–T ⁄ 2 0 T⁄2
Figure 1.11. Symmetric rectangular pulse for Example 1.3
Solution:
This pulse has height A , starts at t = – T ⁄ 2 , and terminates at t = T ⁄ 2 . Therefore, with refer-
ence to Figures 1.5 and 1.8 (b), we obtain

T T T T
i ( t ) = Au 0 ⎛ t + --- ⎞ – Au 0 ⎛ t – --- ⎞ = A u 0 ⎛ t + --- ⎞ – u 0 ⎛ t – --- ⎞ (1.14)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Example 1.4
Express the symmetric triangular waveform of Figure 1.12 as a sum of unit step functions.
v(t)
1

t
–T ⁄ 2 0 T⁄2
Figure 1.12. Symmetric triangular waveform for Example 1.4
Solution:

1−6 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Unit Step Function

We first derive the equations for the linear segments { and | shown in Figure 1.13.

2 v( t) 2
--- t + 1 1 – --- t + 1
T T
{ |
t
–T ⁄ 2 0 T⁄2
Figure 1.13. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.12

For line segment { ,

2 T
v 1 ( t ) = ⎛ --- t + 1⎞ u 0 ⎛ t + --- ⎞ – u 0 ( t ) (1.15)
⎝T ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

and for line segment | ,

v 2 ( t ) = ⎛ – --2- t + 1⎞ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ⎛ t – T
--- ⎞ (1.16)
⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

Combining (1.15) and (1.16), we obtain

v ( t ) = v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t )
2 (1.17)
= ⎛ --- t + 1⎞ u 0 ⎛ t + T
--- ⎞ – u 0 ( t ) + ⎛ – --2- t + 1⎞ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ⎛ t – T
--- ⎞
⎝T ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

Example 1.5
Express the waveform of Figure 1.14 as a sum of unit step functions.

v( t)
3

t
0 1 2 3
Figure 1.14. Waveform for Example 1.5
Solution:

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−7
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

As in the previous example, we first find the equations of the linear segments linear segments {
and | shown in Figure 1.15.
v(t)
3
{
2
2t + 1
1 –t+3
|
t
0 1 2 3
Figure 1.15. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.14
Following the same procedure as in the previous examples, we obtain
v ( t ) = ( 2t + 1 ) [ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – 1 ) ] + 3 [ u 0 ( t – 1 ) – u 0 ( t – 2 ) ]
+ ( – t + 3 ) [ u0 ( t – 2 ) – u0 ( t – 3 ) ]

Multiplying the values in parentheses by the values in the brackets, we obtain

v ( t ) = ( 2t + 1 )u 0 ( t ) – ( 2t + 1 )u 0 ( t – 1 ) + 3u 0 ( t – 1 )
– 3u 0 ( t – 2 ) + ( – t + 3 )u 0 ( t – 2 ) – ( – t + 3 )u 0 ( t – 3 )

v ( t ) = ( 2t + 1 )u 0 ( t ) + [ – ( 2t + 1 ) + 3 ]u 0 ( t – 1 )
+ [ – 3 + ( – t + 3 ) ]u 0 ( t – 2 ) – ( – t + 3 )u 0 ( t – 3 )

and combining terms inside the brackets, we obtain

v ( t ) = ( 2t + 1 )u 0 ( t ) – 2 ( t – 1 )u 0 ( t – 1 ) – t u 0 ( t – 2 ) + ( t – 3 )u 0 ( t – 3 ) (1.18)

Two other functions of interest are the unit ramp function, and the unit impulse or delta function.
We will introduce them with the examples that follow.

Example 1.6
In the network of Figure 1.16 i S is a constant current source and the switch is closed at time
t = 0 . Express the capacitor voltage v C ( t ) as a function of the unit step.

1−8 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Unit Step Function

R t = 0

+
vC ( t )
−
iS C

Figure 1.16. Network for Example 1.6

Solution:
The current through the capacitor is i C ( t ) = i S = cons tan t , and the capacitor voltage v C ( t ) is
t
1 *
v C ( t ) = ----
C ∫– ∞ i C ( τ ) dτ (1.19)

where τ is a dummy variable.

Since the switch closes at t = 0 , we can express the current i C ( t ) as

iC ( t ) = iS u0 ( t ) (1.20)

and assuming that v C ( t ) = 0 for t < 0 , we can write (1.19) as

iS 0
1 t ----
∫–∞ u0 ( τ ) dτ iS t
v C ( t ) = ----
C ∫– ∞ i S u 0 ( τ ) dτ = C + ----
C ∫ 0 u 0 ( τ ) dτ (1.21)
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎩

0
or
iS
v C ( t ) = ----- tu 0 ( t ) (1.22)
C

Therefore, we see that when a capacitor is charged with a constant current, the voltage across it is
a linear function and forms a ramp with slope i S ⁄ C as shown in Figure 1.17.

vC ( t )

slope = i S ⁄ C
t
0
Figure 1.17. Voltage across a capacitor when charged with a constant current source

* Since the initial condition for the capacitor voltage was not specified, we express this integral with – ∞ at the lower limit of
integration so that any non-zero value prior to t < 0 would be included in the integration.

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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

1.3 The Unit Ramp Function u 1 ( t )

The unit ramp function, denoted as u 1 ( t ) , is defined as

t
u1 ( t ) = ∫– ∞ u 0 ( τ ) d τ (1.23)

where τ is a dummy variable.

We can evaluate the integral of (1.23) by considering the area under the unit step function u 0 ( t )
from – ∞ to t as shown in Figure 1.18.
Area = 1 × τ = τ = t
1

t
τ
Figure 1.18. Area under the unit step function from – ∞ to t

Therefore, we define u 1 ( t ) as
⎧0 t<0
u1 ( t ) = ⎨ (1.24)
⎩t t≥0

Since u 1 ( t ) is the integral of u 0 ( t ) , then u 0 ( t ) must be the derivative of u 1 ( t ) , i.e.,

d
----- u 1 ( t ) = u 0 ( t ) (1.25)
dt

Higher order functions of t can be generated by repeated integration of the unit step function. For
example, integrating u 0 ( t ) twice and multiplying by 2 , we define u 2 ( t ) as

⎧0 t<0 t
u2 ( t ) = ⎨ 2
⎩t t≥0
or u2 ( t ) = 2 ∫–∞ u1 ( τ ) dτ (1.26)

Similarly,
⎧0 t<0 t
u3 ( t ) = ⎨ 3
⎩t t≥0
or u3 ( t ) = 3 ∫–∞ u2 ( τ ) dτ (1.27)

and in general,
⎧0 t<0 t
un ( t ) = ⎨ n
⎩t t≥0
or un ( t ) = n ∫– ∞ u n – 1 ( τ ) d τ (1.28)

Also,

1−10 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Delta Function

1d
u n – 1 ( t ) = --- ----- u n ( t ) (1.29)
n dt

Example 1.7
In the network of Figure 1.19, the switch is closed at time t = 0 and i L ( t ) = 0 for t < 0 . Express
the inductor voltage v L ( t ) in terms of the unit step function.

R t = 0

+
iL ( t ) vL ( t )

iS L −

Figure 1.19. Network for Example 1.7

Solution:
The voltage across the inductor is
di L
v L ( t ) = L ------- (1.30)
dt
and since the switch closes at t = 0 ,
iL ( t ) = iS u0 ( t ) (1.31)
Therefore, we can write (1.30) as
d
v L ( t ) = Li S ----- u 0 ( t ) (1.32)
dt

But, as we know, u 0 ( t ) is constant ( 0 or 1 ) for all time except at t = 0 where it is discontinuous.

Since the derivative of any constant is zero, the derivative of the unit step u 0 ( t ) has a non−zero
value only at t = 0 . The derivative of the unit step function is defined in the next section.

1.4 The Delta Function δ ( t )

The unit impulse or delta function, denoted as δ ( t ) , is the derivative of the unit step u 0 ( t ) . It is also
defined as
t

∫– ∞ δ ( τ ) d τ = u0 ( t ) (1.33)

and
δ ( t ) = 0 for all t ≠ 0 (1.34)

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−11
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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

To better understand the delta function δ ( t ) , let us represent the unit step u 0 ( t ) as shown in Fig-
ure 1.20 (a).
1
Figure (a)
0
−ε ε
t
1
Area =1 2ε Figure (b)
0
−ε ε t

Figure 1.20. Representation of the unit step as a limit

The function of Figure 1.20 (a) becomes the unit step as ε → 0 . Figure 1.20 (b) is the derivative of
Figure 1.20 (a), where we see that as ε → 0 , 1 ⁄ 2 ε becomes unbounded, but the area of the rect-
angle remains 1 . Therefore, in the limit, we can think of δ ( t ) as approaching a very large spike or
impulse at the origin, with unbounded amplitude, zero width, and area equal to 1 .
Two useful properties of the delta function are the sampling property and the sifting property.

1.4.1 The Sampling Property of the Delta Function δ ( t )

The sampling property of the delta function states that

f ( t )δ ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ ( t ) (1.35)
or, when a = 0 ,
f ( t )δ ( t ) = f ( 0 )δ ( t ) (1.36)

that is, multiplication of any function f ( t ) by the delta function δ ( t ) results in sampling the func-
tion at the time instants where the delta function is not zero. The study of discrete−time systems is
based on this property.
Proof:
Since δ ( t ) = 0 for t < 0 and t > 0 then,
f ( t )δ ( t ) = 0 for t < 0 and t > 0 (1.37)
We rewrite f ( t ) as
f(t) = f(0) + [f(t) – f(0)] (1.38)
Integrating (1.37) over the interval – ∞ to t and using (1.38), we obtain

1−12 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
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 The Delta Function

t t t

∫– ∞ f ( τ )δ ( τ ) dτ = ∫– ∞ f ( 0 )δ ( τ ) dτ + ∫–∞ [ f ( τ ) – f ( 0 ) ]δ ( τ ) dτ (1.39)

The first integral on the right side of (1.39) contains the constant term f ( 0 ) ; this can be written
outside the integral, that is,
t t

∫– ∞ f ( 0 )δ ( τ ) dτ = f ( 0 ) ∫– ∞ δ ( τ ) d τ (1.40)

The second integral of the right side of (1.39) is always zero because
δ ( t ) = 0 for t < 0 and t > 0
and
[f(τ ) – f(0 )] τ=0
= f(0 ) – f(0) = 0
Therefore, (1.39) reduces to
t t

∫– ∞ f ( τ )δ ( τ ) dτ = f ( 0 ) ∫– ∞ δ ( τ ) d τ (1.41)

Differentiating both sides of (1.41), and replacing τ with t , we obtain

f ( t )δ ( t ) = f ( 0 )δ ( t )
(1.42)
Sampling Property of δ ( t )

1.4.2 The Sifting Property of the Delta Function δ ( t )

The sifting property of the delta function states that
∞

∫–∞ f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f(α) (1.43)

that is, if we multiply any function f ( t ) by δ ( t – α ) , and integrate from – ∞ to +∞ , we will obtain
the value of f ( t ) evaluated at t = α .
Proof:
Let us consider the integral
b

∫a f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt where a < α < b (1.44)

We will use integration by parts to evaluate this integral. We recall from the derivative of prod-
ucts that
d ( xy ) = xdy + ydx or xdy = d ( xy ) – ydx (1.45)
and integrating both sides we obtain

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−13
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Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

∫ x dy = xy – y dx ∫ (1.46)

Now, we let x = f ( t ) ; then, dx = f ′( t ) . We also let dy = δ ( t – α ) ; then, y = u 0 ( t – α ) . By sub-

stitution into (1.44), we obtain
b b

∫a ∫a u0 ( t – α )f ′( t ) dt
b
f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f ( t )u 0 ( t – α ) – (1.47)
a

We have assumed that a < α < b ; therefore, u 0 ( t – α ) = 0 for α < a , and thus the first term of the
right side of (1.47) reduces to f ( b ) . Also, the integral on the right side is zero for α < a , and there-
fore, we can replace the lower limit of integration a by α . We can now rewrite (1.47) as
b b

∫a f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f ( b ) – ∫α f ′ ( t ) d t = f(b) – f( b) + f(α )

and letting a → – ∞ and b → ∞ for any α < ∞ , we obtain

∞

∫–∞ f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f ( α ) (1.48)
Sifting Property of δ ( t )

1.5 Higher Order Delta Functions

An nth-order delta function is defined as the nth derivative of u 0 ( t ) , that is,

n
n δ
δ ( t ) = ----- [ u 0 ( t ) ] (1.49)
dt

The function δ' ( t ) is called doublet, δ'' ( t ) is called triplet, and so on. By a procedure similar to the
derivation of the sampling property of the delta function, we can show that

f ( t )δ' ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ' ( t – a ) – f ' ( a )δ ( t – a ) (1.50)

Also, the derivation of the sifting property of the delta function can be extended to show that
∞ n
nd
∫
n
f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = ( – 1 ) -------n- [ f ( t ) ] (1.51)
–∞ dt t=α

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 Higher Order Delta Functions

Example 1.8
Evaluate the following expressions:
∞

∫–∞ tδ ( t – 2 ) dt
4 2
a. 3t δ ( t – 1 ) b. c. t δ' ( t – 3 )

Solution:
4
a. The sampling property states that f ( t )δ ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ ( t ) For this example, f ( t ) = 3t and
a = 1 . Then,
4 4
3t δ ( t – 1 ) = { 3t t=1
}δ ( t – 1 ) = 3δ ( t )

∞
b. The sifting property states that ∫–∞ f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f ( α ) . For this example, f ( t ) = t and

α = 2 . Then,
∞

∫–∞ tδ ( t – 2 ) dt = f ( 2 ) = t t = 2 = 2
c. The given expression contains the doublet; therefore, we use the relation
f ( t )δ' ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ' ( t – a ) – f ' ( a )δ ( t – a )
Then, for this example,
2 2 d 2
t δ' ( t – 3 ) = t t=3
δ' ( t – 3 ) – ----- t t=3
δ ( t – 3 ) = 9δ' ( t – 3 ) – 6δ ( t – 3 )
dt

Example 1.9
a. Express the voltage waveform v ( t ) shown in Figure 1.21 as a sum of unit step functions for the
time interval – 1 < t < 7 s .
b. Using the result of part (a), compute the derivative of v ( t ) and sketch its waveform.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−15
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

v(t) (V)

1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
t (s)

−1

−2
Figure 1.21. Waveform for Example 1.9
Solution:
a. We begin with the derivation of the equations for the linear segments of the given waveform as
shown in Figure 1.22.

v(t) (V) v(t)

–t+5
3

2 –t+6

1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
t (s)

−1
2t
−2
Figure 1.22. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.21

Next, we express v ( t ) in terms of the unit step function u 0 ( t ) , and we obtain

v ( t ) = 2t [ u 0 ( t + 1 ) – u 0 ( t – 1 ) ] + 2 [ u 0 ( t – 1 ) – u 0 ( t – 2 ) ]
+ ( – t + 5 ) [ u0 ( t – 2 ) – u0 ( t – 4 ) ] + [ u0 ( t – 4 ) – u0 ( t – 5 ) ] (1.52)
+ ( – t + 6 ) [ u0 ( t – 5 ) – u0 ( t – 7 ) ]

Multiplying and collecting like terms in (1.52), we obtain

1−16 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Higher Order Delta Functions

v ( t ) = 2tu 0 ( t + 1 ) – 2tu 0 ( t – 1 ) – 2u 0 ( t – 1 ) – 2u 0 ( t – 2 ) – tu 0 ( t – 2 )
+ 5u 0 ( t – 2 ) + tu 0 ( t – 4 ) – 5u 0 ( t – 4 ) + u 0 ( t – 4 ) – u 0 ( t – 5 )
– tu 0 ( t – 5 ) + 6u 0 ( t – 5 ) + tu 0 ( t – 7 ) – 6u 0 ( t – 7 )
or
v ( t ) = 2tu 0 ( t + 1 ) + ( – 2t + 2 )u 0 ( t – 1 ) + ( – t + 3 )u 0 ( t – 2 )
+ ( t – 4 )u 0 ( t – 4 ) + ( – t + 5 )u 0 ( t – 5 ) + ( t – 6 )u 0 ( t – 7 )

b. The derivative of v ( t ) is
dv
------ = 2u 0 ( t + 1 ) + 2tδ ( t + 1 ) – 2u 0 ( t – 1 ) + ( – 2t + 2 )δ ( t – 1 )
dt
– u 0 ( t – 2 ) + ( – t + 3 )δ ( t – 2 ) + u 0 ( t – 4 ) + ( t – 4 )δ ( t – 4 ) (1.53)
– u 0 ( t – 5 ) + ( – t + 5 )δ ( t – 5 ) + u 0 ( t – 7 ) + ( t – 6 )δ ( t – 7 )

From the given waveform, we observe that discontinuities occur only at t = – 1 , t = 2 , and
t = 7 . Therefore, δ ( t – 1 ) = 0 , δ ( t – 4 ) = 0 , and δ ( t – 5 ) = 0 , and the terms that contain
these delta functions vanish. Also, by application of the sampling property,
2tδ ( t + 1 ) = { 2t t = –1
}δ ( t + 1 ) = – 2δ ( t + 1 )
( – t + 3 )δ ( t – 2 ) = { ( – t + 3 ) t=2
}δ ( t – 2 ) = δ ( t – 2 )
( t – 6 )δ ( t – 7 ) = { ( t – 6 ) t=7
}δ ( t – 7 ) = δ ( t – 7 )

and by substitution into (1.53), we obtain

dv
------ = 2u 0 ( t + 1 ) – 2 δ ( t + 1 ) – 2u 0 ( t – 1 ) – u 0 ( t – 2 )
dt (1.54)
+ δ ( t – 2 ) + u0 ( t – 4 ) – u0 ( t – 5 ) + u0 ( t – 7 ) + δ ( t – 7 )

The plot of dv ⁄ dt is shown in Figure 1.23.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−17
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

dv (V ⁄ s)
------
dt
2

δ(t – 2) δ(t – 7)
1

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t (s)
−1

– 2δ ( t + 1 )
Figure 1.23. Plot of the derivative of the waveform of Figure 1.21

We observe that a negative spike of magnitude 2 occurs at t = – 1 , and two positive spikes of
magnitude 1 occur at t = 2 , and t = 7 . These spikes occur because of the discontinuities at
these points.

It would be interesting to observe the given signal and its derivative on the Scope block of the
Simulink®* model of Figure 1.24. They are shown in Figure 1.25.

Figure 1.24. Simulink model for Example 1.9

The waveform created by the Signal Builder block is shown in Figure 1.25.

* A brief introduction to Simulink is presented in Appendix B. For a detailed procedure for generating piece-wise
linear functions with Simulink’s Signal Builder block, please refer to Introduction to Simulink with Engineering
Applications, ISBN 0−9744239−7−1

1−18 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Higher Order Delta Functions

Figure 1.25. Piece−wise linear waveform for the Signal Builder block in Figure 1.24
The waveform in Figure 1.25 is created with the following procedure:
1. We open a new model by clicking on the new model icon shown as a blank page on the left cor-
ner of the top menu bar. Initially, the name Untitled appears on the top of this new model. We
save it with the name Figure_1.25 and Simulink appends the .mdl extension to it.
2. From the Sources library, we drag the Signal Builder block into this new model. We also drag
the Derivative block from the Continuous library, the Bus Creator block from the Com-
monly Used Blocks library, and the Scope block into this model, and we interconnect these
blocks as shown in Figure 1.24.
3. We double−click on the Signal Builder block in Figure 1.24, and on the plot which appears as a
square pulse, we click on the y−axis and we enter Minimum: −2.5, and Maximum: 3.5. Like-
wise we right−click anywhere on the plot and we specify the Change Time Range at Min time:
−2, and Max time: 8.
4. To select a particular point, we position the mouse cursor over that point and we left−click. A
circle is drawn around that point to indicate that it is selected.
5. To select a line segment, we left−click on that segment. That line segment is now shown as a
thick line indicating that it is selected. To deselect it, we press the Esc key.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−19
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

6. To drag a line segment to a new position, we place the mouse cursor over that line segment and
the cursor shape shows the position in which we can drag the segment.
7. To drag a point along the y−axis, we move the mouse cursor over that point, and the cursor
changes to a circle indicating that we can drag that point. Then, we can move that point in a
direction parallel to the x−axis.
8. To drag a point along the x−axis, we select that point, and we hold down the Shift key while
dragging that point.
9. When we select a line segment on the time axis (x−axis) we observe that at the lower end of
the waveform display window the Left Point and Right Point fields become visible. We can
then reshape the given waveform by specifying the Time (T) and Amplitude (Y) points.

Figure 1.26. Waveforms for the Simulink model of Figure 1.24

The two positive spikes that occur at t = 2 , and t = 7 , are clearly shown in Figure 1.26.
MATLAB* has built-in functions for the unit step, and the delta functions. These are denoted by
the names of the mathematicians who used them in their work. The unit step function u 0 ( t ) is
referred to as Heaviside(t), and the delta function δ ( t ) is referred to as Dirac(t). Their use is illus-
trated with the examples below.
syms k a t; % Define symbolic variables
u=k*sym('Heaviside(t−a)') % Create unit step function at t = a
u =
k*Heaviside(t-a)
d=diff(u) % Compute the derivative of the unit step function
d =
k*Dirac(t-a)

* An introduction to MATLAB® is given in Appendix A.

1−20 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Higher Order Delta Functions

int(d) % Integrate the delta function

ans =
Heaviside(t-a)*k

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−21
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

1.6 Summary
• The unit step function u 0 ( t ) is defined as

⎧0 t<0
u0 ( t ) = ⎨
⎩1 t>0

• The unit step function offers a convenient method of describing the sudden application of a
voltage or current source.
• The unit ramp function, denoted as u 1 ( t ) , is defined as

t
u1 ( t ) = ∫– ∞ u 0 ( τ ) d τ
• The unit impulse or delta function, denoted as δ ( t ) , is the derivative of the unit step u 0 ( t ) . It is
also defined as
t

∫–∞ δ ( τ ) dτ = u0 ( t )

and
δ ( t ) = 0 for all t ≠ 0
• The sampling property of the delta function states that

f ( t )δ ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ ( t )
or, when a = 0 ,
f ( t )δ ( t ) = f ( 0 )δ ( t )
• The sifting property of the delta function states that
∞

∫–∞ f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f(α)

• The sampling property of the doublet function δ' ( t ) states that

f ( t )δ' ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ' ( t – a ) – f ' ( a )δ ( t – a )

1−22 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Exercises

1.7 Exercises
1. Evaluate the following functions:

a. sin tδ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞ b. cos 2tδ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞ c. cos t δ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞
2
6⎠ ⎠ 4 2⎠

∞
d. tan 2tδ ⎛⎝ t – π f. sin t δ 1 ⎛⎝ t – π
2 –t
---⎞ ---⎞
2
8⎠
e. ∫– ∞ t e δ ( t – 2 ) dt
2⎠

2.
a. Express the voltage waveform v ( t ) shown below as a sum of unit step functions for the time
interval 0 < t < 7 s .

v(t) (V) v(t)

20
– 2t
e
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t(s)

−10

−20

b. Using the result of part (a), compute the derivative of v ( t ) , and sketch its waveform. This
waveform cannot be used with Sinulink’s Function Builder block because it contains the
decaying exponential segment which is a non−linear function.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−23
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

1.8 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises

Dear Reader:
The remaining pages on this chapter contain the solutions to the exercises.
You must, for your benefit, make an honest effort to solve the problems without first looking at
the solutions that follow. It is recommended that first you go through and solve those you feel that
you know. For the exercises that you are uncertain, review this chapter and try again. If your
results do not agree with those provided, look over your procedures for inconsistencies and com-
putational errors. Refer to the solutions as a last resort and rework those problems at a later date.
You should follow this practice with the exercises on all chapters of this book.

1−24 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises

1. We apply the sampling property of the δ ( t ) function for all expressions except (e) where we
apply the sifting property. For part (f) we apply the sampling property of the doublet.
We recall that the sampling property states that f ( t )δ ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ ( t ) . Thus,

π
a. sin tδ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞ = sin t δ ( t ) = sin --- δ ( t ) = 0.5δ ( t )
6⎠ t = π⁄6 6

π
b. cos 2tδ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞ = cos 2t
⎠ t = π⁄4
δ ( t ) = cos --- δ ( t ) = 0
4 2

c. cos t δ ⎛⎝ t – π
1 1 1
---⎞ = --- ( 1 + cos 2t )
2
δ ( t ) = --- ( 1 + cos π )δ ( t ) = --- ( 1 – 1 )δ ( t ) = 0
2⎠ 2 t =π⁄2
2 2

π
d. tan 2tδ ⎛⎝ t – π
---⎞ = tan 2t
⎠ t = π⁄8
δ ( t ) = tan --- δ ( t ) = δ ( t )
8 4

∞
We recall that the sampling property states that ∫–∞ f ( t )δ ( t – α ) dt = f ( α ) . Thus,

∞
2 –t 2 –t –2
e. ∫– ∞ t e δ ( t – 2 ) dt = t e t=2
= 4e = 0.54

f. We recall that the sampling property for the doublet states that
f ( t )δ' ( t – a ) = f ( a )δ' ( t – a ) – f ' ( a )δ ( t – a )
Thus,

π π d π
sin t δ' ⎛ t – --- ⎞ = sin t δ' ⎛ t – --- ⎞ – ----- sin t δ ⎛ t – --- ⎞
2 2 2
⎝ 2⎠ t = π⁄2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ dt t = π⁄2 ⎝ 2⎠
1 π π
= --- ( 1 – cos 2t ) δ' ⎛ t – --- ⎞ – sin 2t δ ⎛ t – --- ⎞
2 t = π⁄2 ⎝ 2⎠ t=π⁄2 ⎝ 2⎠

1 π π π
= --- ( 1 + 1 )δ' ⎛ t – --- ⎞ – sin πδ ⎛ t – --- ⎞ = δ' ⎛ t – --- ⎞
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2.
– 2t
v( t) = e [ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – 2 ) ] + ( 10t – 30 ) [ u 0 ( t – 2 ) – u 0 ( t – 3 ) ]
a.
+ ( – 10 t + 50 ) [ u 0 ( t – 3 ) – u 0 ( t – 5 ) ] + ( 10t – 70 ) [ u 0 ( t – 5 ) – u 0 ( t – 7 ) ]

– 2t – 2t
v(t) = e u0 ( t ) – e u 0 ( t – 2 ) + 10tu 0 ( t – 2 ) – 30u 0 ( t – 2 ) – 10tu 0 ( t – 3 ) + 30u 0 ( t – 3 )
– 10tu 0 ( t – 3 ) + 50u 0 ( t – 3 ) + 10tu 0 ( t – 5 ) – 50u 0 ( t – 5 ) + 10tu 0 ( t – 5 )
– 70u 0 ( t – 5 ) – 10tu 0 ( t – 7 ) + 70u 0 ( t – 7 )

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 1−25
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals

– 2t – 2t
v(t) = e u0 ( t ) + ( –e + 10t – 30 )u 0 ( t – 2 ) + ( – 20t + 80 )u 0 ( t – 3 ) + ( 20t – 120 )u 0 ( t – 5 )
+ ( – 10t + 70 )u 0 ( t – 7 )
b.
dv – 2t – 2t – 2t – 2t
------ = – 2e u 0 ( t ) + e δ ( t ) + ( 2e + 10 )u 0 ( t – 2 ) + ( – e + 10t – 30 )δ ( t – 2 )
dt
– 20u 0 ( t – 3 ) + ( – 20t + 80 )δ ( t – 3 ) + 20u 0 ( t – 5 ) + ( 20t – 120 )δ ( t – 5 ) (1)
– 10u 0 ( t – 7 ) + ( – 10t + 70 )δ ( t – 7 )

Referring to the given waveform we observe that discontinuities occur only at t = 2 , t = 3 ,

and t = 5 . Therefore, δ ( t ) = 0 and δ ( t – 7 ) = 0 . Also, by the sampling property of the delta
function
– 2t – 2t
( –e + 10t – 30 )δ ( t – 2 ) = ( – e + 10t – 30 ) t=2
δ ( t – 2 ) ≈ – 10δ ( t – 2 )

( – 20t + 80 )δ ( t – 3 ) = ( – 20t + 80 ) t=3

δ ( t – 3 ) = 20δ ( t – 3 )

( 20t – 120 )δ ( t – 5 ) = ( 20t – 120 ) t=5

δ ( t – 5 ) = – 20 δ ( t – 5 )

and with these simplifications (1) above reduces to

– 2t – 2t
dv ⁄ dt = – 2e u 0 ( t ) + 2e u 0 ( t – 2 ) + 10u 0 ( t – 2 ) – 10δ ( t – 2 )
– 20u 0 ( t – 3 ) + 20δ ( t – 3 ) + 20u 0 ( t – 5 ) – 20δ ( t – 5 ) – 10u 0 ( t – 7 )
– 2t
= – 2e [ u 0 ( t ) – u 0 ( t – 2 ) ] – 10δ ( t – 2 ) + 10 [ u 0 ( t – 2 ) – u 0 ( t – 3 ) ] + 20δ ( t – 3 )
– 10 [ u 0 ( t – 3 ) – u 0 ( t – 5 ) ] – 20δ ( t – 5 ) + 10 [ u 0 ( t – 5 ) – u 0 ( t – 7 ) ]

The waveform for dv ⁄ dt is shown below.

dv ⁄ dt (V ⁄ s)
20 δ ( t – 3 )
20
10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t (s)
– 10
– 10δ ( t – 2 )
– 20
– 2t – 20 δ ( t – 5 )
– 2e

1−26 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 2
The Laplace Transformation

T
his chapter begins with an introduction to the Laplace transformation, definitions, and
properties of the Laplace transformation. The initial value and final value theorems are also
discussed and proved. It continues with the derivation of the Laplace transform of common
functions of time, and concludes with the derivation of the Laplace transforms of common wave-
forms.

2.1 Definition of the Laplace Transformation

The two−sided or bilateral Laplace Transform pair is defined as
∞
– st
L {f(t)}= F(s) = ∫– ∞ f ( t ) e dt (2.1)

σ + jω
–1 1
∫σ – jω
st
L { F ( s ) } = f ( t ) = -------- F ( s ) e ds (2.2)
2πj

–1
where L { f ( t ) } denotes the Laplace transform of the time function f ( t ) , L { F ( s ) } denotes the
Inverse Laplace transform, and s is a complex variable whose real part is σ , and imaginary part
ω , that is, s = σ + jω .

In most problems, we are concerned with values of time t greater than some reference time, say
t = t 0 = 0 , and since the initial conditions are generally known, the two−sided Laplace trans-
form pair of (2.1) and (2.2) simplifies to the unilateral or one−sided Laplace transform defined as

∞ ∞
– st – st
L {f(t)}= F(s) = ∫t 0
f(t)e dt = ∫0 f ( t ) e dt (2.3)

–1 1 σ + jω
∫
st
L { F ( s ) } = f ( t ) = -------- F ( s ) e ds (2.4)
2πj σ – jω

The Laplace Transform of (2.3) has meaning only if the integral converges (reaches a limit), that
is, if
∞
– st
∫0 f ( t ) e dt < ∞ (2.5)

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 2−1
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 2 The Laplace Transformation

To determine the conditions that will ensure us that the integral of (2.3) converges, we rewrite
(2.5) as
∞
– σt – jωt
∫0 f ( t )e e dt < ∞ (2.6)

– jωt – jωt
The term e in the integral of (2.6) has magnitude of unity, i.e., e = 1 , and thus the con-
dition for convergence becomes
∞
– σt
∫0 f ( t )e dt < ∞ (2.7)

Fortunately, in most engineering applications the functions f ( t ) are of exponential order*. Then,
we can express (2.7) as,
∞ ∞ σ 0 t – σt
– σt
∫0 f ( t )e dt < ∫0 ke e dt (2.8)

and we see that the integral on the right side of the inequality sign in (2.8), converges if σ > σ 0 .
Therefore, we conclude that if f ( t ) is of exponential order, L { f ( t ) } exists if
Re { s } = σ > σ 0 (2.9)

where Re { s } denotes the real part of the complex variable s .

Evaluation of the integral of (2.4) involves contour integration in the complex plane, and thus, it
will not be attempted in this chapter. We will see in the next chapter that many Laplace trans-
forms can be inverted with the use of a few standard pairs, and thus there is no need to use (2.4)
to obtain the Inverse Laplace transform.
In our subsequent discussion, we will denote transformation from the time domain to the com-
plex frequency domain, and vice versa, as
f(t) ⇔ F(s) (2.10)

2.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

The most common properties and theorems of the Laplace transform are presented in Subsec-
tions 2.2.1 through 2.2.13 below.

σ0 t
* A function f ( t ) is said to be of exponential order if f ( t ) < ke for all t ≥ 0 .

2−2 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

2.2.1 Linearity Property

The linearity property states that if
f 1 ( t ), f 2 ( t ), …, f n ( t )
have Laplace transforms
F 1 ( s ) , F 2 ( s ) , …, F n ( s )
respectively, and
c 1 , c 2 , …, c n
are arbitrary constants, then,

c1 f1 ( t ) + c2 f2 ( t ) + … + cn fn ( t ) ⇔ c1 F1 ( s ) + c2 F2 ( s ) + … + cn Fn ( s ) (2.11)

Proof:
∞
L { c1 f1 ( t ) + c2 f2 ( t ) + … + cn fn ( t ) } = ∫t 0
[ c 1 f 1 ( t ) + c 2 f 2 ( t ) + … + c n f n ( t ) ] dt

∞ ∞ ∞
– st – st – st
= c1 ∫t 0
f1 ( t ) e dt + c 2 ∫t 0
f2 ( t ) e dt + … + c n ∫t 0
fn ( t ) e dt

= c1 F1 ( s ) + c2 F2 ( s ) + … + cn Fn ( s )

Note 1:
It is desirable to multiply f ( t ) by the unit step function u 0 ( t ) to eliminate any unwanted non−
zero values of f ( t ) for t < 0 .

2.2.2 Time Shifting Property

The time shifting property states that a right shift in the time domain by a units, corresponds to
– as
multiplication by e in the complex frequency domain. Thus,

– as
f ( t – a )u 0 ( t – a ) ⇔ e F(s) (2.12)
Proof:
a ∞
– st – st
L { f ( t – a )u 0 ( t – a ) } = ∫0 0e dt + ∫ a f( t – a )e dt (2.13)

Now, we let t – a = τ ; then, t = τ + a and dt = dτ . With these substitutions and with a → 0 ,

the second integral on the right side of (2.13) is expressed as
∞ ∞
–s ( τ + a ) – as – sτ – as
∫0 f(τ)e dτ = e ∫0 f ( τ ) e dτ = e F(s)

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 2−3
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 2 The Laplace Transformation

2.2.3 Frequency Shifting Property

The frequency shifting property states that if we multiply a time domain function f ( t ) by an expo-
– at
nential function e where a is an arbitrary positive constant, this multiplication will produce a
shift of the s variable in the complex frequency domain by a units. Thus,
– at
e f(t) ⇔ F(s + a ) (2.14)
Proof:
∞ ∞
– at – at – st – ( s + a )t
L {e f( t) } = ∫0 e f(t )e dt = ∫0 f ( t ) e dt = F ( s + a )

Note 2:
A change of scale is represented by multiplication of the time variable t by a positive scaling fac-
tor a . Thus, the function f ( t ) after scaling the time axis, becomes f ( at ) .

2.2.4 Scaling Property

Let a be an arbitrary positive constant; then, the scaling property states that

1 s
f ( at ) ⇔ --- F ⎛ -- ⎞ (2.15)
a ⎝a ⎠

Proof:
∞
– st
L { f ( at ) } = ∫0 f ( at ) e dt

and letting t = τ ⁄ a , we obtain

∞ ∞
τ 1 1 s
d ⎛ -- ⎞ = --- d ( τ ) = --- F ⎛ -- ⎞
–s ( τ ⁄ a ) –( s ⁄ a ) τ
L { f ( at ) } = ∫0 f(τ )e
⎝a ⎠ a ∫0 f ( τ ) e a ⎝a ⎠
Note 3:
Generally, the initial value of f ( t ) is taken at t = 0 − to include any discontinuity that may be
present at t = 0 . If it is known that no such discontinuity exists at t = 0− , we simply interpret
−
f ( 0 ) as f ( 0 ) .

2.2.5 Differentiation in Time Domain Property

The differentiation in time domain property states that differentiation in the time domain corre-
sponds to multiplication by s in the complex frequency domain, minus the initial value of f ( t ) at
−
t = 0 . Thus,

2−4 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

d −
f ' ( t ) = ----- f ( t ) ⇔ sF ( s ) – f ( 0 ) (2.16)
dt
Proof:
∞
– st
L {f '(t)} = ∫0 f ' ( t ) e dt

Using integration by parts where

∫ v du = uv – u dv ∫ (2.17)

– st – st
we let du = f ' ( t ) and v = e . Then, u = f ( t ) , dv = – se , and thus
∞
– st ∞ – st – st a
L { f ' ( t ) } = f ( t )e
0
−
+s ∫0 −
f(t )e dt = lim
a→∞
f ( t )e
0
−
+ sF ( s )

– sa − −
= lim [ e f ( a ) – f ( 0 ) ] + sF ( s ) = 0 – f ( 0 ) + sF ( s )
a→∞

The time differentiation property can be extended to show that

d2
-------- f ( t ) ⇔ s 2 F ( s ) – sf ( 0 − ) – f ' ( 0 − ) (2.18)
2
dt

d3
-------- f ( t ) ⇔ s 3 F ( s ) – s 2 f ( 0 − ) – sf ' ( 0 − ) – f '' ( 0 − ) (2.19)
3
dt

and in general
n
d
-------- f ( t ) ⇔ s n F ( s ) – s n – 1 f ( 0 − ) – s n – 2 f ' ( 0 − ) – … – f n–1
(0 )
−
(2.20)
n
dt

To prove (2.18), we let

d
g ( t ) = f ' ( t ) = ----- f ( t )
dt
and as we found above,
−
L { g ' ( t ) } = sL { g ( t ) } – g ( 0 )
Then,
− − −
L { f '' ( t ) } = sL { f ' ( t ) } – f ' ( 0 ) = s [ sL [ f ( t ) ] – f ( 0 ) ] – f ' ( 0 )
− −
= s 2 F ( s ) – sf ( 0 ) – f ' ( 0 )
Relations (2.19) and (2.20) can be proved by similar procedures.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 2−5
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 2 The Laplace Transformation

We must remember that the terms f ( 0 − ), f ' ( 0 − ), f '' ( 0 − ) , and so on, represent the initial condi-
tions. Therefore, when all initial conditions are zero, and we differentiate a time function f ( t ) n
times, this corresponds to F ( s ) multiplied by s to the nth power.

2.2.6 Differentiation in Complex Frequency Domain Property

This property states that differentiation in complex frequency domain and multiplication by minus
one, corresponds to multiplication of f ( t ) by t in the time domain. In other words,

d
tf ( t ) ⇔ – ----- F ( s ) (2.21)
ds

Proof:
∞
– st
L { f( t)} = F(s) = ∫0 f ( t ) e dt

Differentiating with respect to s and applying Leibnitz’s rule* for differentiation under the integral,
we obtain
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
d d – st ∂ –st – st – st
----- F ( s ) = -----
ds ds ∫0 f( t)e dt = ∫0 ∂s
e f ( t )dt = ∫0 –t e f ( t )dt = – ∫0 [ tf ( t ) ] e dt = – L [ tf ( t ) ]

In general,
n
n nd
t f ( t ) ⇔ ( – 1 ) -------n- F ( s ) (2.22)
ds

The proof for n ≥ 2 follows by taking the second and higher−order derivatives of F ( s ) with
respect to s .

2.2.7 Integration in Time Domain Property

This property states that integration in time domain corresponds to F ( s ) divided by s plus the ini-
tial value of f ( t ) at t = 0 − , also divided by s . That is,

b
* This rule states that if a function of a parameter α is defined by the equation F ( α ) = ∫a f ( x, α ) dx where f is some known

function of integration x and the parameter α , a and b are constants independent of x and α , and the partial derivative
b
dF- ∂( x, α )
∂f ⁄ ∂α exists and it is continuous, then ------
dα
= ∫a ----------------
∂( α )
- dx .

2−6 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

t −
F(s) f (0 )
∫ –∞
f ( τ ) dτ ⇔ ---------- + -------------
s s
(2.23)

Proof:
We begin by expressing the integral on the left side of (2.23) as two integrals, that is,
t 0 t

∫– ∞ f ( τ ) dτ = ∫– ∞ f ( τ ) dτ + ∫ 0 f ( τ ) dτ (2.24)

The first integral on the right side of (2.24), represents a constant value since neither the upper,
nor the lower limits of integration are functions of time, and this constant is an initial condition
denoted as f ( 0 − ) . We will find the Laplace transform of this constant, the transform of the sec-
ond integral on the right side of (2.24), and will prove (2.23) by the linearity property. Thus,

∞ ∞ – st ∞
– st – st e
∫0 f ( 0 ) e ∫0 e
− − − −
L {f (0 )} = dt = f ( 0 ) dt = f ( 0 ) --------
–s 0 (2.25)
− −
f(0 ) f(0 )
= f ( 0 ) × 0 – ⎛ – -------------⎞ = ------------
−
⎝ s ⎠ s

This is the value of the first integral in (2.24). Next, we will show that
t
F(s)
∫0 f ( τ ) dτ ⇔ ----------
s
We let
t
g(t) = ∫0 f ( τ ) dτ
then,
g' ( t ) = f ( τ )
and
0
g( 0) = ∫0 f ( τ ) dτ = 0

Now,
−
L { g' ( t ) } = G ( s ) = sL { g ( t ) } – g ( 0 ) = G ( s ) – 0

sL { g ( t ) } = G ( s )

G(s)
L { g ( t ) } = -----------
s

Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition 2−7
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 2 The Laplace Transformation

⎧ t ⎫ F(s)
L ⎨
⎩
∫ 0
f ( τ ) dτ ⎬ = ----------
⎭ s
(2.26)

and the proof of (2.23) follows from (2.25) and (2.26).

2.2.8 Integration in Complex Frequency Domain Property

This property states that integration in complex frequency domain with respect to s corresponds to
f(t)
division of a time function f ( t ) by the variable t , provided that the limit lim -------- exists. Thus,
t→0 t

∞
f( t)
-------- ⇔
t ∫s F ( s ) ds (2.27)

Proof:
∞
– st
F(s) = ∫0 f ( t ) e dt

Integrating both sides from s to ∞ , we obtain

∞ ∞ ∞
– st
∫s F ( s ) ds = ∫s ∫0 f ( t ) e dt ds

Next, we interchange the order of integration, i.e.,

∞ ∞ ∞
– st
∫s F ( s ) ds = ∫0 ∫s e ds f ( t ) dt

and performing the inner integration on the right side integral with respect to s , we obtain

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ⎧ f ( t )⎫
1 –st f(t) – st
∫s F ( s ) ds = ∫0 – --- e
t s
f ( t ) dt = ∫0 --------
t
e dt = L ⎨ --------⎬
⎩ t ⎭

2.2.9 Time Periodicity Property

The time periodicity property states that a periodic function of time with period T corresponds to
T
– st – sT
the integral ∫0 f ( t ) e dt divided by ( 1 – e ) in the complex frequency domain. Thus, if we let

f ( t ) be a periodic function with period T , that is, f ( t ) = f ( t + nT ) , for n = 1, 2, 3, … we obtain

the transform pair

2−8 Signals and Systems with MATLAB ® Computing and Simulink ® Modeling, Third Edition
Copyright © Orchard Publications
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
“Well, boys,” said Uncle Henry, “it’s no use for us to get into a fight
with that mob. I’m too old now, and you are too young.”
“Uncle Henry,” spoke up Rob, “How much nearer is it to Necedah by
the woods trail than by the prairie road?”
“A matter of four miles,” replied Mr. Thompson; “but there is no
crossing at Little Yellow.”
“But I can swim it, even if the water is cold. Four from sixteen miles
leaves but twelve, and I believe I can make it with the ‘long trot’ in
two hours. We’ve just got to get Mr. Fitts here. Those logs that Larry
Phelan is rolling into the river are his.”
“Good, lad! I believe you can do it. The roads are something fearful,
but if old man Fitts learns that Larry Phelan is stealing his timber,
he’ll drive his buckskins here if he has to swim ’em through the mud
half way and run ’em over stumps the other half.”
There remained yet two hours of daylight as Rob swung into the
forest trail on the long trot his Indian friend Kalichigoogah had
taught him. Little Yellow was reached, and in spite of the numbing
cold of the water, was safely crossed, the lad swimming with one
hand, while he held the bundle of his clothes high and dry in the
other. Then on he sped in the long race of eight more miles.
The sun had been down for half an hour when the gruff old
lumberman opened his door at Rob’s knock. “Well, an’ what do ye
want? We don’t feed tramps here. What! What’s that ye say! My logs
—an’ ’tis that blackguard gambler Larry Phelan puttin’ his brand on
’em and bankin’ ’em!” And, to tell the truth, the language of the old
man was as explosive as had been that of Larry himself.
“Jim, put the buckskins to the light ‘democrat.’ But lad, you’re
hungry an’ tired. Come in, come in an’ have a snack. Ran it in two-
thirty, did ye? An’ swam the river! Well, well! But we’ll tend to the
rascal this night.”
However, as the old man cooled down, the needlessness of a night
ride over the waste of ruined roads and flood-piled debris convinced
him of the wisdom of waiting until the light of day to make the
journey. By the time the birds were fairly awake, Mr. Fitts and Rob
were well upon their way, and Rob had broached the matter of
securing the job of hauling the logs into the river. The old man
turned his keen eyes upon the boy. “An’ what would ye do with all
the money if ye got the job? College! What for would a likely lad
with good sense and good arms fool away his time in college?
Humph! Well, we’ll see.”
Phelan and his men and teams had not been idle: all night long they
had worked, and fully two hundred of the five hundred or more stray
logs were already piled in the river, bearing the changed marks,
ready to go down to the Necedah boom with the next rise.
Old man Fitts charged the swamping outfit like an enraged bull. “So
yer at yer old tricks, are ye, Larry? I’ve been wantin’ to ketch ye for
a long time. An’ now I’ve got the witnesses on ye.”
Phelan started in to bluster and curse, but evidently the presence of
Fitts was something he had not calculated upon, nor the fact that
Henry and Sam Thompson, who now arose from where they had
been in hiding, were witnesses to the felonious changing of the log
marks.
Larry changed his mood. “Perhaps the men may have made a
mistake in the dark, Misther Fitts. If they’re yer logs ye can pay us
what is raysonable fer bankin’ av thim, and we’ll jist call it square.”
“No, we won’t, ye thief!” roared the old man. “Those logs in the river
are your logs now, do ye understand? They’ve got yer mark on ’em,
every one, an’ they’ll be put into your chute at the boom. An’ they’ve
cost ye just fifteen dollars the thousand, board measure. Do ye
understand? We’ll lump ’em at twelve hundred dollars, an’ ye’ll write
the check fer that just now. I can trust ye not to stop payment on
that check.”
Counter threat and curses; calling the old man a robber (for Fitts
had made a gilt edge price on his logs), were of no avail. Larry
Phelan, at the end of many evil deeds, faced an open prison door,
and he knew it. After all, the twelve hundred dollars would not be all
loss—and the check was written.
“Well, now, boys,” said Mr. Fitts, when the men and teams had
departed, “what about the balance of these logs?—three hundred, I
should say. How would a dollar apiece do? Yes, that’s fair. Ye can
worry them all in by fall. An’ young man,” said he, turning to Rob
with a queer smile, “You can count the hauling of the two hundred
already in the river, as your share, for that college nonsense. I
tacked that much onto that thief, Larry Phelan. I reckon college
won’t utterly ruin a lad who can run twelve miles an’ swim an icy
river.”
 CHAPTER XVII
THE TRAGEDY OF THE MOUNDS

Notwithstanding the strenuous work of the summer, the boys got

together frequently to talk over their plans for the future. Dauphin
and Rob would begin together their studies in the preparatory
department of Carlton College, while Ed would look forward to the
time when he would be older and could join them.
Professor Hodge had written Dauphin that the college would accept
his Natural History collection at a price which would enable him to
finish his preparatory course and enter college, by working a part of
his time, and the care of Science Hall was offered him to supply that
need. Rob had no friends or acquaintances in the college town, but
that fact did not dismay him. Mr. Allen had taught his boys that
difficulties were but stepping stones up the heights of achievement,
to the one who had a clean life and steady will. Rob had both, and,
whatever the price demanded of effort and grit, he determined to
have an education.
Dauphin would be a naturalist. He would need the training of the
college to give him quick perception, ability to classify his
knowledge, and arrive at correct conclusions. He would need to
study the languages in order that what had been revealed in the
research of men of other lands might be his.
Rob had not yet chosen the line of his life work, but he was equally
sure with Dauph that success and fame awaited boys who would
apply themselves as they intended to do. Many were the happy,
earnest hours spent by the boys in talking over the years they had
spent together, as well as the years that were to come. How
marvelously their lives had been spared, many times, since they had
made their home in the forest wilderness. Through dangers of fire
and drowning and freezing, one or another of them had been
snatched back from the grave. The work of these pioneer boys had
been hard, but it had developed them into lads of tough fiber, both
of body and brain. They had had no idle hours; whether at work out
of doors, or during the long evenings of the winters, they had their
purpose in view—to prepare for life through college. If their few
dollars earned were jealously put away for this purpose, no less
were their minds trained by study for the necessary preparation.
The days of August were drawing rapidly to a close; soon farewells
must be said, and the delights of forest and stream, as well as the
duties of the farm, be laid aside by the older boys for years, if not
forever.
“Boys,” said Dauphin, “Professor Hodge, in one of his letters,
suggested that he would like the measurements of the hill and river
forts, and the old mound city, for a paper he is preparing on ‘The
Moundbuilders in Wisconsin.’ Let’s take a couple of days, and do a
little more exploring, and sketch the mounds, and take the
measurements for the professor.”
The boys readily agreed to the plan, and Ed suggested that they go
by the Indian camp at the mouth of Little Yellow, opposite Jim
Dacora’s, and persuade their friend Kalichigoogah to accompany
them over to the mound village.
The young Indian welcomed the boys to the camp, and his mother,
Menominee Mary, invited them to rest a bit in the wigwam. The
earth floor was as neat and wholesome as the floor of a parlor.
Around the sides were the couches, platforms raised about a foot
from the floor and heavily covered with the soft-dressed and
ornamented skins of bear, lynx, raccoon, and deer. The Indian
mother offered the boys sweet, ripe blackberries in white, birchbark
dishes, but when they mentioned the object of their expedition there
came over her a quick stiffening of body, and a startled look, almost
of fear in her eyes. “Butte-des-morts” said she using the French
description, “much bad. White boys stay here—not go.” But the
boys, of course, were determined to go on, notwithstanding the
warning of the Indian woman, which they were wholly at loss to
understand. After the return of the Winnebagoes from the South,
Mary had placed her son in a mission school where he had learned
to read, and had acquired much of the way, and some of the habits
of thought of the white race; but there are things of one’s early life
that no subsequent training or polish will be able to remove. Thus it
was with the Indian lad’s veneration or superstitious fear of the
mysterious relics of the moundbuilders—places of “big medicine.”
He was willing to explain to the boys the cause of his mother’s
warning, but was as loth as she that these sacred places should be
disturbed. “They mounds of dead,” said Kalichigoogah. “Big men, tall
like trees, make camp there. One day come snake, long like
Minnenecedah [the Yellow river]—big men make medicine; snake
turn into long mound. One day come great beast—two spears like
logs in mouth [elephant]—big men make medicine, great beast turn
into big mound. Not good white boys go near mounds. Angry spirit
wake up; kill boy.”
The white boys agreeing that they would not dig into the mounds at
this time, but only take measurements, and make a plan of the old
encampment, the Indian mother consented, though with great
reluctance, for her son to accompany the party. But first she would
put into his keeping a little buckskin sack containing “strong
medicine”—potent charms—which might be able to protect them
from the vengeance of the spirits, should they be aroused.
As there was no need for them to hunt game, and the danger from
bears, or wild cats, panthers or lynx small indeed, at that time of
year, the boys had not burdened themselves with their guns, but
Kalichigoogah wrapped his blanket about his new 16-shot
winchester, which the boys accused him of taking along to shoot the
ghosts. The Indian lad made no reply to their chaffing, but strode off
in silence.
The Yellow river was waded on a sandbar, and the river flat, a mile
or more in width, crossed. Here, the annual overflows had cut the
soft alluvial soil into deep, wide ditches, so that the land looked like
a succession of long breastworks. The flat was heavily timbered with
oak and hickory and linden, with an occasional gigantic pine rearing
its head high above the deciduous trees, like a sentinel of the forest.
Here the woods-folk still dwelt in comparative safety from their most
ferocious brother animal—man. It was going to be hard for Dauph
and Rob to part from this paradise of the nature-lover.
Up, out of the river flats, they came upon the sandy plain which
stretched eastward to the Wisconsin river, and then on to the shore
of the old sea bed. Gnarled, stunted pines covered the ground, in
some places growing in such profusion as to form almost
impenetrable thickets, but generally in more open growths, so that
walking was even less difficult than in the river “bottoms.”
Several times as they, boy-like, threshed through one of the thickets
they would start up a doe and her half-grown fawn, and once they
aroused a splendid buck, with the season’s antlers now full grown.
“Boys,” said Ed, “aren’t we somewhere in the neighborhood of the
mounds?”
“I am not sure,” replied Dauph, who was taking the lead, “I have
never come upon them from this direction, but unless I am
mistaken, they lie just beyond that thicket of scrub pine. How about
it, Kali?”
But the Indian boy would make no reply. Evidently the expedition
was not at all to his liking.
In “Indian file” the boys entered the thicket of dwarfed pines, the
deerskin cap of Dauphin, the leader, who was the tallest, just
showing above the foliage. They had gone perhaps twenty rods into
the thicket, when a rifle shot rang out sharp and clear, and Dauphin
sprang high into the air with a loud cry, and fell in a crumpled heap
at the feet of Kalichigoogah. Like a flash out came the winchester
from beneath the blanket of the Indian boy, as he placed himself
over the prostrate body of his white friend, ready to give his own life
in defense, if need be.
For a moment Ed and Rob were paralyzed with fear. Who had fired
the shot? Were they all about to be murdered? Then, as there was
no second shot, their courage returned, and they crashed through
the thicket to the opening on the side from which the report seemed
to come, but there was not a soul in sight: neither was it possible,
because of the bed of pine needles strewing the ground, to discover
any track.
Thoroughly mystified, they hastened back to their wounded
comrade. There they found Dauphin with his head raised upon the
lap of the Indian lad, conscious, but rapidly weakening from loss of
blood from an ugly wound in his side. Rob tore off his cotton shirt
and as best he could applied a bandage to stop the flow of blood.
“We’ve got to get a doctor right away, and we’ve got to get Dauph
home,” announced Ed. “We might do more harm than good if we
tried to carry him ourselves, so, Kali, you had better hurry over to
your camp and have the men come on their ponies, and rig up a
litter.” The Indian lad looked up in a mute appeal to not be sent
away from his stricken friend, but as it became clear that this was
perhaps the only chance to save Dauphin’s life, he hastened away on
his errand.
“Rob, you are the best runner; you had better get down to Necedah
as soon as you can, and get Doctor Cook up. We can’t tell how badly
Dauph is hurt.”
Who can describe the thoughts of that young lad, left alone with his
dying comrade? for the wound proved, indeed to be unto death. Ed
was not naturally superstitious, but the unexplained shot following
the Indian’s warning could not help but have a terrifying effect,
deepening as the hours brought darkness upon him.
Some of the time the wounded boy was delirious, and imagined that
the Indians were attacking them, and in his endeavors to spring up
it was all Ed could do to restrain him. At length the Indians arrived
on their ponies, and a rude but serviceable litter was made, upon
which the red men, two at a time, carried Dauphin to his home.
Mr. and Mrs. Thompson had been no strangers to sorrow and death;
their lives had known many bereavements and years of suffering,
but Ed never forgot the agony of the hour in which he bore to them
the knowledge of the accident to their young son.
Before morning Rob arrived with Doctor Cook, from Necedah, but it
was too late. The spirit of the lad they had all so fondly loved, had
passed out, and Dauph was dead.
Mr. Allen at once notified the authorities and a thorough search was
made for some clue to the one who had fired the fatal shot, but
without success; and it was not until years afterward that a man in a
distant state confessed to the facts. He said that with a companion
he had been on a hunting trip to the northern part of the state, and
shortly after having passed the old mounds they saw a patch of gray
deerskin moving along in the top of a thicket, and supposed it to be
a part of the head of a deer and had fired. The cry of a human being
that followed had shown their horrible mistake, and in a cowardly
fear of possible consequences they had hidden in the thicket until
after dark and then slipped away.
A new experience had entered the life of the Allen boys—Death. For
the first time they had looked in the still face of one who had been
near and dear, and heard it said “He is dead.”
What is death! Where was the boy who, just a few hours before, had
been with them so full of hope and joy and vigor? Had he ceased to
exist? Was that dead body, so soon to turn to dust, all that was left
of their friend? Or, was the real Dauphin somewhere, yet alive, and
entering upon an existence in which all his powers and aspirations
would have full scope, unhindered by earthly limitations?
Was it not really true that somewhere there was a God, who had
made all this marvelous universe, and man with the ability to
discover and enjoy its secrets? Did He make man like Himself?
Would not man of necessity have to be like Him in order to enjoy all
that He had created? What did it mean to be like God? Were they
like God? If not, how could they become so?
Not the words of these questions, but that which stood for them,
filled the hearts of the boys, as they looked upon the silent face of
their lost comrade. A new realm, a spiritual, was even then being
opened to them, and their angel was bidding their feet to enter.
The plan for happy college years together for Dauph and Rob was at
an end. Alone the lad would leave home and start forth upon his
journey into the strange, untried world. Yet not alone, for, although
the dear face of flesh was hidden from sight, he felt that the bright,
pure spirit of his comrade was still with him to beckon him on to the
heights.
 CHAPTER XVIII
COLLEGE DAYS

Had you met him as he trudged along the dusty road on that day of
early September, you would have little suspected that you had come
into the presence of a hero; but the stuff of which heroes are made
is not carried in the way of outward observing, having its place
within. Records of the world’s great deeds give the place of honor
and fame to those who have taken cities and subdued peoples, but
the Book of books says that a greater hero than he who conquers a
city is he who rules his own spirit.
That he was one of the “greater heroes” Robert Allen was to make
proof.
Had your curiosity prompted you to question the lad, as you met
him, he would have told you that he was on his way to enter Carlton
College: and had there crept into your voice a note of friendliness,
enthusiasm would have kindled in his blue-gray eyes, and he would
have confided to you the great ambitions that had been crowding in
upon the fifteen years of his young life. As he recounted the
sacrifices that had been made in his humble home, and the purpose
and high courage for the years of struggle before him, you would
not have seen the poor clothes, the awkward, uncouth manner, but
would have given heed to the strong, clean, manly soul within.
Robert Allen found employment at the college by which, working half
his time, he could spend the other half with his books. That he was
the victim of hard circumstances, or that there was any sort of
injustice to him in the fact that he had to saw and carry up wood for
the wealthy boys, and do other menial labor, never entered his
thoughts. That his grand dreams were coming true, and he was
actually privileged to study in a college, and sometime would be able
to graduate, was too wonderful and precious to allow any other
sentiment than gratitude to have place in his heart.
While Rob was, for his age, a well-read boy and at home with many
of the great ones of literature, he found it difficult at first to bring his
mind to the habits of study required by a college course. The class
room was a place of especial torture; of the twenty-six students in
his class, more than half were young ladies, and when, after hours
spent upon amo, amas, amat, etc., Rob would arise to recite he
would feel the eyes of all those elegant girls fixed upon him and his
poor clothes. Then, the sheep before his shearer was no more dumb
than Rob before the Latin teacher.
After several trials and failures Rob sought the kind-hearted
professor and requested the privilege of reciting privately to him in
his room, telling him of his confusion and its cause. The professor,
with kindly tact and Christly love, soon had the boy at his ease, and
drew from him the story of his aspirations and purposes. Then,
instead of granting his request, he said, “Robert, you prepare your
lesson and come to the class room as usual, and when you are
called upon to recite, look into my eyes, and remember that you are
speaking to a friend who knows and understands.”
It was not long before the personal sympathy of the young professor
made itself felt in greater confidence, and the boy was able to hold
his place in the class.
In the winter term a revival meeting was held in the college church.
Rob had never become a Christian, though often he had wished he
might be. He had been well reared, morally, and his life knew
nothing of the grosser sins common to so many of our young men
and boys. Swearing, Sabbath-breaking, drinking, smoking, and card-
playing were evils of which he had no experimental knowledge; but
he knew that he was not a Christian; that he had not been born of
the Spirit. While his roommate, Tom Wright, made sport of the
preacher, and would bring in his set of rough boys for a “high time”
after the services, Rob was thoughtful and serious. One night
Professor Jackson, his Latin teacher, walked home with him from the
meeting and in an earnest, friendly way urged Rob to become a
Christian; adding the assurance that he was praying for him.
Rob thanked the professor and walked up to his room. One time, at
least, Satan helped, for Tom Wright and his fellows remained out
nearly all night upon a wild lark. Rob, his heart strangely stirred, felt
that he could not sleep, and at last flung himself at the side of his
bed crying, “O God, I want to be a Christian. I don’t know how, but
You know how to make me one, and I’ll never leave this bedside
until I am saved.”
Rob prayed on in his stumbling way until it seemed that he could do
no more, when all at once there came into his heart a beautiful
stillness. He felt as light as a feather, and as happy as a bird. He
could not stay in his room; and throwing open the door he ran down
the corridor to Professor Jackson’s room and awoke him with the
glorious tidings that his prayer had been answered and he was
saved.
Rob’s first real test came the following night at bedtime. When he
was ready for bed there were two or three of Tom Wright’s gang in
the room with him, and when Rob, with the courage of a genuine
hero, knelt by the bedside and began to thank God for His goodness,
and claim His promise for future help and guidance, the boys were,
for the moment, dumbfounded. Then they broke out into cursing
and reviling. They declared they would have no pious hypocrite
around there, even if they had to throw him down stairs.
Night after night the persecution kept up, whenever one of the
others would be in the room at bedtime. They would tie Rob to the
bedpost as he prayed; they drenched him with ice water; and,
harder than all to bear, they followed his praying with vile and
hideous blasphemy. But Rob had enlisted under the banner of Jesus
Christ, Who, when He was reviled, reviled not again, and Who
blessed when He was cursed; so the fierce trial but deepened his
real experience of grace. He became an active worker for his Master
among his college mates, and had the joy of seeing several
converted through his efforts.
Serious breaches of discipline had occurred in the dormitory some
two months after Robert’s conversion, and one Sunday night
Professor Jackson was deputized by the Faculty to stay in his room
during the church service and endeavor to get some clue to the
transgressors. After church had well begun, Tom Wright and his
crowd, who were all supposed to be at the service, got out an old
fiddle, and with some rough characters from the town, proceeded to
have a dance in the halls, all unconscious of the presence of the
professor in the adjoining room. The “fun” became furious, and one
of the boys undertook to act the character of “pious Bob Allen” for
the amusement of the strangers, the others using the name of
Robert as if he were really present.
As the other students began to return from the service, the uproar
subsided, and when Rob reached his room his roommate was
already there, apparently having just returned from church. The next
day, with a very grave face, Professor Jackson called Rob into his
room. Rob went in smilingly, but his smile faded quickly at the stern
look of his friend.
“Where were you last night, Robert? I want to give you a chance to
confess.”
“Why, I was at church. Where should I have been?”
“Do you mean to tell me that you know nothing of the disgraceful
occurance last night in the hall?”
“What occurance, sir? Indeed, I know nothing. I was at church.”
“Robert, Robert, I am so disappointed in you! I believed you to be a
manly young man, and a Christian. How could you so forget yourself
as to engage in such an affair, and then pretend that you were at
church! I was here in my room throughout, and heard your name
called again and again. Because of your previous perfect record, no
public punishment will be given you by the Faculty, but the other
boys will be severely dealt with.”
“Professor, I have told you the truth. Goodbye,” and Robert
staggered out to his own room, unable to fathom the depth of his
misery. His poverty and his life of toil isolated him from the most of
the students. How he longed for the quick understanding and
sympathy of his lost friend Dauphin. He had made comparatively few
acquaintances in college, and there had been but one, the young
Latin professor, whom his heart had really claimed for a friend. And
now that one was lost! That one despised him for a breaker of rules,
and a liar. O it was too much! The tempter came, as he always does
in the moment of our stress, and said, “Give it up. Give it all up. It’s
no use. Go back home.”
The battle was fierce, and not soon over. But victory came—came
through the stretched-out Hand that had brought him salvation. In
the darkness of his extremity, the thought came to him that there
was One who knew all, and, he knelt and poured out his soul to the
comforting Christ.
Not for a moment afterward did Rob relax his conscientious work
either in the class room or in such Christian duties as came his way.
His manner became graver, if possible, and a little shyer, but there
glowed upon the face of the lad a steady light that would often
cause a wondering look from those who passed him by. He had
conquered his own spirit, and trusting, he looked to God for his
vindication and his reward.
Just before the commencement in June, an escapade of unusual
viciousness caused the expulsion of Tom Wright and two of his
fellows.
As the students gathered in the college chapel on the last day of
school to hear the awards of prizes and scholarships that had been
won during the year, and the white-haired president had come to the
Ira Morton prize of $50 for the best Latin grades for the year, he
paused, and wiping his spectacles, said, “In connection with the
award of this prize, the Faculty have delegated to me another
pleasant duty. The confessions of some students whom we were
obliged to send home, during the past term, opened our eyes to the
fact that we have had in our midst as true a hero as any knight of
old; a lad whose courage and faithfulness under severe trial and
severer suspicion and accusation has shown a quality of manhood
and Christian spirit that honors this institution.” Briefly the president
sketched the career of the boy, then added, “To the $50 Morton
prize, the Faculty have added another $50 in recognition of the
conflict and glorious victory of this young man. Mr. Robert Allen,
come forward and receive the honor which is your due.”
In the years that were to come Robert Allen was to rise high in the
world, and receive honor from his fellow men, but no honor nor
applause ever was able to gladden his heart as did this vindication
and victory he had won through Jesus Christ.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOYS OF THE OLD
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