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Hermann Kopetz
Wilfried Steiner
Real-Time
Systems
Design Principles for Distributed
Embedded Applications
Third Edition
Real-Time Systems
Hermann Kopetz • Wilfried Steiner
Real-Time Systems
Design Principles for Distributed Embedded
Applications
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The primary objective of this book is to serve as a textbook for students who take a
senior undergraduate or a first-year graduate course on real-time embedded sys-
tems, also called cyber-physical systems. The book’s structure—the material is
organized into 14 chapters—maps to the 14 weeks of a semester. The book is also
intended for practitioners in industry who want to learn about the state of the art in
real-time embedded system design and need a reference book that explains the fun-
damental concepts of the field. More than a 1000 students used the first edition of
this book, published about 25 years ago, as a text for the real-time systems course at
the Vienna University of Technology. The feedback from these students and many
new developments in this dynamic field of embedded real-time systems have been
incorporated in the second edition. This third edition of the book includes learnings
from industrial applications of its elaborated design principles and addresses the
ongoing convergence of real-time embedded systems with IT (information technol-
ogy) systems. It also covers emerging autonomous system developments.
The book’s focus is on the design of distributed real-time systems at the architec-
ture level. While a significant part of the established computer science literature
abstracts from the progression of real time, real-time system designers cannot get
away with such an abstraction. In this book, the progression of physical time is
considered a first-order citizen that shapes many of the relevant concepts. The book
explains the fundamental concepts related to the progression of time on a number of
practical, insightful examples from industry. The conceptual model of a distributed
real-time system has been extended, and precise definitions of important time-
related concepts, such as sparse time, state, temporal accuracy of real-time data,
and determinism, are given. This book emphasizes design principles that result in
understandable systems, irrespectively of a system’s size. Following these principles
ensures that simple models faithfully represent an implemented system from differ-
ent viewpoints and at different levels of abstraction.
Since the second edition of this book, about 11 years ago, cloud computing has
revolutionized classical IT systems. Inspired by this development, strong market
forces seek to replicate this success in the real-time embedded systems market by
reusing native cloud technologies and principles. However, naively doing so will
v
vi Preface
lead to disaster. Thus, this third edition includes a new chapter on cloud and fog
computing that argues for the fog architectural style to decouple the world of cloud
from the world of real-time embedded systems. The second major change is the
rewritten chapter on real-time networks that now also covers IEEE 802.1 Time-
Sensitive Networking (TSN), the incorporation of the time-triggered paradigm in
the mainstream IT networking set of standards. All other chapters have been revised
and updated. This third edition includes approximately 80 new references in total.
Since the publication of the first edition, a visible paradigm shift from the event-
triggered to the time-triggered design methodology for dependable distributed real-
time systems has taken place in a number of applications.
It is assumed that the reader of this book has a background in basic computer
science or computer engineering or has some practical experience in the design or
implementation of embedded systems.
The glossary, provided at the end, is an integral part of this book, providing defi-
nitions for many of the technical terms used throughout. If the reader is not sure
about the meaning of a term, they are advised to refer to the glossary.
Acknowledgments
It is impossible to name all students, colleagues from industry, and fellow scientists
who have contributed to this third edition of the book by asking intelligent questions
or making constructive comments over the last decade—thanks to all of you.
May 2022
Contents
vii
viii Contents
Et maintenant ?…
Maintenant, M. Adolphe appartient à la justice.
Elle peut le frapper ou l’absoudre, qu’importe !
Privé de son Antigone, jamais il ne rentrera au 17 où, pendant
plus de cent ans, les siens ont si rudement peiné pour acquérir une
honnête aisance, où il était fondé à espérer que, grâce à la guerre
longue, il aurait l’orgueil, lui, premier de sa race, d’asservir la
fortune, où, enfin, un fils né de sa chair lui aurait succédé.
Les Rabier ont cessé de régner sur la Maison…
FIN
ACHEVÉ D’IMPRIMER
POUR LA COLLECTION « ÉCHANTILLONS »
LE DIX SEPTEMBRE MIL NEUF CENT VINGT-CINQ
SUR LES PRESSES
DE L’IMPRIMERIE BUSSIÈRE
SAINT-AMAND (CHER)
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