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Learn CentOS
Linux Network
Services
—
Antonio Vazquez
Learn CentOS Linux
Network Services

Antonio Vazquez
Learn CentOS Linux Network Services
Antonio Vazquez
Madrid, Madrid, Spain
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-2378-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-2379-6
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2379-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016960292
Copyright © 2016 by Antonio Vazquez
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are
brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for
the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser
of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions
of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must
always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the
Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark symbol
with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image, we use the names, logos, and images only
in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of
the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are
not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject
to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the author nor the editors nor the Publisher can accept any legal responsibility for
any errors or omissions that may be made. The Publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein.
Managing Director: Welmoed Spahr
Acquisitions Editor: Louise Corrigan
Development Editor: James Markham
Technical Reviewer: Massimo Nardone
Editorial Board: Steve Anglin, Pramila Balen, Laura Berendson, Aaron Black, Louise Corrigan,
Jonathan Gennick, Todd Green, Celestin Suresh John, Nikhil Karkal, Robert Hutchinson,
James Markham, Matthew Moodie, Natalie Pao, Gwenan Spearing
Coordinating Editor: Nancy Chen
Copy Editor: Michael G. Laraque
Compositor: SPi Global
Indexer: SPi Global
Artist: SPi Global
Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York, 233 Spring
Street, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10013. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax (201) 348-4505, e-mail
orders-ny@springer-sbm.com, or visit www.springer.com. Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC and
the sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media Finance Inc (SSBM Finance Inc).
SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
For information on translations, please e-mail rights@apress.com, or visit www.apress.com.
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Any source code or other supplementary materials referenced by the author in this text are available
to readers at www.apress.com. For detailed information about how to locate your book’s source code,
go to www.apress.com/source-code/.
Printed on acid-free paper
This book is dedicated to my family, especially to my parents, who recently had to
endure some difficult times. I love you both.
Contents at a Glance

About the Author ............................................................................ xiii

About the Technical Reviewer ......................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ....................................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Installation .................................................................... 1

■Chapter 2: Basic Administration................................................... 23
■Chapter 3: Networking ................................................................. 59
■Chapter 4: DNS ............................................................................. 73
■Chapter 5: DHCP ......................................................................... 123
■Chapter 6: Remote Access.......................................................... 151
■Chapter 7: Web Server ................................................................ 169
■Chapter 8: FTP Server ................................................................. 199
■Chapter 9: Mail Server................................................................ 229
■Chapter 10: Firewalls ................................................................. 289
■Chapter 11: OpenLDAP ................................................................ 305

Index .............................................................................................. 337

v
Contents

About the Author ............................................................................ xiii

About the Technical Reviewer ......................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ....................................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Installation .................................................................... 1

1.1. CentOS 6........................................................................................... 1
1.2. CentOS 7......................................................................................... 13
■Chapter 2: Basic Administration................................................... 23
2.1. Basic Commands............................................................................ 23
2.1.1. Directories and Their Contents (ls and cd).................................................... 23
2.1.2. Creating Users .............................................................................................. 24

2.2. Creating and Editing Files .............................................................. 25

2.2.1. vi ................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.2. nano .............................................................................................................. 27
2.2.3. gedit.............................................................................................................. 28
2.2.4. cat................................................................................................................. 29
2.2.5. grep .............................................................................................................. 30
2.2.6. more ............................................................................................................. 31
2.2.7. less ............................................................................................................... 32
2.2.8. head .............................................................................................................. 32
2.2.9. tail................................................................................................................. 32

vii
■ CONTENTS

2.3. Redirecting Output ......................................................................... 33

2.4. Installing Software ......................................................................... 33
2.4.1. Configuring yum in CentOS 6........................................................................ 35
2.4.2. Configuring yum in CentOS 7........................................................................ 36
2.4.3. yum Options.................................................................................................. 38

2.5. Graphical Environment ................................................................... 44

2.5.1. CentOS 6 ....................................................................................................... 44
2.5.2. CentOS 7 ....................................................................................................... 48

2.6. Other Useful Commands................................................................. 51

2.6.1. chmod ........................................................................................................... 51
2.6.2. tee................................................................................................................. 51
2.6.3. rm ................................................................................................................. 53
2.6.4. ps .................................................................................................................. 53

2.7. SELinux........................................................................................... 53
■Chapter 3: Networking ................................................................. 59
3.1. IPv4 ................................................................................................ 59
3.1.1. Special Addresses ........................................................................................ 60
3.1.2. Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast ................................................................ 60
3.1.3. IPv4 Configuration in CentOS ........................................................................ 61
3.2. IPv6 ................................................................................................ 67
3.3. Networking Tools ............................................................................ 69
3.3.1. netstat .......................................................................................................... 69
3.3.2. lsof ................................................................................................................ 70
3.3.3. nmap............................................................................................................. 70
3.3.4. ping............................................................................................................... 72
3.3.5. ping6............................................................................................................. 72

viii
 ■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 4: DNS ............................................................................. 73

4.1. DNS Service ................................................................................... 73
4.2. Installing a DNS Server .................................................................. 75
4.2.1. Starting the Service in CentOS 6 .................................................................. 76
4.2.2. Starting the Service in CentOS 7 .................................................................. 77
4.3. Installing a Master Server .............................................................. 79
4.4. Client Configuration ........................................................................ 90
4.5. Slave Servers and Zone Transfers .................................................. 93
4.6. DNSSEC and TSIG ......................................................................... 102
4.7. Chroot ........................................................................................... 107
4.8. Diagnostic Tools ........................................................................... 110
4.8.1. rndc ............................................................................................................ 110
4.8.2. dig............................................................................................................... 113
4.8.3. host ............................................................................................................. 114

4.9. Troubleshooting ............................................................................ 115

4.9.1. A Computer Can’t Resolve Names .............................................................. 115
4.9.2. Many Computers Can’t Resolve Names...................................................... 116
4.9.3. Master and Slave Servers Don’t Have the Same Information..................... 118

4.10. Log Files ..................................................................................... 119

4.10.1. journalctl (only in CentOS 7) ..................................................................... 120

■Chapter 5: DHCP ......................................................................... 123

5.1. Installing a DHCP Server .............................................................. 124
5.1.1. DHCPv4 ....................................................................................................... 125
5.1.2. DHCPv6 ....................................................................................................... 128

5.2. Troubleshooting and Diagnostic Tools .......................................... 130

5.3. DHCP and DNS Dynamic Update .................................................. 135
5.3.1. Use of Keys ................................................................................................. 145

ix
■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 6: Remote Access.......................................................... 151

6.1. Telnet ............................................................................................ 151
6.2. ssh ................................................................................................ 155
6.2.1. X11 Forwarding .......................................................................................... 157
6.2.2. File Transfer ................................................................................................ 161
6.2.3. Authenticating with Keys ............................................................................ 162
6.3. VNC ............................................................................................... 163
■Chapter 7: Web Server ................................................................ 169
7.1. Installing the Apache Web Server................................................. 169
7.2. Name Resolution .......................................................................... 171
7.3. Configuring the Web Site .............................................................. 172
7.4. Virtual Hosts ................................................................................. 174
7.5. Restrict Access ............................................................................. 178
7.5.1. Host-Based Security ................................................................................... 178
7.5.2. User-Based Security ................................................................................... 181

7.6. PHP Support ................................................................................. 184

7.7. HTTPS ........................................................................................... 185
7.7.1. Certificate Creation with openSSL .............................................................. 187
7.7.2. Certificate Creation with certbot ................................................................ 195

■Chapter 8: FTP Server ................................................................. 199

8.1. Installing an FTP Server on CentOS.............................................. 199
8.2. Connecting from a Linux Client .................................................... 200
8.2.1. Access As an Anonymous User ................................................................... 201
8.2.2. Connecting As a Local User ........................................................................ 213
8.3. Connecting from a Windows Client .............................................. 214
8.4. Analyzing the FTP with Telnet....................................................... 216

x
 ■ CONTENTS

8.5. Secure FTP ................................................................................... 221

8.5.1. Generating the Certificate........................................................................... 221
8.5.2. Configuring vsftpd As an FTP Secure Server .............................................. 222
8.5.3. Connecting with Filezilla............................................................................. 223

■Chapter 9: Mail Server................................................................ 229

9.1. Communication Between Local Users .......................................... 229
9.2. Communication Between Remote Systems ................................. 231
9.3. Mail Service and DNS ................................................................... 234
9.4. Routing Mails ............................................................................... 239
9.5. Using a Mail Client ....................................................................... 245
9.5.1. POP3 ........................................................................................................... 247
9.5.2. IMAP ........................................................................................................... 253

9.6. SMTP Authentication .................................................................... 259

9.7. Secure Connections ..................................................................... 264
9.7.1. Securing the SMTP Connection .................................................................. 264
9.7.2. IMAPS ......................................................................................................... 268
9.7.3. POP3S ......................................................................................................... 274

9.8. Spam ............................................................................................ 275

9.9. Webmail........................................................................................ 280
■Chapter 10: Firewalls ................................................................. 289
10.1. Firewall in CentOS 6 ................................................................... 289
10.1.1. Saving and Restoring the Configuration ................................................... 294
10.1.2. Port Redirection ........................................................................................ 297
10.1.3. Redirecting Traffic to a Different Host ...................................................... 298
10.1.4. Logging Packets ....................................................................................... 299

xi
■ CONTENTS

10.2. Firewall in CentOS 7 ................................................................... 300

10.2.1. Saving and Restoring Configuration ......................................................... 303
10.2.2. Port Forwarding ........................................................................................ 304
10.2.3. Redirecting Traffic to a Different Host ...................................................... 304

■Chapter 11: OpenLDAP ................................................................ 305

11.1. Installing OpenLDAP ................................................................... 305
11.2. Customizing the Installation ....................................................... 306
11.2.1. Modifying Objects ..................................................................................... 306
11.2.2. Adding Objects.......................................................................................... 312
11.2.3. Deleting Objects ....................................................................................... 317

11.3. Securing LDAP Connections with TLS ........................................ 318

11.3.1. Creating a CA ............................................................................................ 318
11.3.2. Securing the LDAP Protocol. ..................................................................... 322
11.4. Authenticating Users with LDAP ................................................. 325
11.5. PHPLDAPAdmin .......................................................................... 329
11.6. Troubleshooting .......................................................................... 332

Index .............................................................................................. 337

xii
About the Author

Antonio Vazquez is an IT professional who has been

working with Linux for more than a decade. He studied
computer engineering at university in Spain, and he
currently holds many IT certifications from the main
vendors in the industry. At present, he works for a
public institution and is in charge of almost a thousand
Linux servers spread across the country, providing web
services, FTP services, file services, virtualization, and
more.

xiii
About the Technical
Reviewer

Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years of

experience in security, web/mobile development, and
cloud and IT architecture. His true IT passions are
security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching how to
program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python,
C/C++, and MySQL for more than 20 years. He holds a
master of science degree in computer science from the
University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software
engineer, research engineer, chief security architect,
information security manager, PCI/SCADA auditor,
and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years. His technical skills cover security,
Android, cloud, Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web
and mobile development, MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python,
Pro Rails, Django CMS, Jekyll, and Scratch, among others. He currently works as Chief
Information Security Officer (CISO) for Cargotec Oyj.
He was a visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the Networking Laboratory
of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto University). He holds four international
patents (related to PKI, SIP, SAML, and Proxy).
Massimo has reviewed more than 40 IT books for various publishing companies, and
he is the coauthor of Pro Android Games (Apress, 2015).

xv
Acknowledgments

I’d like to extend my gratitude to everybody at Apress, especially to those with whom I’ve
had the pleasure of working directly: Louise Corrigan and Nancy Chen. I would also like
to thank the technical reviewer, Massimo Nardone. They all helped me a lot.
Of course, I can’t forget my wife, who is also my biggest fan and always offers me her
support and patience.

xvii
Introduction

Many things have changed since that day in which a young Finnish student named
Linus Torvalds decided to post a message in a forum, searching for help with the
development of a new operating system. He hardly could have imagined that there
would be so many people eager to collaborate. And what had started as a hobby
became an efficient operating system (OS) used today by thousands of companies and
users around the world.
Linus decided to make this OS free for everybody to use, share, study, and modify
the code. So he licensed the code under the GNU license. This way, it was possible for
everybody to have access to the source code and modify it according to their likes and/
or needs. This resulted in many companies, universities, etc., having their own Linux
distributions.
Even though many of these distributions have remained confined to small areas
of influence, such as universities or official departments, a few have achieved general
recognition over the years. A few well-known examples include Red Hat, SUSE, Debian,
and Ubuntu.
The Red Hat Linux distribution system, developed by the Red Hat company is,
undoubtedly, one of the most important and influential. Red Hat has made many relevant
contributions to the Linux community, for example, the Red Hat Package Manager
(RPM), used by several other distributions, and Suse.
Red Hat used to publish desktop, as well as server, editions of its OS, and these
were made freely available for anyone to use. But in the year 2004, the company decided
that its OS would be provided only to clients. Obviously, this concerns only the binary
distributions, as the source code has to be made publicly available to comply with the
GNU license.
From that moment on, two new projects emerged with the aim of trying to maintain
a Red Hat clone that would be freely available to everyone. The first project was called
Fedora. It was sponsored by Red Hat itself and was conceived as some sort of beta Red
Hat platform.
Many users thought that Fedora was OK as a desktop platform, but it was by no
means a reliable enterprise solution. In order to fulfill this gap, many Linux professionals
and enthusiasts gathered around a new project called CentOS (Community Enterprise
Operating System), whose main goal was to become a freely available robust enterprise
operating system.
Today, CentOS is a reliable, efficient server operating system used by hundreds of
companies to provide critical services.

xix
■ INTRODUCTION

Audience
Some experience with computers is expected of readers of this book. Some previous
Linux experience is useful, if not absolutely necessary. The only requirement, however, is
the will to learn!

Conventions
The Code style attribute has been applied to file names, paths, commands, and URLs.

Feedback
I would really appreciate your opinions, suggestions, questions, or criticisms regarding
this book. Please feel free to e-mail me at antoniojvv@yahoo.es. Note, however, that I
cannot promise to respond to everyone.

xx
CHAPTER 1

Installation

1.1. CentOS 6
As it usually happens, there is more than one way to install CentOS on a computer. So,
depending on the way we initially boot the server and the source of the installation
packages, we have many options.

• We can boot and install the system from a DVD. This is probably
the most straightforward option, and the right choice if you only
have to install a couple of servers. We boot the server from the
DVD, and we install all the software from the DVD too.
• We can also use a CentOS Network netinstall DVD to boot the
server and then install the packages from a server in our local
network or from the Internet. This is a good choice if we have to
install a lot of servers.
• We could also use a USB device to boot the server. In this case,
we first prepare the USB device by using software packages
such as UNetbootin,1 and we also have to download the CentOS
installation files. Once the USB device is ready, we can use it to
boot the server and then choose whether to install from a local or
a network repository.

In addition, independent of the type of installation we choose, we can also automate

the installation by using kickstart. The use of kickstart is beyond the scope of this book,
but it basically consists of passing a special parameter to the installer with the location of
a script file that contains instructions for the installation.

1
SourceForge, “UNetbootin: Bootable live USB creator for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Linux distributions,”
https://sourceforge.net/projects/unetbootin/, 2016.

© Antonio Vazquez 2016 1

A. Vazquez, Learn CentOS Linux Network Services, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2379-6_1
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Nevertheless, in order to keep things simple, in this book, we will avail ourselves only
of the typical DVD installation. The first thing one must do is to get the installation DVDs.
These can be downloaded from the CentOS official site.2 At the time of writing this book,
the ISO files could be downloaded from the links available from http://wiki.centos.
org/Download.3 We can choose the exact version we want to install, the architecture (32 or
64 bits), and the type of installation (minimal, network, etc.). We will download and burn
the ISO files CentOS-6.2-i386-bin-DVD1.iso and CentOS-6.2-i386-bin-DVD2.iso.
Once we have the DVDs, installation is fairly simple. We make sure that the computer is
configured to boot from a DVD, and we restart it with the first installation DVD inside.
After a few seconds, we’ll see the screen in shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. Booting from the installation DVD

We’ll select the first option, “Install or upgrade an existing system.” This will launch
the actual installation program. Now we are offered the possibility of checking the
installation media (Figure 1-2). Once we are sure that there is no problem with the DVDs,
we click Skip.

2
CentOS, “The CentOS Project,” http://centos.org/, 2016.
3
CentOS, http://wiki.centos.org/Download, 2016.

2
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-2. Checking the installation media

Now the system will init the graphical installer (Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. The graphical installer

3
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

From the next screens, we’ll have to choose the language and the keyboard layout
(Figures 1-4 and 1-5).

Figure 1-4. Language

4
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-5. Keyboard

Now we have to choose whether to install CentOS in a standard disk or in a special

device, such as a SAN, LUN, iSCSI drive, etc. As we’ll be installing standard disks most of
the time, we will choose the first option (Figure 1-6).

5
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-6. Choosing where to install the OS

After clicking the Next button, a warning appears (Figure 1-7), telling us that all data
in the disk will be lost. As this is either a blank disk or a disk whose data are no longer
needed, we click Yes.

Figure 1-7. Storage device warning

6
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

The program now requests us to enter the name and the domain of the computer
we are about to install (Figure 1-8). We can write this information now or do it once the
installation is complete. We click Next.

Figure 1-8. Computer name and domain

From the upcoming screens, we’ll have to choose the time zone as well as the root
password (Figures 1-9 and 1-10).

7
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-9. Time zone

Figure 1-10. Root password

8
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Now we are offered several options before starting the actual installation (Figure 1-11).
We can choose to use the whole disk, no matter what Linux or non-Linux partitions might
exist on the disk, use only free disk space, customize the disk partitioning, etc. As the
default partitioning scheme is acceptable to start, we choose the first option. Although,
if we already had clearly in mind the role the server was to play in the network, we would
probably have to customize the partitioning layout to create separate partitions or
volumes for the different directories: /home, /var, etc.

Figure 1-11. Partitioning layout

We receive another warning (Figure 1-12), reminding us that the changes are going
to be written on disk, and we are requested to specify what software package we want
to install. There are several predefined sets of software, database server, web server, etc.
We’ll choose the Minimal option (Figure 1-13) and install later the different software
packages, as we need them.

9
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-12. Writing to disk

Figure 1-13. Software selection

And, finally, the actual installation process begins (Figure 1-14).

10
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-14. Installing the software packages

After a few minutes, the installation will be over (Figure 1-15), and we’ll have to
reboot the system.

11
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-15. Congratulations!

Once the boot process is complete, we have a working CentOS server (Figure 1-16).

Figure 1-16. Our brand new server

12
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

1.2. CentOS 7
As you saw in section “CentOS 6,” there are many types of installations to choose from.
As we did previously when installing CentOS 6, we’ll also install CentOS 7 from the
installation DVD. At the time of writing of this book, this could be downloaded from the
official site.4 After downloading the ISO file, we can burn it onto a DVD. After that, we
are ready to boot a server with the installation DVD inserted, as long as the computer
is configured to boot from a DVD. After a few seconds, we’ll see the screen shown in
Figure 1-17.

Figure 1-17. Booting from the CentOS 7 DVD

4
CentOs, http://www.centos.org/download/, 2016.

13
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
the ribs, producing the same effect as if the bullock had been stuck
through.
Ripping and Leg Breaking.—In this operation care should be
exercised to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker
left off, opening the breast and hide in the center the full length of the
animal, in a straight line. Uncover the gam only sufficient to reach
the joint, leaving the hide over balance of shank to protect it. In this
way you get very much better shanks than if skinned too low. Cut
closely to hoofs so all hide possible comes off around the feet, but
that none of the cords are left on the hide.

FIG. 39.—VIEW SHOWING DOUBLE-BED KILLING FLOOR IN A MODERN

SLAUGHTER HOUSE.

Flooring Cattle.—This expression describes rimming over and

siding the bullock. The special object of this operation is to attain a
smooth hide without scores or cuts, smooth work on the bullock,
which consists in saving the fell very carefully, clearing the rose on
shoulder fully, also the saving of the fell back of the elbow and the
forward shoulder. The latter part is a very particular point, as if the
fell is not left it shows black upon chilling.
Breast Sawing.—In sawing the breast, it should be done centrally,
holding saw at same angle as that at which the animal is lying,
otherwise the saw works toward one side, and makes a very bad-
looking brisket on one side of the beef. Saw where marked,
otherwise it will become necessary to trim meat from the neck, if the
marks have not been followed.
Caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy, cleanly
condition, keeping same off the floor, and putting it into a box. Care
should also be taken not to cut or tear the intestines, and if so, that
they are immediately skewered.
Fell Cutting.—Fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the
hind legs when animal is on the first hoist. The points to be carefully
looked after in this work is to see that smooth work is done both on
the hides and on the beef itself.
Rumping.—This operation requires very skillful work, and calls for
a great deal of attention. Points to be attained are a smooth hide free
from scores or cuts, and smooth work on the beef. Care must be
used in this work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide
on outside of the leg, in order that the fell-beater may do good work.
If the rumper is careless and breaks through the fell, it is impossible
to carry this down smoothly. In working around the tail, care must be
taken not to cut into the lean meat, especially on thin cattle, where
there is comparatively little covering.
Fell Beating.—If the floorman and rumper do their work properly,
it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating. The fell-
beaters should then use care to see that they do not tear through,
and, in marking with the chopper, to mark in such a way that they
tear back instead of cutting off.
Gutting.—The objects sought for in this particular work are: First,
cleanliness, and next, to save the fat smooth and without tearing it
around the bones. The liver should be taken out without tearing.
Special care should be used in cutting between kidneys, to open in
the center without cutting tenderloin. Also to leave all tenderloin in
the bullock, for, if any comes out with the “pluck” it is wasted. The
workmen should also be careful about cutting intestines or
weasands.

FIG. 40.—ORDINARY BEEF SPREADER.

Backing.—The objects to be attained in this particular work, are:

First, smooth hides, free from scores or cuts, at the same time
leaving no fat on the hide, and next, particular care should be taken
in the work required in the dropping of the hide to see that the fat is
not removed from the loins.
Tail Sawing.—The point in this work is to see that the saw is
absolutely in the center, and that the first bone is sawed centrally.
Better work can doubtless be done by sawing the tail from the rear,
“popping” it twice.
Beef Spreaders.—In slaughtering cattle it was formerly the
custom to use an ordinary spreader as shown in Fig. 40, which
spread all carcasses, large or small, a certain distance and kept
them spread from the time they were hung until finished splitting.
The spring beef spreader illustrated in Fig. 41, is a great
improvement over this old spreader. When the cattle are first hung
on this appliance the center piece is raised up, allowing the hooks to
hang in a normal condition proportionate to the size of the animal
which is hung on them. Hanging in this shape, the rumper is given a
chance to do his work better.
 Splitting.—Great care should be exercised in this particular work,
especially on “hard-bone” cattle. They should split the
bone down centrally, the entire length of the carcass. Great care
should be taken to see that they split the short fin-bone in the neck,
thereby giving the neck-splitter a chance to start centrally with his
work.

FIG. 41.—SPRING BEEF SPREADER.

Splitting Cleavers.
—Care should be exercised to see that these are in the very best
condition to do the work. They should be ground as thin as possible,
yet not so thin that they will shatter. If the splitters do not break a
chopper occasionally, it is evidence that these are not ground as thin
as they should be, and, unless they are, it is impossible to do good
work in splitting. The workmen should, however, have choppers
ground different thicknesses for different boned cattle, and never use
thin-ground choppers on cows or hard-boned steers.

FIG. 42.—VIEW SHOWING BEEF CARCASSES BEING SPLIT AND HUNG ON

TROLLEY.

Clearing Out and Hide Dropping.—In clearing the shanks the

workmen should look carefully to see that they do not score the hide,
or make any miscuts in the meat. They should also save the veins in
the under side of forward shoulder, for when these are cut they
continue to purge, making bad-looking shanks. In hide dropping care
should be used to see that the workmen do not score or cut hides,
make miscuts in the neck, or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide.
They should also skin hides as low down as possible on the necks.
 Neck Splitting.—This should be done carefully, splitting the neck
fairly in the center. The last bone, or “deacon” joint,
in the neck should be broken centrally, in order to give equal weights
and appearance to the beef.
Bruise Trimming.—This is a very essential feature in the dressing
of cattle, and one in which good judgment must be exercised. It is,
therefore, very hard to lay down any set rules further than the
following: The object of trimming bruises is to take off all blood
accumulations, and at the same time leave all the fat possible on the
hips, etc., to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough
wiping. The great danger, generally speaking, is that they are
trimmed too much and scrubbed too little. These are points which
require very careful attention.
Skirt Trimming.—Skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of
the skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean meat. On
western cattle and thin stock, the skirts should be trimmed high
enough so that they will expose the lean meat, which gives a chance
for all moisture which has gathered under the film to escape, making
the beef dryer than if otherwise trimmed.
Washing Cattle.—It will be noted that the carcasses are then
separated into two pieces and should be thoroughly washed and
scrubbed with fountain brushes to insure absolute cleanliness in
every part. The washing and wiping should be carefully performed,
and incidental to the washing is the scraping of slime from the back
and shoulders previous to wiping. Many slaughter floors are now
equipped with centrifugal wringers for wringing out boiled cloths and
cleanliness is made paramount in handling beef.
In the washing of beef the work should start at the hind legs, the
step-ladder men being the first to use water on the beef after it is
split. Next, the back washers and wipers; after these, the neck and
rib washers, the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as
they go along. The washers should be kept close up, handling the
beef promptly, running it into the cooler as fast as it is dressed.
Fountain Brushes.—A convenient apparatus for washing
carcasses is the fountain brush. It consists of an ordinary brush with
a spray attachment on the front of it, as shown in Fig. 43. To this is
attached a hose which supplies hot water from the vat above. When
the men are ready to scrub the beef a valve is turned on, the water
gravitating through the hose to the meat. In wetting it continuously
the blood or discoloration which may be gathered on the meat is
rapidly taken off, leaving it in a bright, clean condition. The beef is
then wiped with a cloth made of ten or twelve thicknesses of very
coarse cheese cloth which rapidly absorbs the moisture.

FIG. 43.—THE FOUNTAIN BRUSH.

Dressing Cattle.—The mechanical labor of dressing cattle is

about the same whether slaughtering ten or ten hundred, except in
the former case the work would be performed by one man and in the
latter by probably one hundred and thirty. The facilities for doing the
work vary with the quantity and style of beds. Some beds are
burdened with mechanical appliances where the apparatus more
than counteracts any possible labor saving that can be effected.
Common sense in this instance would indicate simplicity, as
conveyors and mechanical appliances are costly for installation and
for upkeep.
Dressing Conveyors.—Dressing conveyors to take the animal
after siding would, however, appear advantageous, since it permits
of the concentration of the viscera for inspection and manipulation,
and makes for facilities where the same can be handled to meet the
regulations and avoid the troubles of food products touching the floor
on being trucked. These conveyor systems can be simple or
complicated and each house requires treatment comparable with the
quantity of business performed.
The type of killing beds, where the pens range across the building
with one pen for each two beds, and a waiting pen where the drive
can be moved forward for knocking, is, in the writer’s opinion, the
least costly for standard operation, particularly if an automatic
hanging-off arrangement is provided.
 CHAPTER X
DRESSING YIELDS AND CATTLE CUTTINGS.
Yields of Cattle — Yield from Twenty-two Native Cattle — Yield from
Fifty-nine Texas Cattle — Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle — Yield from
Thirty-four Cattle — Percentage of Various Cuts — Beef Cuts —
Diagram of Cutting — Grading — Loins — Ribs — Rounds — Chucks —
Plates, Shanks and Flanks — Barreled Beef.

Yields of Cattle.—The following are carefully prepared

calculations made from data obtained in operation, showing yields of
different products on several different lots of cattle. These were
choice cattle in each instance and the average yield of the products
is generally larger than would be the case with the ordinary run of
cattle slaughtered. A perusal of the different tests given in the
following pages will give the reader the average yield in different
lines from the cattle handled, together with the value of the different
items at time tests were made.
The prices were in vogue at the time of the original publication and
while now obsolete are left for comparative purposes. The quantities
and percentages would remain and can be used as a basis for
present computations.
Yield from Twenty-Two Native Cattle.—The following tables
show the yield in beef, hides and tallow and value of offal of twenty-
two native cattle, the first in each test showing the weight and
percentage of yield of beef, hides and tallow.
The yield of sweetbreads of twenty-two cattle was twenty-two
pieces, weighing six pounds, valued at 20c per pound, total value
$1.20. The yield in tripe was twenty-two pieces, weighing 420
pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound, total value $2.10. Total value of
sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.30.
 PERCENTAGE OF YIELD OF BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.
Weight Weight Per
Product lbs. Averages lbs. Cent
Live weight 23,700 Average 1,077.00 ...
Dressed weight 14,239 Average 646.00 60.08
Shipping weight 14,162 Shrinkage ... 0.54
Hides weight 1,755 Average ... 7.40
Total fat weight 1,391 Average per head 63.25 5.80

TRIMMINGS FROM LOT OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

Total
Product Pounds Value Value
22 tongues 149 $0.55 each $12.10
22 livers 248 .35 each 7.70
22 hearts 56 .07 each 1.54
22 tails 40 .03¹⁄₂ each .77
Cheek meat 88 .03 per lb. 2.64
Head meat 16 .03 per lb. .48
Fine meat 7 .03 per lb. .21
Head trimmings 11 .03 per lb. .33
Total value ... ... $25.77

CASINGS FROM LOT OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

Per cent Total
Product used Value Value
20 sets round guts 91 $0.14 set $2.80
8 sets middles 36 .50 set 4.00
22 pcs. bungs 100 .11 each 2.42
20 pcs. bung gut skins 91 .01¹⁄₂ each .25
19 pcs. weasands 86 .05 per pce. .95
8 pcs. bladders 36 .30 per doz. .22
14 lbs. weasand meat ... .01 per lb. .14
Total value ... ... $10.78

YIELD FROM HEADS AND FEET OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

Total Wt. per
Wt. head, Value
Product lbs. lbs. Price Am’t per head
 Skulls 88 4.00 $18.00 per ton $ 0.79 $0.03590
Jaws 43 1.95 18.00 per ton .39 .01772
Knuckles 63 2.86 18.00 per ton .56 .02545
Dark hoofs 39 1.77 22.00 per ton .43 .01954
No. 1 r’nd shins 26 1.18 42.00 per ton .54 .02454
Flat shins 19 .86 30.00 per ton .29 .01318
No. 1 tallow 145 6.59 .06³⁄₄ per lb. 9.78 .44454
Neatsfoot oil 23 1.05 .64 per gal. 1.93 .08773
Tankage 110 5.00 16.00 per ton .88 .04000
Total ... ... ... $15.59 $0.70860

The product sent to tank room was 1,675 pounds green weight,
the average per head being 76.14 pounds.
In figuring the value of the offal in the different tests the materials
sent to the tank room are not taken into consideration. The blood
from the twenty-two cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood;
total, 176 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $2.90.
The sinews from the twenty-two lot was 1.93 pounds per head;
total weight, 42 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals
40c.
The fat from the twenty-two native cattle showed the following
yield in oleo stock:

1,122 lbs. No. 1 stock = 80.00 per cent.

1,391 lbs. tallow = { 193 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.88 per cent.
76 lbs. waste = 5.46 per cent.
100.00 per cent.

The 1,122 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil
and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.

Per Weight, Price
Product cent lbs. per lb. Value
No. 1 oil 79.77 895 $0.10¹⁄₂ $94.37
No. 1 stearine 19.52 219 .13¹⁄₂ 29.56
Waste in pressing .71 8 ... ...
 Totals 100.00 1,122 ... $123.93

The total value of the offal of the twenty-two native cattle, including
the tallow, was $182.67, an average per head of $8.30.
Yield from Fifty-Nine Texas Cattle.—The following table shows
the yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine
fed Texas cattle:

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD OF BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.

Weight, Weight, Per
Product lbs. Averages lbs. cent
Live weight 64,260 Average 1080. ...
Dressed weight 39,609 Average 671. 61.64
Shipping weight 39,365 Shrinkage ... .62
Total fat 3,896 Average per head 66.03 6.00
Hides 4,946 Average per head 83.92 7.70

The yield in sweetbreads was 59 pieces, weight 20 pounds, value

20c per pound; total, $4.00.
The output of tripe was 59 pieces, weighing 1,080 pounds, valued
at ¹⁄₂c per pound; total value, $5.40. Total value of sweetbreads and
green tripe, $9.40.

TRIMMINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE.

Weight, Total
Product lbs. Value value
59 tongues 418 $0.55 each $32.45
59 livers 744 .35 each 20.65
59 hearts 160 .07 each 4.13
59 tails 88 .03¹⁄₂ each 2.06
Cheek meat 227 .03 per lb. 6.81
Head meat 37 .03 per lb. 1.01
Fine meat 18 .03 per lb. .54
Head trimmings 24 .03 per lb. .72
Total value ... ... $68.37

YIELD IN CASINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE CATTLE.

 Product Per Value Total
cent value
used
52 sets round guts 88 $0.14 per set $ 7.28
20 sets middles 34 .50 per set 10.00
59 pcs. bungs 100 .11 per pce. 6.49
46 pcs. bung gut skins 78 .01¹⁄₄ per pce. .57
50 pcs. weasands 85 .05 per pce. 2.50
43 pcs. bladders 73 .30 per doz. 1.07
24 lbs. weasand meat ... .01 per lb. .24
Total value ... ... $28.15

YIELD IN HEADS AND FEET FROM FIFTY-NINE CATTLE.

Total Wt. per Value
Wt. head per
Product lbs. lbs. Price Amount head
Skulls 247 4.19 $18.00 per ton $ 2.22 $0.0377
Jaws 130 2.20 18.00 per ton 1.17 .0198
Knuckles 161 2.73 18.00 per ton 1.49 .0245
Dark hoofs 112 1.90 22.00 per ton 1.23 .0189
Piths 73 1.24 20.00 per ton .73 .0124
No. 1 r’nd shins 61 1.04 42.00 per ton 1.28 .0218
Flat shins 43 .73 30.00 per ton .65 .0109
No. 1 tallow 527 8.93 .06³⁄₄ per lb. 35.56 .6027
No. 1 horns 57 .97 200.00 per ton 5.70 .0970
Neatsfoot oil 55 .93 .64 per gal. 4.69 .0793
Tankage 215 3.64 16.00 per ton 1.72 .0291
Total amount ... ... ... $56.44 $0.9566

The yield in the tank room of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 4,466
pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 75.70
pounds.
The yield in blood of fifty-nine Texas cattle was eight pounds per
head of dry blood; total, 472 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per
ton, equals $7.78.
The yield in sinews of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 1.87 pounds per
head; total weight, 110 pounds; value, at the rate of $19.00 per ton,
equals $1.04.
 The fat from the fifty-nine Texas cattle showed the following yield
in oleo stock:

3,169 lbs. No. 1 stock = 81.34 per cent.

3,896 lbs. tallow = { 539 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.84 per cent.
188 lbs. waste = 4.82 per cent.
100.00 per cent.

The above 3,169 pounds of stock showed in oleo oil and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.

Per Weight, Price
Product cent lbs. per lb. Value
No. 1 oil 80.75 2,559 $0.11 $281.49
No. 1 stearine 18.49 586 .13¹⁄₂ 79.11
Waste in pressing .76 24 ... ...
Totals 100.00 3,169 ... $360.60

The total value of the offal of fifty-nine Texas cattle, including

tallow, was $531.78; average per head, $9.103.
Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle.—The following tables show the
yield in beef, hides and tallow, and the value of offal of twenty cattle,
eight hides, classified as natives and twelve as spreadies.
The yield in sweetbreads from twenty cattle was: 20 pieces
weighing seven pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value, $1.40.
The yield in tripe was 20 pieces weighing 420 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c
per pound; total value, $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green
tripe, $3.50.
The product sent to tank room was 1,626 pounds green weight to
tanks, the average per head being 81.3 pounds.

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.

Weight, Weight, Per
Product lbs. Averages lbs. cent
Live weight 24,650 Average 1,232 ...
Dressed weight 15,894 Average 758 61.64
Shipping weight 14,914 Shrinkage ... 1.84
Hides weight (eight natives and 1,731 ... 86.5 7.10
twelve spreadies)
Total fat 1,552 Average per head 77.6 6.20

YIELD IN TRIMMINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE.

Total
Product Pounds Value Value
20 tongues 173 $0.55 each $11.00
20 livers 261 .30 each 7.00
20 hearts 64 .07 each 1.40
20 tails 33 .03¹⁄₂ each .70
Cheek meat 95 .03 per lb. 2.85
Head meat 16 .03 per lb. .48
Fine meat 10 .03 per lb. .30
Head trimmings 15 .03 per lb. .45
Total value ... ... $24.18

YIELD IN CASINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE.

Per
cent Total
Product used Value Value
19 sets rounds 95 $0.14 per set $2.66
7 sets middles 35 .50 per set 3.50
20 pcs. bungs 100 .11 each 2.20
15 pcs. bung gut skins 75 .01¹⁄₄ each .19
8 pcs. weasands 40 .05 each .40
9 pcs. bladders 45 .30 per doz. .22
11 lbs. weasand meat ... .01 per lb. .11
Total value ... ... $9.28

The yield in blood from twenty cattle was 8.35 pounds per head of
dry blood; total, 167 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00 per ton,
equals $2.75.
Yield in sinews of twenty cattle was two pounds per head, total
weight 40 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 38c.

YIELD FROM HEADS AND FEET OF TWENTY CATTLE.

Product Total Wt. Price Amount Value
 wt., per per
lbs. head, head
lbs.
Skulls 84 4.20 $18.00 per ton $0.75 $0.0375
Jaws 46 2.30 18.00 per ton .41 .0205
Knuckles 69 3.45 18.00 per ton .62 .0310
Hoofs 43 2.15 22.00 per ton .47 .0235
No. 1 r’nd shins 25 1.25 42.00 per ton .53 .0245
Flat shins 20 1.00 30.00 per ton .30 .0150
No. 1 tallow 165 8.25 .06³⁄₄ per lb.11.13 .5568
Neatsfoot oil 32 1.60 .64 per gal. 2.72 .1360
Tankage 72 3.60 16.00 per ton .58 .0290
Totals ... ... ... $17.52 $0.8760

The fat from twenty cattle produced a yield in oleo stock of

1,265 lbs. No. 1 stock = 81.51 per cent.

1,552 lbs. fat = { 215 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.85 per cent.
72 lbs. waste = 4.64 per cent.
100.00 per cent.

The above 1,265 pounds of stock showed the following yield in

oleo oil and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO AND STEARINE.

Per Weight, Price
Product cent lbs. per lb. Value
No. 1 oil 79.37 1,004 $0.11 $110.44
No. 1 stearine 20.08 254 .14 35.56
Waste in pressing .55 ... ... ...
Totals 100.00 1,258 ... $146.00

The total value of the offal of above twenty cattle, including the
tallow, was $203.61, an average per head of $10.1805.
Yield from Thirty-Four Cattle.—The following table shows the
yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four
cattle:
 PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AMD TALLOW.
Weight, Weight, Per
Product lbs. Averages lbs. cent
Live weight 42,350 Average 1259 ...
Dressed weight 25,563 Average 751 60.36
Shipping weight 25,067 Shrinkage ... 1.98
Hides weight 3,027 ... 89.00 7.10
Total fat 2,666 Fat per head 78.41 6.30

YIELD FROM TRIMMINGS OF THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE.

Weight, Total
Product lbs. Value Value
34 tongues 263 $0.55 each $18.70
34 livers 425 .35 each 11.90
34 hearts 173 .07 each 2.38
34 tails 49 .03¹⁄₂ each 1.19
Cheek meat 185 .03 per lb. 5.55
Head meat 32 .03 per lb. .96
Fine meat 19 .03 per lb. .57
Head trimmings 26 .03 per lb. .78
Total value ... ... $42.03

YIELD FROM CASINGS OF THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE.

Per
cent Total
Product used Value Value
34 sets rounds 100 $0.14 set $4.76
13 sets middles 38 .50 set 6.50
34 pcs. bungs 100 .11 each 3.74
32 pcs. bung gut skins 94 .01¹⁄₄ each .40
30 pcs. weasands 88 .05 each 1.50
25 pcs. bladders 74 .30 per doz. .63
10 lbs. weasand meat 20 .01 per lb. .20
Total value ... ... $17.73

The yield in sweetbreads of same thirty-four cattle was 29 pieces,

weighing nine pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value of $1.80.
The yield in tripe was 34 pieces, weighing 710 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c
per pound; total value, $5.35.
The yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was 2,665 pounds
green weight to tanks, the average per head being 78.38 pounds.
Yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as follows: 8.6 pounds
per head of dry blood; total, 292 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00
per ton equals $4.82.
The yield in sinews of thirty-four cattle was 1.44 pounds per head;
total weight, 49 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton equals
46c.
The fat from the thirty-four cattle showed the following yield in oleo
stock:

2,189 lbs. No. 1 stock = 82.11 per cent.

2,666 lbs. fat = { 383 lbs. scrap tallow =
94 lbs. waste =
14.37
3.52
per cent.
per cent.
100.00 per cent.

The above 2,189 pounds of stock showed the following yield in

oleo oil and stearine:
YIELD IN OLEO AND STEARINE.
Price
Per Weight, per
Product cent pounds lb. Value
No. 1 oil 78.04 1,708 $0.11 $187.88
No. 1 stearine 21.06 461 .14 64.54
Waste in pressing .90 20 ... ...
Totals 100.00 2,189 ... $252.42

The total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle, including the
tallow, was $356.80; an average per head of $10.497.
The foregoing records of tests will show the reader the actual
value of the by-products figured at the time these tests were made.
Owing to changes in the market prices, these figures are not correct
for present conditions, but the percentage of yield and different items
are correct, and the reader can take any one of these tests and by
substituting the market prices of today obtain figures of value.
These tests also give the percentage of the hide and tallow. The
latter, as will be noted, is quite high, as it will be seen that the tests
were made on a fairly fat grade of cattle.
Percentage of Various Cuts of Beef.—Nearly every large city
has its special ways and peculiarities of cutting meats, consequently
the percentage of the different cuts varies largely. The following table
is a record of results from a cutting test and shows the percentage of
“Chicago cut” meat with square cut chucks:
Per
Chicago Cuts— Cent.
Chucks 28.00
Rounds 23.00
Navels 8.00
Flanks 2.00
Flank steaks .50
Kidney .25
Ribs 10.00
Loins 15.00
No. 2 suet .50
No. 1 suet 3.00
Shanks 4.00
Brisket 5.00
Necks .75
100.00

The following table shows percentage on cattle cut Chicago style,

with the exception of a “Kosher chuck” the latter consisting of five-rib,
four-quarter cut-off from the side of the beef:
Per
New York Cuts (Natives)— Cent.
Ribs 9.55
Loins 15.74
Flanks 5.55
Navels 8.61
Suet 3.62
Rounds 23.27
 New York chucks 33.66
100.00

The following table shows the percentage on cattle cut

Philadelphia style:
Per
Philadelphia Cuts— Cent.
Rump and round 34.00
Rattler (chuck, plate, brisket and
shank) 44.00
Ribs and loins 22.00
100.00

The following table gives the result of tests and shows in detail the
percentages in cutting canner cattle. As will be understood, for
canning purposes, a light grade of animals is always used; cattle that
are too light or too thin are always used for other purposes. In such
cases the meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the
meat are here enumerated, showing their percentages:
Per
Packing House Cuts— Cent.
Sirloin butts 3.903
Strips 4.204
Tenderloins 2.552
Boneless chucks 13.813
Rolls 2.552
Plates 12.162
Insides 7.957
Outsides 5.555
Knuckles 5.555
Clods 5.105
Rump butts 2.402
Flank steak .600
Hanging tenderloin .450
Front shanks 7.207
Hind shanks 4.650
Soft bones 6.906
Trimmings 8.108
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