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Machine Learning,
Big Data, and IoT for
Medical Informatics
Machine Learning,
Big Data, and IoT for
Medical Informatics
Edited by
Pardeep Kumar
Department of CSE & IT, JUIT, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Yugal Kumar
Department of CSE & IT, JUIT, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Mohamed A. Tawhid
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada
Series Editor
Fatos Xhafa
Technical University of Catalonia (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
xvii
xviii Contributors
Isel Grau
Artificial Intelligence Lab, Free University of Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
Rahul Gupta
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Sunil Kumar Hota
DIHAR, Defense Research & Development Organization, Leh, Jammu & Kashmir, India
William H. Hsu
Department of Computer Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
Enas Ibrahim
Department of Computer, Damietta University, Damietta, Egypt
Muhammad Taimoor Khan
Medical Department, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Sung Won Kim
Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan,
Republic of Korea
Dipesh Kumar
Department of ECE, IIT(ISM), Dhanbad, India
Vijay Kumar
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Yugal Kumar
Department of CSE & IT, JUIT, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Seshadri Sastry Kunapuli
Xinthe Technologies PVT LTD, Visakhapatnam, India
Deepti Lamba
Department of Computer Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
Theodore V. Maliamanis
HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab), Department of Computer Science,
International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece
Nirupama Mandal
Department of ECE, IIT(ISM), Dhanbad, India
Des McLernon
School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Pradeep Kumar Naik
School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University, Sambalpur, Orissa, India
Ali Nauman
Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan,
Republic of Korea
Muhammad Hassan Nawaz
Electrical Engineering Department, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Contributors xix
Ann Nowe
Artificial Intelligence Lab, Free University of Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
George A. Papakostas
HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab), Department of Computer Science,
International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece
Advika Parthvi
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu,
India
Yazdan Ahmad Qadri
Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan,
Republic of Korea
Rakesh Raja
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi,
India
R. Rajesh
Department of Computer Science, Central University of Kerala, Kerala, India
Kartik Rawal
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu,
India
Riya Sapra
Department of Computer Science and Technology, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, India
Bikash Kanti Sarkar
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi,
India
Jane Scott
School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United
Kingdom
Dipankar Sengupta
PGJCCR, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom; Artificial Intelligence Lab, Free
University of Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
Isha Sharma
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Sunil Datt Sharma
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Jaypee University of Information
Technology, Solan, India
Vijay Kumar Sharma
DIHAR, Defense Research & Development Organization, Leh, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Rohit Shukla
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology
(JUIT), Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
xx Contributors
Vaibhav Shukla
Tech Mahindra Ltd., Mumbai, Maharastra, India
S.S. Shylaja
Department of CSE, PES University, Bangalore, India
Tiratha Raj Singh
Centre of Excellence in Healthcare Technologies and Informatics (CHETI), Department of
Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology (JUIT), Solan,
Himachal Pradesh, India
Ravi B. Srivastava
DIHAR, Defense Research & Development Organization, Leh, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Wenhan Tan
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
Abdalrahman Tawhid
Computing Science Department, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada
Tanya Teotia
Computing Science Department, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada
Arvind Kumar Yadav
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology
(JUIT), Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
Syed Ali Raza Zaidi
School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Zhiqiang Zhang
School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Preface
Medical informatics, also known as healthcare analytics, is a useful tool that can assess and monitor
health-related behavior and conditions of individuals outside the clinic. The benefits of medical infor-
matics are significant, including improving life expectancy, disease diagnosis, and quality of life. In
many individual situations, a patient requires continuous monitoring to identify the onset of possible
life-threatening conditions or to diagnose potentially dangerous diseases. Traditional healthcare sys-
tems fall short in this regard.
Meanwhile, rapid growth and advances have occurred in the digitization of information, retrieval
systems, and wearable devices and sensors. Our times demand the design and development of new
effective prediction systems using machine learning approaches, big data, and the Internet of Things
(IoT) to meet health and life quality expectations. Furthermore, there is a need for monitoring systems
that can monitor the health issues of elderly and remotely located people. In recent times, big data and
IoT have played a vital role in health-related applications, mainly in disease identification and diag-
nosis. These techniques can provide possible solutions for healthcare analytics, in which both struc-
tured and unstructured data are collected through IoT-based devices and sensors. Machine learning
and big data techniques can be applied to collected data for predictive diagnostic systems. However,
designing and developing an effective diagnostic system is still challenging due to various issues
like security, usability, scalability, privacy, development standards, and technologies. Therefore
machine learning, big data, and IoT for medical informatics are becoming emerging research areas
for the healthcare community.
xxi
xxii Preface
of machine learning for prediction-based medical informatics surveyed in this article to the impact of
big data and its associated challenges, trends, and limitations of current work, including privacy and
security of sensitive patient data.
Chapter 2 presents a proposed model for geolocation aware healthcare facility with IoT, Fog, and
Cloud-based diagnosis in emergency cases. An end-to-end infrastructure has been modeled for the
healthcare system using geolocation-enabled IoT, fog, and cloud computing technology to identify
the nearest hospital or medical facility available to the patient. It has also achieved 25%–27% less delay
and 27%–29% less power consumption than the cloud-only environment.
Chapter 3 aims to capture the status of medical computer vision threats and the recent defensive
techniques proposed by researchers. This chapter intends to shed light on the vulnerability of machine
learning models in medical image analysis, e.g., disease diagnosis, and to become a guide for any
researcher working in medical image analysis toward the development of more secure machine
learning-based computer-aided diagnosis systems.
Chapter 4 demonstrates a model for skull stripping and tumor detection from brain images using 3D
U-Net. The demonstrated model has been tested over 373 MRIs of the LCG Segmentation Dataset,
showing good standard performance over metrics of dice coefficient, and the accuracy results are
competitive with the existing methods.
Chapter 5 addresses the issue of corrupted laparoscopy video by haze, noise, oversaturated illumi-
nation, etc., in minimally invasive surgery. To effectively address the issue, the authors have proposed
a novel algorithm to ensure the enhancement of video with faster performance. The proposed C2D2A
(Cross Color Dominant Deep Autoencoder) uses the strength of (a) a bilateral filter, which addresses
the one-shot filtering of images both in the spatial neighborhood domain and psycho-visual range; and
(b) a deep autoencoder, which can learn salient patterns. The domain-based color sparseness has further
improved the performance, modulating the classical deep autoencoder to a color dominant deep
autoencoder. The work has shown promise toward providing a generic framework of quality enhance-
ment of video streams and addressing performance. This, in turn, improves the image/video analytics
like segmentation, detection, and tracking the objects or regions of interest.
Chapter 6 presents an alternative way of estimating respiratory rate from ECG and PPG by using
machine learning to improve estimation accuracy. The proposed methods are based on respiratory sig-
nals extracted from raw signals and use a support vector machine (SVM) and neural network (NN) to
estimate respiratory rate. The proposed methods achieve comparable accuracy to current methods
when the number of classes is low. Once the number of classes increases, the accuracy drops
significantly.
Chapter 7 serves as an introductory guideline to address the challenges and opportunities while de-
signing machine learning-enabled Healthcare Internet of Things (H-IoT) networks. It provides a dis-
cussion on traditional H-IoT, challenges, and opportunities in the Network 2030 paradigm. It also
discusses potential machine learning techniques compatible with H-IoT and points out open issues
and future research directions.
Chapter 8 presents a skin lesion segmentation approach based on the Elitist-Jaya optimization al-
gorithm. The proposed method contains two stages: image preprocessing and edge detection. The ex-
perimental sample consists of a set of 320 images from the skin lesion dataset. The outcomes proved
that the proposed approach improved the segmentation accuracy of the affected skin lesion area and
outperformed the compared methods.
Chapter 9 provides its readers with an all-encompassing review that will enable a clear understanding
of the current trends in glove-based gesture classification and provide new ideas for further research. The
Preface xxiii
authors have analyzed deep learning approaches in terms of their current performance, advantages over
classical machine learning algorithms, and limitations in specific classification scenarios. Furthermore,
they present other deep learning approaches that may outperform current algorithms in glove-based
gesture classification.
Chapter 10 presents an ensemble approach for evaluating the cognitive performance of the human
population at high altitude. The authors identify the key multidomain cognitive screening test
(MDCST) and clinical features among the lowlander (350 m) and highlander (1500 but
<4300 m) populations, staying at an altitude 4300 m for a prolonged duration. A goodness-of-fit test
was applied to the two population cohorts for identifying significant independent measures. Rule-based
mining was followed to discover associative rules between the clinical, behavioral, and cognitive
screening parameters. Conclusively, a unique set of association rules have been identified with at
least 30% support and more than 60% confidence in behavioral and clinical features associated with
the cognitive parameters.
Chapter 11 presents the role of machine learning in expert systems for disease diagnostics in human
healthcare. The authors discuss essential existing expert systems for human disease diagnosis in detail.
They also provide a brief evaluation of various techniques used for the development of expert systems.
Chapter 12 presents an entropy-based hybrid feature selection approach for medical datasets. A
stable linear-time entropy-based ensembled feature selection approach is introduced, mainly focusing
on medical datasets of several sizes. The suggested approach is validated using three state-of-the-art
classifiers, namely C4.5, naı̈ve Bayes, and JRIP, over 14 benchmark medical datasets (drawn from the
UCI machine learning repository). The empirical results achieved from the datasets demonstrate that
the proposed ensemble model outperforms the selected learners.
Chapter 13 shows how to utilize machine learning algorithms to create models that can predict
healthcare systems’ critical issues. The chapter’s discussion relates to the COVID-19 pandemic and
highlights the solutions offered by machine learning in such scenarios. The chapter also highlights
the significance of feature engineering and its impact on machine learning models’ accuracy. The chap-
ter ends with two case studies. The first case study shows how to build a prediction model that can
predict the number of diabetic patients who will visit certain hospitals in a specific geographic location
in future years. The second case study analyzes health records during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Chapter 14 presents an interpretable semisupervised classifier for predicting cancer stages. Authors
illustrate the self-labeling gray-box applications on the omics and clinical datasets from the cancer ge-
nome atlas. They show that the self-labeling gray-box is accurate in predicting cancer stages of rare
cancers by leveraging the unlabeled instances from more common cancer types. They discuss insights,
the features influencing prediction, and a global representation of the knowledge through decision trees
or rule lists, which can aid clinicians and researchers.
Chapter 15 presents an overview of applications of blockchain technology in smart healthcare. The
authors overviewed the fundamental blockchain concepts and applications to be used for different as-
pects of the smart healthcare industry and proposed a live patient monitoring system by deploying
blockchain technology in the model. Keeping an eye on recent technologies in connected healthcare,
they finally presented various research factors and potential challenges where blockchain technologies
can play an outstanding role in realizing the concept of smart optimization in the healthcare industry.
Chapter 16 focuses on clustering and classification techniques for the prediction of leukemia. The
proposed work consists of Phase I, which will be dealing with the collection of datasets and visuali-
zation of datasets, whereas Phase II will be dealing with the machine learning and data mining
xxiv Preface
techniques for the prediction of leukemia disease. The authors claim that the proposed techniques
would give higher performance than the existing techniques.
Chapter 17 presents a performance evaluation of fractal features toward seizure detection from
electroencephalogram signals. The authors have evaluated the ability of three well-known fractal
dimension feature extraction methods (the Katz fractal dimension, Higuchi fractal dimension, and
Petrosian fractal dimension) to classify epileptic and nonepileptic electroencephalogram signals.
The features are fed to an SVM classifier for the classification of epileptic and nonepileptic electro-
encephalogram signals. The SVM classifier results show that the fractal features are good measures to
characterize the complex information of epileptic signals.
Chapter 18 presents an integer period discrete Fourier transform-based algorithm to identify tandem
repeats in the DNA sequences. The authors have discussed the importance of tandem repeats in diverse
applications. They proposed an integer period discrete Fourier transform (IPDFT)-based algorithm to
detect the tandem repeats in DNA sequences. A comparison of the proposed algorithm’s performance
has also been made with existing methods.
Chapter 19 discusses the scope, applicability, and usage of blockchain technology to preserve pa-
tients’ sensitive medical data. A framework is also proposed that allows patients and hospitals to store
medical records. The framework allows patients to share the information by providing access to their
data and by invoking smart contracts for automatic payments for their medical claims.
Chapter 20 presents a novel approach to securing e-health applications in the cloud environment.
The authors provide an algorithm to secure data in e-health applications in the cloud environment.
A new architecture for e-health applications in the cloud environment is proposed, which will provide
application-level security and server-level security using certificates.
Chapter 21 presents different ensemble learning algorithms and explains how these algorithms can
be used to classify health disorders. The authors have discussed an ensemble classifier approach for
thyroid disease diagnosis using the AdaBoostM algorithm.
Chapter 22 presents a review of the latest artificial intelligence research in this immense medical
science field, including various architectures and approaches, with special attention given to brain
tumor analysis. The authors discuss various deep learning architectures used to diagnose brain tumors
and compare results with existing architectures. They have examined case studies from basic
clustering techniques such as K-means clustering to fuzzy and neurotrophic C-means clustering
techniques and kernel graph cuts (KGC) to advanced artificial intelligence techniques such as deep
convolution neural networks (DCNs), atrous convolution neural networks (ACNs), and unit
architectures to find the area of interest in the coherent/incoherent regions.
Finally, Chapter 23 focuses on machine learning in precision medicine. An overview of how ma-
chine learning is used in precision medicine and its potential use in the detection, diagnosis, prognosis,
risk assessment, therapy response, and discovery of new biomarkers and drug candidates is presented
in this chapter.
We especially thank the Intelligent Data-Centric Systems: Sensor Collected Intelligence Series
Editor, Prof. Fatos Xhafa, for his continuous support and insightful guidance.
We would also like to thank the publishers at Elsevier, in particular, Chiara Giglio, Editorial
Project Manager, and Sonnini Ruiz Yura, Acquisitions Editor–Biomedical Engineering, for their
helpful guidance and encouragement during this book’s creation.
We are sincerely thankful to all authors, editors, and publishers whose works have been cited
directly/indirectly in this manuscript.
Preface xxv
Special acknowledgments
The first editor gratefully acknowledges the authorities of the Jaypee University of Information Tech-
nology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India, for their kind support for this book.
The second editor gratefully acknowledges the authorities of the Jaypee University of Information
Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India, for their kind support for this book.
The third editor would like to acknowledge the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada and Thompson River University, Kamloops, Canada, for their kind support of his research
on this book.
Chapter outline
1 Introduction: Predictive analytics for medical informatics ......................................................................2
1.1 Overview: Goals of machine learning ................................................................................... 2
1.2 Current state of practice ..................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Key task definitions ........................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Open research problems ..................................................................................................... 7
2 Background ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Diagnosis ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Predictive analytics .......................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Therapy recommendation ................................................................................................. 14
2.4 Automation of treatment ................................................................................................... 15
2.5 Integrating medical informatics and health informatics ....................................................... 16
3 Techniques for machine learning ...................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Supervised, unsupervised, and semisupervised learning ...................................................... 18
3.2 Reinforcement learning .................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Self-supervised, transfer, and active learning ..................................................................... 20
4 Applications .................................................................................................................................... 20
4.1 Test beds for diagnosis and prognosis ................................................................................ 20
4.2 Test beds for therapy recommendation and automation ....................................................... 21
5 Experimental results ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.1 Test bed ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Results and discussion ..................................................................................................... 22
6 Conclusion: Machine learning for computational medicine ................................................................. 22
6.1 Frontiers: Preclinical, translational, and clinical ................................................................. 22
6.2 Toward the future: Learning and medical automation .......................................................... 23
References .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Machine Learning, Big Data, and IoT for Medical Informatics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821777-1.00023-9
Copyright # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 Predictive analytics and machine learning for medical informatics
1.3.1 Diagnosis
Differential diagnosis is defined as the process of differentiating between probability of one disease
versus that of other diseases with similar symptoms that could possibly account for illness in a
patient. A technical series published by World Health Organization (WHO) in 2016 states that the most
important task performed by primary care providers is diagnosis (World Health Organization, 2016).
Machine learning tools have been used primarily for disease diagnosis throughout the history of med-
ical informatics. Graber et al. (2005) conducted a study to determine the causes of diagnostic errors and
to develop a comprehensive taxonomy for the classification of these errors.
Miller (1994) provided a representative bibliography of the state of the art and history of medical di-
agnostic decision support systems (MDDSS) at the time. These systems can be divided into several sub-
categories, among which expert systems have been used most often (Shortliffe et al., 1979). Many of the
earliest rule-based expert systems (Giarratano and Riley, 1998) were developed for medical diagnosis.
Shortliffe (1986) gave insights into the design of expert systems for diagnostic medicine developed during
the 1970s and 1980s, including: (1) MYCIN (Shortliffe and Buchanan, 1985; Shortliffe, 2012), which
focused on infectious diseases; (2) INTERNIST-1 (Miller et al., 1982); (3) QMR (Miller and Masarie,
1989; Rassinoux et al., 1996); (4) DXplain (Barnett et al., 1987; mghlcs, n.d.; Bartold and Hannigan,
2002), a diagnostic decision support system developed continuously between 1986 and the early 2000s.
The most prominent limitation of expert systems was the acquisition of knowledge (Gaines, 2013)
or building a knowledge base, which is both, time-consuming and a complex process that requires ac-
cess to expert domain knowledge. In addition, updating the knowledge base requires significant human
effort. These systems were usually designed to support users with an expert level of medical
knowledge. A more recent review of expert systems is presented by Abu-Nasser (2017). Expert systems
are still around but their limitations led to advances in rule learning and classification for differential
diagnosis. Salman and Abu-Naser (2020) developed a diagnostic system for COVID-19 using medical
websites for the knowledge base. COVID-19 is a novel viral disease that has affected millions of people
around the world. The system was tested by a group of doctors and they were satisfied with its perfor-
mance and ease of use. Another expert system for COVID-19 was built by Almadhoun and Abu-Naser
(2020) for helping patients determine if they have been infected with COVID-19. The system gives
instructions to the user based on the symptoms. The knowledge base was compiled using medical sites
such as NHS Trust.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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