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Cognitive Systems and Signal
Processing in Image Processing
Cognitive Data Science in Sustainable
Computing
Cognitive Systems
and Signal Processing
in Image Processing
Edited by
Yu-Dong Zhang
Professor, Department of Informatics, University of Leicester, Leicester,
United Kingdom
Series Editor
Arun Kumar Sangaiah
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Numbers in paraentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.
Vishesh Agarwal (83), SCOPE, VIT University, Vellore, India
Rangel Arthur (1, 101), Faculty of Technology (FT), State University of Campinas
(UNICAMP), Limeira, São Paulo, Brazil
K.R. Anu Bama (253), Anna University Regional Campus-Tirunelveli, Tirunelveli, TN,
India
P. Darsana (163), Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala
D. Deepa (277, 319), Department of CSE, Sathyabama Institute of Science and
Technology, Chennai, India
Dejey (293), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Anna University
Regional Campus—Tirunelveli, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Kaviya Elakkiya (293), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Anna
University Regional Campus—Tirunelveli, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
Reinaldo Padilha França (1, 101), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
(FEEC), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
K. Gopalakrishnan (337), Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamilnadu, India
Zhilin Hu (47), Department of Informatics, University of Leicester, Leicester,
United Kingdom
Yuzo Iano (1, 101), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering (FEEC), State
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
V. Kakulapati (359), Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India
Grace Prince Kanmani (277), Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology,
Chennai, India
B. Vijaya Kumari (337), Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamilnadu, India
Xiang Li (145), College of Computer Science and Technology, Henan Polytechnic
University, Jiaozuo, People’s Republic of China
Ana Carolina Borges Monteiro (1, 101), School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering (FEEC), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas,
São Paulo, Brazil
xiii
xiv Contributors
1 Introduction
Cognitive computing (CC) brings together the concepts of artificial intelligence
(AI) technology and machine learning (ML) technology, consisting of technol-
ogies that work in a complementary way, being the most advanced resources to
have the generation of insights, making technology capable of processing infor-
mation similar to the way the human brain does. Evaluating the great promi-
nence of the technology applied in the support of doctors in the diagnosis
and treatment of diseases through image analysis, for example [1].
Cognitive systems are taught not to consume information to deliver
responses but to analyze complex situations, taking into account the context
of each one, the environment, and the intention. The idea is that all decisions
are made following the same reasoning as a person. In this sense, AI can learn,
decide, and self-correct, being able to program so that it learns pattern recog-
nition, identifying anomalies among other applications parallel to CC [2].
CC and AI have in common the resources they use to perform their tasks,
highlighting ML and strands, such as an artificial neural network (ANN) and
deep learning (DL), which can be applied to solve a problem, identify patterns
between data, and relate them, which makes it able to handle only one dataset
and indicate solutions that have been fed into the system. Considering the CC
2 Literature review
CC is derived from self-learning systems employing techniques to accomplish
particular human tasks intelligently, in addition to being commonly associated
with this conjunction between AI and CC. This method improves and extends
the range of actions/processes that are generally correlated to the performance
of the human thought process and traditional analysis. The growth of such inno-
vations has been exponential as the applications of technology become more
sophisticated [1, 5].
The ability of CC, including ML, DL, natural language processing, and even
data mining, is applied against dense data sets assisting in finding known and
unknown indicators and insights. Given the progression over time relating to
using a huge volume of internal and external pieces of information and data
from institutions, however, conventional methods of analysis have become
unable to deal with that volume of data. Instead, cognitive analysis quickly
takes advantage of unstructured data and reduces subjectivity in decision
making [6].
CC affects all areas of society, from travel, sports, and entertainment to fit-
ness, health, and well-being, including human health. This is an evolution of
programmable computing (traditional), given that these systems aim to expand
the limits of human cognition. This technology is not intended to replace or rep-
licate how the human brain operates; it is about expanding your capabilities [7].
The human capacity to analyze and process a large amount of data, unstruc-
tured and structured, is naturally weak. Therefore, the main role of CC is to
combine the forces of humans and machines in a collaborative way [8, 9].
The demands orientated by Big Data and the requirement for complex
evidence-based decisions are beyond the previous (traditional) rule and the log-
ical approach to evolved computing. In this context, CC refers to systems that
learn at scale, interact with human beings naturally, and instead of being explic-
itly programmed, learns and reasons digitally with their interactions and expe-
riences with the environment [8, 9].
CC finds insights blocked in the amount of data, serving to evolve the human
experience with intelligent systems that reason about issues like a human. CC
4 Cognitive systems and signal processing in image processing
Another advantage is the use of ML, expanding the learning potential and
the ability to adapt over time with use. Therefore, a cognitive system captures
the results of this interaction (man-machine) and learns from the resulting inter-
action, evolving automatically throughout it, improving its performance [5, 15].
In this way, cognitive systems “digitally comprehending” digital images,
natural language, and even other unstructured data, like human beings, are oper-
ationalizing practically all data (structured and unstructured). It can also reason,
form hypotheses, understand underlying concepts, and extract ideas. And still
learn from each data interaction and result, developing and increasing the expe-
rience, and continue to learn and adapt [16].
In this sense, it is worth mentioning that information systems are determin-
istic, while cognitive systems are probabilistic. In other words, this generates
not only answers to hypotheses but also numerical problems, arguments, and
even recommendations for complex and significant data bodies [5, 16].
Cognitive systems have great potential in the area of radiology, since the
specialty is based on the analysis of images of different modalities, supplement-
ing and helping the clinical diagnosis. However, often the professional can only
differentiate diagnoses that are equally possible based on additional informa-
tion. Cognitive systems also make it possible to combine several sources of
information, in addition to the image, to obtain more precise and specific diag-
noses [19, 27].
Cognitive systems aimed at medical image processing are consistent for
areas that present complex exams, such as tomography, MRI, and nuclear
images, or even in more difficult diagnostic organs, such as lungs, breasts,
and brain, and certain specialties such as mastology and oncology, are those that
benefit from advances in this technology. This type of approach replaces inva-
sive and high-risk actions such as brain biopsies, for example, or even confirm-
ing the diagnosis of bone fractures and other simpler exams [28].
Other advantages of cognitive systems and digital image processing
methods in relation to imaging exams are increased productivity and better
management of these exams, as specialist professionals will be able to focus
on cases with abnormalities, thus optimizing their demands and identifying
cases that require more time, care, and attention. A quick diagnosis of cases that
require immediate treatment would be possible, prioritizing the analysis of
images with anomalies previously identified by cognitive systems and prevent-
ing the progress of tumors and other serious diseases. This would mean greater
security for the diagnosis, considering the used image banks containing an
incomparably greater number of details than medical books and manuals,
and greater certainty of the results to the specialist professionals [29–32].
ANNs are computational techniques that can have thousands of digital pro-
cessing units acquiring knowledge through experience, presenting a mathemat-
ical model oriented by the neural structure (brain functioning) of intelligent
organisms [36].
Taking into account that a simple ANN, including an input layer, an output
layer, and among them, a hidden layer. The layers are linked through nodes, and
these links form a “neural network” of interlinked nodes, making operations
only on their local data. The operation of which is quite simple, usually con-
nected and associated with a weight, since the “intelligent behavior” is from
interactions between these digital processing units [37].
It is also worth mentioning that usually the layers in ANNs are categorized
into input layer (inserted patterns to the neural network), hidden layers (proces-
sing, weighted connections, extraction of characteristics); and output layer
(result is presented) [38].
Defining terminology with respect to the neural network, an artificial neuron
is capable of single processing and each input receives only one type of signal or
information. In that sense, given that a neuron can have several inputs, then it
can perceive different signals. Or even connect several similar neurons in a net-
work, making the system able to process more information and offer more
results. Thus, signals are presented at the input; each one is multiplied by a value
or weight indicating its influence on the output of the layer, given that neural
architectures are typically organized in layers, with units that can be connected
to the units of the posterior layer, responsible for perceiving a certain type of
signal. In sequence, the weighted sum of the signals that produce an activity
level is made; and if this level of activity exceeds a threshold, the layer produces
a certain output response. In this regard, generally, ANN models have some type
of training, that is, weights of connections are adjusted according to the stan-
dards of data, meaning they learn through examples (dataset) [39].
Analogously with human brain biology, an artificial node is modeled after
the behavior of a human neuron, activating when there are inputs. This specific
activation spreads through the ANN, responding to the stimulus, that is, a result.
Likewise, the links between these neurons act as synapses, causing signals
transmitted from one to the other. There is also signaling between layers as
it transits from the input layer (first) to the output layer, that is, the result layer,
performing information processing along the way. There are also artificial neu-
ral architectures that have a body of processors responsible for a feedback sys-
tem that modifies its own programming depending on the input and output data.
Finally, they have a binary output to display the answer “yes/1” or “no/0,”
depending on the result of the processing [40].
Given a problem to be solved, artificial neurons perform mathematical cal-
culations to decide if there is sufficient data to be sent to the next neuron. Eval-
uating a simpler model of a neural network, the inputs are added and the
artificial neuron transmits the information and activates the neurons connected
to it. At the same time, as the number of hidden layers within an ANN increase,
Cognitive healthcare system with learning approaches Chapter 1 9
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