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Assistive Technologies and Computer Access for Motor
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 Mathematics

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

SECOND
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
EDITION

INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

“Miklós Bóna has done a masterful job of bringing an overview of all
of enumerative combinatorics within reach of undergraduates. The

TO ENUMERATIVE
two fundamental themes of bijective proofs and generating func-
tions, together with their intimate connections, recur constantly. A

AND ANALYTIC
wide selection of topics, including several never appearing before in
a textbook, is included that gives an idea of the vast range of enu-
merative combinatorics.”
—From the Foreword to the First Edition by Richard Stanley,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA COMBINATORICS
Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics fills the
gap between introductory texts in discrete mathematics and ad-
SECOND EDITION
vanced graduate texts in enumerative combinatorics. The book first

Miklós Bóna
deals with basic counting principles, compositions and partitions,
and generating functions. It then focuses on the structure of per-
mutations, graph enumeration, and extremal combinatorics. Lastly,
the text discusses supplemental topics, including error-correcting
codes, properties of sequences, and magic squares. 20
Strengthening the analytic flavor of the book, this Second Edition:

10 10
• Features a new chapter on analytic combinatorics and new
sections on advanced applications of generating functions
• Demonstrates powerful techniques that do not require the

1
residue theorem or complex integration
• Adds new exercises to all chapters, significantly extending
coverage of the given topics
1
Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics, Second
Edition makes combinatorics more accessible, increasing interest in
this rapidly expanding field.
Bóna

K23708

w w w. c rc p r e s s . c o m

K23708_cover.indd 1 8/27/15 11:28 AM

INTRODUCTION
TO ENUMERATIVE
AND ANALYTIC
COMBINATORICS
SECOND EDITION
 DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
ITS APPLICATIONS
R. B. J. T. Allenby and Alan Slomson, How to Count: An Introduction to Combinatorics,
Third Edition
Craig P. Bauer, Secret History: The Story of Cryptology
Juergen Bierbrauer, Introduction to Coding Theory
Katalin Bimbó, Combinatory Logic: Pure, Applied and Typed
Katalin Bimbó, Proof Theory: Sequent Calculi and Related Formalisms
Donald Bindner and Martin Erickson, A Student’s Guide to the Study, Practice, and Tools of
Modern Mathematics
Francine Blanchet-Sadri, Algorithmic Combinatorics on Partial Words
Miklós Bóna, Combinatorics of Permutations, Second Edition
Miklós Bóna, Handbook of Enumerative Combinatorics
Miklós Bóna, Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics, Second Edition
Jason I. Brown, Discrete Structures and Their Interactions
Richard A. Brualdi and Dragos̆ Cvetković, A Combinatorial Approach to Matrix Theory and Its
Applications
Kun-Mao Chao and Bang Ye Wu, Spanning Trees and Optimization Problems
Charalambos A. Charalambides, Enumerative Combinatorics
Gary Chartrand and Ping Zhang, Chromatic Graph Theory
Henri Cohen, Gerhard Frey, et al., Handbook of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
Charles J. Colbourn and Jeffrey H. Dinitz, Handbook of Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
Abhijit Das, Computational Number Theory
Matthias Dehmer and Frank Emmert-Streib, Quantitative Graph Theory:
Mathematical Foundations and Applications
Martin Erickson, Pearls of Discrete Mathematics
Martin Erickson and Anthony Vazzana, Introduction to Number Theory
 Titles (continued)

Steven Furino, Ying Miao, and Jianxing Yin, Frames and Resolvable Designs: Uses,
Constructions, and Existence
Mark S. Gockenbach, Finite-Dimensional Linear Algebra
Randy Goldberg and Lance Riek, A Practical Handbook of Speech Coders
Jacob E. Goodman and Joseph O’Rourke, Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry,
Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Combinatorial Methods with Computer Applications
Jonathan L. Gross and Jay Yellen, Graph Theory and Its Applications, Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Jay Yellen, and Ping Zhang Handbook of Graph Theory, Second Edition
David S. Gunderson, Handbook of Mathematical Induction: Theory and Applications
Richard Hammack, Wilfried Imrich, and Sandi Klavžar, Handbook of Product Graphs,
Second Edition
Darrel R. Hankerson, Greg A. Harris, and Peter D. Johnson, Introduction to Information Theory
and Data Compression, Second Edition
Darel W. Hardy, Fred Richman, and Carol L. Walker, Applied Algebra: Codes, Ciphers, and
Discrete Algorithms, Second Edition
Daryl D. Harms, Miroslav Kraetzl, Charles J. Colbourn, and John S. Devitt, Network Reliability:
Experiments with a Symbolic Algebra Environment
Silvia Heubach and Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Compositions and Words
Leslie Hogben, Handbook of Linear Algebra, Second Edition
Derek F. Holt with Bettina Eick and Eamonn A. O’Brien, Handbook of Computational Group Theory
David M. Jackson and Terry I. Visentin, An Atlas of Smaller Maps in Orientable and
Nonorientable Surfaces
Richard E. Klima, Neil P. Sigmon, and Ernest L. Stitzinger, Applications of Abstract Algebra
with Maple™ and MATLAB®, Second Edition
Richard E. Klima and Neil P. Sigmon, Cryptology: Classical and Modern with Maplets
Patrick Knupp and Kambiz Salari, Verification of Computer Codes in Computational Science
and Engineering
William Kocay and Donald L. Kreher, Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization
Donald L. Kreher and Douglas R. Stinson, Combinatorial Algorithms: Generation Enumeration
and Search
Hang T. Lau, A Java Library of Graph Algorithms and Optimization
C. C. Lindner and C. A. Rodger, Design Theory, Second Edition
San Ling, Huaxiong Wang, and Chaoping Xing, Algebraic Curves in Cryptography
Nicholas A. Loehr, Bijective Combinatorics
Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Set Partitions
 Titles (continued)

Toufik Mansour and Matthias Schork, Commutation Relations, Normal Ordering, and Stirling
Numbers
Alasdair McAndrew, Introduction to Cryptography with Open-Source Software
Elliott Mendelson, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, Fifth Edition
Alfred J. Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschot, and Scott A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied
Cryptography
Stig F. Mjølsnes, A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Information Security
Jason J. Molitierno, Applications of Combinatorial Matrix Theory to Laplacian Matrices of Graphs
Richard A. Mollin, Advanced Number Theory with Applications
Richard A. Mollin, Algebraic Number Theory, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, Codes: The Guide to Secrecy from Ancient to Modern Times
Richard A. Mollin, Fundamental Number Theory with Applications, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, An Introduction to Cryptography, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, Quadratics
Richard A. Mollin, RSA and Public-Key Cryptography
Carlos J. Moreno and Samuel S. Wagstaff, Jr., Sums of Squares of Integers
Gary L. Mullen and Daniel Panario, Handbook of Finite Fields
Goutam Paul and Subhamoy Maitra, RC4 Stream Cipher and Its Variants
Dingyi Pei, Authentication Codes and Combinatorial Designs
Kenneth H. Rosen, Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics
Douglas R. Shier and K.T. Wallenius, Applied Mathematical Modeling: A Multidisciplinary
Approach
Alexander Stanoyevitch, Introduction to Cryptography with Mathematical Foundations and
Computer Implementations
Jörn Steuding, Diophantine Analysis
Douglas R. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition
Roberto Tamassia, Handbook of Graph Drawing and Visualization
Roberto Togneri and Christopher J. deSilva, Fundamentals of Information Theory and Coding
Design
W. D. Wallis, Introduction to Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
W. D. Wallis and J. C. George, Introduction to Combinatorics
Jiacun Wang, Handbook of Finite State Based Models and Applications
Lawrence C. Washington, Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography, Second Edition
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION
TO ENUMERATIVE
AND ANALYTIC
COMBINATORICS
SECOND EDITION

Miklós Bóna
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida, USA
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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 To Linda
To Mikike, Benny, and Vinnie
Contents

Foreword to the first edition xv

Preface to the second edition xvii

Acknowledgments xix

Frequently used notation xxi

I Methods 1
1 Basic methods 3
1.1 When we add and when we subtract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 When we add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 When we subtract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 When we multiply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 The product principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Using several counting principles . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 When repetitions are not allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3.1 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3.2 Partial lists without repetition . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 When we divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 The division principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2.1 The number of k-element subsets of an n-
element set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2.2 The binomial theorem for positive integer ex-
ponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Applications of basic counting principles . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1 Bijective proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1.1 Catalan numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.2 Properties of binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.3 Permutations with repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5 The pigeonhole principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

ix
x Contents

1.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2 Applications of basic methods 55

2.1 Multisets and compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.1 Weak compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.2 Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2 Set partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.1 Stirling numbers of the second kind . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.2 Recurrence relations for Stirling numbers of the second
kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2.3 When the number of blocks is not fixed . . . . . . . . 64
2.3 Partitions of integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1 Nonincreasing finite sequences of positive integers . . 65
2.3.2 Ferrers shapes and their applications . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.3 Excursion: Euler’s pentagonal number theorem . . . . 70
2.4 The inclusion–exclusion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.1 Two intersecting sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.2 Three intersecting sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.4.3 Any number of intersecting sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.4.3.1 An explicit formula for the numbers S(n, k) . 85
2.4.3.2 An application involving linear orders . . . . 87
2.4.3.3 Euler’s φ function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.4.3.4 Derangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.4.3.5 Excursion: Another proof of the inclusion–
exclusion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5 The twelvefold way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

3 Generating functions 117

3.1 Power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.1.1 Generalized binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.1.2 Formal power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2 Warming up: Solving recurrence relations . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.1 Ordinary generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.2 Exponential generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3 Products of generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.3.1 Ordinary generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.3.2 Exponential generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.4 Compositions of generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.4.1 Ordinary generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.4.2 Exponential generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Contents xi

3.4.2.1 The exponential formula . . . . . . . . . . . 153

3.4.2.2 The compositional formula . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.5 A different type of generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

II Topics 179
4 Counting permutations 181
4.1 Eulerian numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.2 The cycle structure of permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.2.1 Stirling numbers of the first kind . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.2.2 Permutations of a given type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.3 Cycle structure and exponential generating functions . . . . 200
4.4 Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4.1 Counting permutations with respect to inversions . . . 210
4.5 Advanced applications of generating functions to permutation
enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.5.1 The combinatorial meaning of the derivative . . . . . 215
4.5.2 Multivariate generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

5 Counting graphs 237

5.1 Trees and forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.1.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.1.2 The notion of graph isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.1.3 Counting trees on labeled vertices . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.1.4 Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2 Graphs and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.1 Acyclic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.2 Parking functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.3 When the vertices are not freely labeled . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.1 Rooted plane trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.2 Decreasing binary trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.4 Graphs on colored vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.4.1 Chromatic polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.4.2 Colored graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.4.2.1 Counting all k-colored graphs . . . . . . . . . 280
xii Contents

5.4.2.2 Counting colored trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

5.5 Graphs and generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.5.1 Trees counted by Cayley’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.5.2 Rooted trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.5.2.1 Ordinary generating functions . . . . . . . . 284
5.5.2.2 Exponential generating functions . . . . . . . 285
5.5.2.3 An application of multivariate generating
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.5.3 Connected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.5.4 Eulerian graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

6 Extremal combinatorics 315

6.1 Extremal graph theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.1.1 Bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.1.2 Turán’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.1.3 Graphs excluding cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.1.3.1 Convex functions and Jensen’s inequality . . 326
6.1.3.2 Notation in approximate counting . . . . . . 327
6.1.3.3 Refining the results on fC4 (n) . . . . . . . . 328
6.1.3.4 Avoiding longer cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6.1.4 Graphs excluding complete bipartite graphs . . . . . . 332
6.2 Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.2.1 Hypergraphs with pairwise intersecting edges . . . . . 335
6.2.1.1 Sunflowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
6.2.2 Hypergraphs with pairwise incomparable edges . . . . 341
6.3 Something is more than nothing: Existence proofs . . . . . . 343
6.3.1 Property B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.3.2 Excluding monochromatic arithmetic progressions . . 345
6.3.3 Codes over finite alphabets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.5 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
6.7 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
6.8 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

III An Advanced Method 371

Contents xiii

7 Analytic combinatorics 373

7.1 Exponential growth rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.1.1 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.1.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.1.1.2 Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.1.2 Singularity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.1.2.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.1.2.2 Analytic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
7.1.2.3 The complex versions of some well-known
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.1.2.4 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.1.2.5 The main theorem of exponential asymptotics 389
7.2 Polynomial precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.2.1 Rational functions again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.2.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
7.2.1.2 Multiple singularities in rational functions . 393
7.3 More precise asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.3.1 Entire functions divided by (1 − x) . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.3.2 Rational functions one more time . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
7.5 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
7.7 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.8 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

IV Special Topics 417

8 Symmetric structures 419
8.1 Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.2 Finite projective planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
8.2.1 Finite projective planes of prime power order . . . . . 429
8.3 Error-correcting codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
8.3.1 Words far apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
8.3.2 Codes from designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
8.3.3 Perfect codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
8.4 Counting symmetric structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
8.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
8.6 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
8.8 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
8.9 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
xiv Contents

9 Sequences in combinatorics 455

9.1 Unimodality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
9.2 Log-concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9.2.1 Log-concavity implies unimodality . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9.2.2 The product property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.2.3 Injective proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
9.2.3.1 Lattice paths again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
9.3 The real zeros property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
9.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
9.5 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.7 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
9.8 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

10 Counting magic squares and magic cubes 483

10.1 A distribution problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
10.2 Magic squares of fixed size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
10.2.1 The case of n = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
10.2.2 The function Hn (r) for fixed n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
10.3 Magic squares of fixed line sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
10.4 Why magic cubes are different . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
10.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
10.6 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
10.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
10.8 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.9 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

Appendix The method of mathematical induction 521

A.1 Weak induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
A.2 Strong induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Bibliography 525

Index 531
Foreword to the first edition

What could be a more basic mathematical activity than counting the number
of elements of a finite set? The misleading simplicity that defines the sub-
ject of enumerative combinatorics is in fact one of its principal charms. Who
would suspect the wealth of ingenuity and of sophisticated techniques that
can be brought to bear on a such an apparently superficial endeavor? Miklós
Bóna has done a masterful job of bringing an overview of all of enumerative
combinatorics within reach of undergraduates. The two fundamental themes
of bijective proofs and generating functions, together with their intimate con-
nections, recur constantly. A wide selection of topics, including several never
appearing before in a textbook, are included that give an idea of the vast
range of enumerative combinatorics. In particular, for those with sufficient
background in undergraduate linear algebra and abstract algebra there are
many tantalizing hints of the fruitful connection between enumerative com-
binatorics and algebra that plays a central role in the subject of algebraic
combinatorics. In a foreword to another book by Miklós Bóna I wrote, “This
book can be utilized at a variety of levels, from random samplings of the trea-
sures therein to a comprehensive attempt to master all the material and solve
all the exercises. In whatever direction the reader’s tastes lead, a thorough
enjoyment and appreciation of a beautiful area of combinatorics is certain to
ensue.” Exactly the same sentiment applies to the present book, as the reader
will soon discover.

Richard Stanley
Cambridge, Massachusetts
June 2005

xv
Preface to the second edition

There are at least three ways to use this book. If one decides to cover every
chapter, and some of the exercises containing new material, then one can
teach a two-semester combinatorics course from the book. Instructors looking
for a text for a course in enumerative combinatorics can teach such a course
selecting chapters with the strongest focus on counting, such as Chapters 2,
3, 4, 5, 7, and 9. Finally, one can teach a one-semester course with a not-
quite-as-strong focus on enumeration by using Chapters 1, 2, 3, and then the
desired chapters from the rest of the book.
Our hope is that our book can broaden access to the fascinating topics of
enumerative and analytic combinatorics, and will prepare readers for the more
advanced, classic books of the field, such as Enumerative Combinatorics by
Richard Stanley and Analytic Combinatorics by Philippe Flajolet and Robert
Sedgewick.
This current edition of the book contains a new chapter on analytic combi-
natorics. Instructors trying to teach that topic to a relatively novice audience
often hit a roadblock when they realize that the audience is unfamiliar with
complex analysis. The goal of this chapter is to at least partially overcome
that roadblock by showing the reader some of the powerful techniques of that
field that do not require the residue theorem or complex integration. Hope-
fully, readers will find the results interesting and that will entice them to learn
the techniques that we only mention here. Strengthening the analytic flavor
of the book, Chapters 4 and 5 have been enhanced by new sections discussing
advanced applications of generating functions. Finally, we added new exer-
cises to all chapters. Just as before, numerous exercises contain material not
discussed in the text, which allows instructors to extend the time they spend
on a given topic.
Combinatorics is a rapidly expanding field, and we hope that our book
will increase the number of students with an interest in it even further.

Gainesville, FL
August 2015

xvii
Acknowledgments

First, I am thankful to my grandfather, the late Dr. János Bóna, who in-
troduced me to counting problems at an early age. I am indebted to the
researchers whose work attracted me to enumerative combinatorics. They in-
clude Richard Stanley, Herbert Wilf, Bruce Sagan, Catherine Yan, Francesco
Brenti, and many others. The second edition of the book has an analytic
flavor that would not have been possible if I had not learned analytic combi-
natorics from, and been influenced by, Philippe Flajolet, Robert Sedgewick,
Boris Pittel, Robin Pemantle, and E. Rodney Canfield.
As always, my gratitude is extended to my wife Linda and my sons Miki,
Benny, and Vinnie, who tolerated another book project reasonably well.

xix
Frequently used notation

• A(n, k) number of n-permutations with k ascending runs

• B(n) number of all partitions of an n-element set

• b(n, k) number of n-permutations with k inversions
• c(n, k) number of n-permutations with k cycles
the Catalan number cn = 2n


• cn n /(n + 1)

• Cn a cycle on n vertices
• |F| number of edges of the hypergraph F
• Gi stabilizer of the element i under the action of the group G

• G−v graph G with its vertex v and all edges adjacent to v removed
• i(p) number of inversions of the permutation p
• iG orbit of the element i under the action of the group G
• Kn complete graph on n vertices

• Km,n complete bipartite graph with m red and n blue vertices

• χG chromatic polynomial of the graph G
• χ(G) chromatic number of the graph G

• n! n(n − 1) · · · 1

(n)k
• nk k!

• [n] set {1, 2, · · · , n}

Qk q n −q i−1
• nk
 
Gaussian polynomial i=1 q k −q i−1

• (n)m n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
• p(n) number of partitions of the integer n

• pk (n) number of partitions of the integer n into at most k parts

xxi
xxii Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

• |S| number of elements of the set S

• Sn set of all n-permutations

• Sn (q) number of all n-permutations avoiding the pattern q
• S(n, k) number of partitions of the set [n] into k blocks
• s(n, k) (−1)n−k c(n, k)
 Part I

Methods
1
Basic methods

CONTENTS
1.1 When we add and when we subtract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 When we add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 When we subtract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 When we multiply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 The product principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Using several counting principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 When repetitions are not allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3.1 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3.2 Partial lists without repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 When we divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 The division principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2.1 The number of k-element subsets of an
n-element set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2.2 The binomial theorem for positive integer
exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Applications of basic counting principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1 Bijective proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.1.1 Catalan numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.2 Properties of binomial coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.3 Permutations with repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5 The pigeonhole principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.7 Chapter review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.9 Solutions to exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.10 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3
4 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

1.1 When we add and when we subtract

1.1.1 When we add
A group of friends went on a canoe trip. Five of them fell into the water at
one point or another during the trip, while seven completed the trip without
even getting wet. How many friends went on this canoe trip?
Before the reader laughs at us for starting the book with such a simple
question, let us give the answer. Of course, 5 + 7 = 12 people went on this
trip. However, it is important to point out that such a simple answer was only
possible because each person at the trip either fell into the water or stayed
dry. There was no middle way, there was no way to belong to both groups, or
to neither group. Once you fall into the water, you know it. In other words,
each person was included in exactly one of those two groups of people.
In contrast, let us assume that we are not told how many people did or
did not fall into the water, but instead are told that five people wore white
shirts on this trip and eight people wore brown hats. Then we could not tell
how many people went on this trip, as there could be people who belonged to
both groups (it is possible to wear both a white shirt and a brown hat), and
there could be people who belonged to neither.
We can now present the first, and easiest, counting principle of this book.
Let |X| denote the number of elements of the finite set X. So, for instance,
|{2, 3, 5, 7}| = 4. Recall that two subsets are called disjoint if they have no
elements in common.

Theorem 1.1 (Addition principle) If A and B are two disjoint finite sets,
then
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|. (1.1)
It may seem somewhat strange that we provide a proof for such an ex-
tremely simple statement, but we want to set standards.
Proof: Both sides of (1.1) count the elements of the same set, the set A ∪ B.
The left-hand side does this directly, while the right-hand side counts the
elements of A and B separately. In either case, each element is counted exactly
once (as A and B are disjoint), so the two sides are indeed equal. ♦

The previous theorem was about two disjoint finite sets, but there is noth-
ing magical about the number two here. If we had said that each of the par-
ticipants of the canoe trip had exactly one unfortunate event on the trip, say,
five of them fell into the water, three were attacked by hornets, and four got
a sunstroke, then we could still conclude that there were 5 + 3 + 4 = 12 people
at this enjoyable excursion. This is an example of the generalized addition
principle.
Basic methods 5

Theorem 1.2 (Generalized addition principle) Let A1 , A2 , · · · , An be

finite sets that are pairwise disjoint. Then

|A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An | = |A1 | + |A2 | + · · · + |An |.

Proof: Again, both sides count the elements of the same set, the set A1 ∪
A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ; therefore, they have to be equal. ♦

Needless to say, it is again very important to insist that the sets Ai are
pairwise disjoint.

1.1.2 When we subtract

We could have told the story of our canoeing friends of Section 1.1.1 as follows:
Twelve friends went on a canoe trip. Five of them fell into the water. How
many friends completed the trip without falling into the water? The answer
is, of course, 12 − 5 = 7. This is an example of the subtraction principle. In
order to make the discussion of this principle easier, we introduce the notion
of the difference of two sets. If A and B are two sets, then A − B is the set
consisting of the elements of A that are not elements of B.

Example 1.3 Let A = {2, 3, 5, 7}, and let B = {4, 5, 7}. Then A − B =
{2, 3}.

Note that A − B is defined even when B is not a subset of A. The sub-

traction principle, however, applies only when B is a subset of A.

Theorem 1.4 (Subtraction principle) Let A be a finite set, and let B ⊆

A. Then |A − B| = |A| − |B|.

Proof: We will first prove the equation

|A − B| + |B| = |A|. (1.2)

This equation holds true by the addition principle. Indeed, A − B and B are
disjoint sets, and their union is A.
In other words, both sides count the elements of A, but the left-hand side
first counts those that are not contained in B, then those that are contained
in B.
The claim of Theorem 1.4 is now proved by subtracting |B| from both
sides of (1.2). ♦

That B ⊆ A is a very important restriction here. The reader is invited to

verify this by checking that the subtraction principle does not hold for the sets
A and B of Example 1.3. For another caveat, let A be the set of all one-digit
positive integers that are divisible by 2, and let B be the set of all one-digit
6 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

positive integers that are divisible by 3. Then A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, so |A| = 4, and
B = {3, 6, 9}, so |B| = 3. However, |A − B| = |{2, 4, 8}| = 3. As 4 − 3 6= 3, we
see that the subtraction principle does not hold here. The reason for this is
that the conditions of the subtraction principle are not fulfilled, that is, B is
not a subset of A.
The reader should go back to our proof of the subtraction principle and
see why the proof fails if B is not a subset of A.
The use of the subtraction principle is advisable in situations when it is
easier to enumerate the elements of B (“bad guys”) than the elements of A−B
(“good guys”).

Example 1.5 The number of positive integers less than or equal to 1000 that
have at least two different digits is 1000 − 27 = 973.

Solution: Let A be the set of all positive integers less than or equal to 1000,
and let B be the subset of A that consists of all positive integers less than
or equal to 1000 that do not have two different digits. Then our claim is that
|A − B| = 973. By the subtraction principle, we know that |A − B| = |A| − |B|.
Furthermore, we know that |A| = 1000. Therefore, we will be done if we can
show that |B| = 27. What are the elements of B? They are all the positive
integers of at most three digits in which there are no two distinct digits. That
is, in any element of B, only one digit occurs, but that one digit can occur once,
twice, or three times. So the elements of B are 1, 2, · · · , 9, then 11, 22, · · · , 99,
and finally, 111, 222, · · · , 999. This shows that |B| = 27, proving our claim. ♦

Note that using the subtraction principle was advantageous because |A|
was very easy to determine and |B| was almost as easy to compute. Therefore,
getting |A| − |B| was faster than computing |A − B| directly.

1.2 When we multiply

1.2.1 The product principle
A car dealership sells five different models, and each model is available in
seven different colors. If we are only interested in the model and color of a
car, how many different choices does this dealership offer to us?
Let us denote the five models by the capital letters A, B, C, D, and E,
and let us denote the seven colors by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Then
each possible choice can be totally described by a pair consisting of a capital
letter and a number. The list of all choices is shown below.

• A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7,

Basic methods 7

• B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7,

• C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7,
• D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, and
• E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7.

Here each row corresponds to a certain model. As there are five rows, and
each of them consists of seven possible choices, the total number of choices is
5 × 7 = 35.
This is an example of the following general theorem.

Theorem 1.6 (Product principle) Let X and Y be two finite sets. Then
the number of pairs (x, y) satisfying x ∈ X and y ∈ Y is |X| × |Y |.

Proof: There are |X| choices for the first element x of the pair (x, y); then,
regardless of what we choose for x, there are |Y | choices for y. Each choice of
x can be paired with each choice of y, so the statement is proved. ♦

Note that the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) so that x ∈ X and y ∈ Y
is called the direct product (or Cartesian product) of X and Y , and is often
denoted by X × Y . We call the pairs (x, y) ordered pairs because the order of
the two elements matters in them. That is, (x, y) 6= (y, x), unless x = y.

Example 1.7 The number of two-digit positive integers is 90.

Solution: Indeed, a two-digit positive integer is nothing but an ordered pair

(x, y), where x is the first digit and y is the second digit. Note that x must
come from the set X = {1, 2, · · · , 9}, while y must come from the set Y =
{0, 1, · · · , 9}. Therefore, |X| = 9 and |Y | = 10, and the statement is proved
by Theorem 1.6. ♦

Theorem 1.8 (Generalized product principle) Let X1 , X2 , · · · , Xk be

finite sets. Then, the number of k-tuples (x1 , x2 , · · · , xk ) satisfying xi ∈ Xi is
|X1 | × |X2 | × · · · × |Xk |.
Informally, we could argue as follows. There are |X1 | choices for x1 ; then,
regardless of the choice made, there are |X2 | choices for x2 , so by Theorem
1.6, there are |X1 |×|X2 | choices for the sequence (x1 , x2 ). Then there are |X3 |
choices for x3 , so again by Theorem 1.6, there are |X1 |×|X2 |×|X3 | choices for
the sequence (x1 , x2 , x3 ). Continuing this argument until we get to xk proves
the theorem.
The line of thinking in this argument is correct, but the last sentence is
somewhat less than rigorous. In order to obtain a completely formal proof,
we will use the method of mathematical induction. It is very likely that the
8 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

reader has already seen that method. A brief overview of the method can be
found in the appendix.
Proof: (of Theorem 1.8) We prove the statement by induction on k. For k = 1,
there is nothing to prove, and for k = 2, the statement reduces to the product
principle.
Now let us assume that we know the statement for k −1, and let us prove it
for k. A k-tuple (x1 , x2 , · · · , xk ) satisfying xi ∈ Xi can be decomposed into an
ordered pair ((x1 , x2 , · · · , xk−1 ), xk ), where we still have xi ∈ Xi . The number
of such (k −1)-tuples (x1 , x2 , · · · , xk−1 ) is, by our induction hypothesis, |X1 |×
|X2 | × · · · × |Xk−1 |. The number of elements xk ∈ Xk is |Xk |. Therefore, by
the product principle, the number of ordered pairs ((x1 , x2 , · · · , xk−1 ), xk )
satisfying the conditions is
(|X1 | × |X2 | × · · · × |Xk−1 |) × |Xk |,
so this is also the number of k-tuples (x1 , x2 , · · · , xk ) satisfying xi ∈ Xi . ♦

Example 1.9 For any positive integer k, the number of k-digit positive in-
tegers is 9 · 10k−1 .

Solution: A k-digit positive integer is just a k-tuple (x1 , x2 , · · · , xk ), where

xi is the ith digit of our integer. Then x1 has to come from the set X1 =
{1, 2, · · · , 9}, while xi has to come from the set Xi = {0, 1, 2, · · · , 9} for 2 ≤
i ≤ k. Therefore, |X1 | = 9 and |Xi | = 10 for 2 ≤ i ≤ k. The proof is then
immediate by Theorem 1.8. ♦

Example 1.10 How many four-digit positive integers both start and end in
even digits?

Solution: The first digit must come from the 4-element set {2, 4, 6, 8}, whereas
the last digit must come from the 5-element set {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. The second and
third digits must come from the 10-element set {0, 1, · · · , 9}. Therefore, the
total number of such positive integers is 4 · 10 · 10 · 5 = 2000. ♦

An interesting special case of Theorem 1.8 is when all Xi have the same
size because all Xi are identical as sets.
If A is a finite alphabet consisting of n letters, then a k-letter string over
A is a sequence of k letters, each of which is an element of A.

Corollary 1.11 The number of k-letter strings over an n-element alphabet

A is nk .

Proof: Apply Theorem 1.8 with X1 = X2 = · · · = Xk = A. ♦

Basic methods 9

1.2.2 Using several counting principles

Life for combinatorialists would be just too simple if every counting problem
could be solved using a single principle. Most problems are more complex than
that, and one needs to use several counting principles in the right way in order
to solve them.

Example 1.12 A user needs to choose a password for a bank card. The
password can use the digits 0, 1, · · · , 9 with no restrictions, and it has to consist
of at least four and at most seven digits. How many possible passwords are
there?

Solution: Let Ai denote the set of acceptable codes that consist of i digits.
Then, by the product principle (or Corollary 1.11), we see that Ai = 10i for
any i satisfying 4 ≤ i ≤ 7. So, by the addition principle, we get that the total
number of possibilities is

A4 + A5 + A6 + A7 = 104 + 105 + 106 + 107 = 11 110 000.

Example 1.13 Let us assume that a prospective thief tried to steal the code
of the card of Example 1.12. As the rightful user typed in the code, the thief
observed that the password consisted of five digits, did not start with zero, and
contained the digit 8. If the thief gets hold of the card, at most how many
attempts will he need to find out the password?
If we try to compute this number (that, is, the number of five-digit positive
integers that contain the digit 8) directly, we risk making our work unduly
difficult. For instance, we could compute the number of five-digit integers that
start with 8, the number of those whose second digit is 8, and so on. We would
run into difficulties in the next step, however, as the sets of these numbers are
not disjoint. Indeed, just because the first digit of a number is 8, it could well
be that its fourth and fifth digits are also 8. Therefore, if we simply added
our partial results, we would count some five-digit integers many times (the
number of times they contain the digit 8). For instance, we would count the
integer 83885 three times. While we will see in later chapters that this is not
an insurmountable difficulty, it does take a significant amount of computation
to get around it. It is much easier to solve the problem in a slightly more
indirect way.
Solution: (of Example 1.13) Instead of counting the five-digit positive integers
that contain the digit 8, we count those that do not. Then, simply apply the
subtraction principle by subtracting that number from the number of all five-
digit positive integers, which is, of course, 9 · 104 = 90000 by Example 1.9.
10 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

How many five-digit positive integers do not contain the digit 8? These
integers can start in eight different digits (everything but 0 and 8); then any of
their remaining digits can be one of nine digits (everything but 8). Therefore,
by the product principle, their number is 8·94 = 52488. Therefore, the number
of those five-digit positive integers that do not contain the digit 8 is 90000 −
52488 = 37512. ♦

We would hope that the cash machine will not let anyone take that many
guesses.

1.2.3 When repetitions are not allowed

1.2.3.1 Permutations
Eight people participate in a long-distance running race. There are no ties. In
how many different ways can the competition end?
This question is a little bit more complex than the questions in the two
preceding subsections. This is because, while in those subsections we chose
elements from sets so that our choices were independent of each other, in this
section that will no longer be the case. For instance, if runner A wins the
race, he cannot finish third, or fourth, or fifth. Therefore, the possibilities for
the person who finishes third depend on who won the race and who finished
second. Fortunately, this will not hurt our enumeration efforts, and we will
see why.
Let us start with something less ambitious. How many possibilities are
there for the winner of the competition? As there are eight participants, there
are eight possibilities. How about the number of possibilities for the ordered
pair of the winner and the runner-up? Well, there are eight choices for the
winner, then, regardless who the winner is, there are seven choices for the
runner-up (we can choose any person except the winner). Therefore, by the
product principle, there are 8 · 7 = 56 choices for the winner/runner-up ticket.
We can continue the argument in this manner. No matter who finishes first
and who finishes second, there will be six choices for the person finishing third,
then five choices for the runner who finishes fourth, and so on. Therefore, by
the generalized product principle, the number of total possible outcomes at
this competition is
8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 40320. (1.3)
This argument was possible because of the following underlying facts. The
set of possible choices for the person finishing at position i depended on the
choices we made previously. However, the number of these choices did not
depend on anything but i (and was in fact equal to 9 − i).
The general form of the number obtained in (1.3) is so important that it
has its own name.
Basic methods 11

Definition 1.14 Let n be a positive integer. Then the number

n · (n − 1) · · · · · 2 · 1

is called n-factorial, and is denoted by n!.

We point out that 0! = 1, even if that may sound counterintuitive this
time. See Exercise 1 for an explanation. Continuing from n = 1, the next few
values of n! are 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, and 40320.
The set {1, 2, · · · , n} will be one of our favorite examples in this book
because it exemplifies an n-element set, that is, n distinct objects. Therefore,
we introduce the shorter notation [n] for this set.
It goes without saying that there was nothing magical about the number
eight in the previous example.

Theorem 1.15 For any positive integers n, the number of ways to arrange
all elements of the set [n] in a line is n!.

Proof: There are n ways to select the element that will be at the first place in
our line. Then, regardless of this selection, there are n − 1 ways to select the
element that will be listed second, n−2 ways to select the element listed third,
and so on. Our claim is then proved by the generalized product principle. ♦

We could have again proved our statement by induction, just as we proved

the generalized product principle.
The function f (n) = n! grows very rapidly. It is not difficult to see that, if
n is large enough, then n! > an for any fixed real number a. This is because,
while a might be a huge number, it is a fixed number. Therefore, as n grows
to n + 1, the value of an gets multiplied by a, while the value of n! gets
multiplied by n + 1, which will eventually be larger than a. Exercise 24 and
Supplementary Exercise 11 provide more precise information about the growth
rate of the factorial function, while the Notes section contains an even more
precise result (1.13), called Stirling’s formula, without proof.
Note the two simple but important features of the task of arranging all
elements of [n] in a line. Namely,
(1) each element occurs in the line, and
(2) each element will occur in the line only once.
In other words, each element will occur in the line exactly once. Arrangements
of elements of a set with these properties are so important that they have their
own name.

Definition 1.16 A permutation of a finite set S is a list of the elements of

S containing each element of S exactly once.
12 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

With this terminology, Theorem 1.15 says that the number of permutations
of [n] is n!. Permutations are omnipresent in combinatorics, and they are
frequently used in other parts of mathematics, such as algebra, group theory,
and computer science. We will learn more about them in this book. For now,
let us return to basic counting techniques.

1.2.3.2 Partial lists without repetition

Let us return to the eight-person running race. Let us assume that the runners
who arrive first, second, or third will receive medals (gold, silver, and bronze),
and the rest of the competitors will not receive medals. How many different
possibilities are there for the list of medal winners?
We can start our argument as before, that is, by looking at the number of
possibilities for the gold medal winner. There are eight choices for this person.
Then there are seven choices for the silver medalist, and then six choices for
the bronze medalist. So there are 8 × 7 × 6 = 336 possibilities for the list of
the medalists. Our task ends here. Indeed, as the remaining runners do not
get any medals, their order does not matter.
Generalizing the ideas explained above, we get the following theorem.

Theorem 1.17 Let n and k be positive integers so that n ≥ k. Then, the

number of ways to make a k-element list from [n] without repeating any ele-
ments is
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1).

Proof: There are n choices for the first element of the list, then n − 1 choices
for the second element of the list, and so on; finally, there are n − k + 1 choices
for the last (kth) element of the list. The result then follows by the product
principle. ♦

The number n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1) of all k-element lists from [n]

without repetition occurs so often in combinatorics that there is a symbol for
it, namely,
(n)k = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1).
Note that Theorem 1.15 is a special case of Theorem 1.17, namely, the
special case when n = k.
Let us discuss a more complicated example, one in which we need to use
both addition and multiplication.

Example 1.18 A student cafeteria offers the following special. For a certain
price, we can have our choice of one out of four salads, one out of five main
courses, and something for dessert. For dessert, we can either choose one out
of five sundaes, or we can choose one of four gourmet coffees and, no matter
which gourmet coffee we choose, one out of two cookies. How many different
meals can a customer buying this special have?
Basic methods 13

Solution: We can argue as follows. The customer has to decide whether

he prefers a sundae or a gourmet coffee with a cookie. As he cannot have
both, the set of choices containing a sundae is disjoint from the set of
choices containing a gourmet coffee and a cookie. Therefore, the total num-
ber of choices will be the sum of the sizes of these two sets. Now, let
us compute the sizes of these sets separately. If the customer prefers the
sundae, he has four choices for the salad, then five choices for the main
course, and then five choices for the sundae, yielding a total of 4 · 5 · 5 =
100 choices. If he prefers the gourmet coffee and the cookie, then he has
four choices for the salad, then five choices for the main course, then four
choices for the coffee, and finally two choices for the cookie. This yields a
total of 4 · 5 · 4 · 2 = 160 choices. So the customer has 100 + 160 = 260 choices.
Alternatively, we could count as follows. The customer has to choose the
salad, then the main course. Up to that point, he has 4 · 5 = 20 choices. Then,
he either chooses a sundae, in one of five ways, or a coffee and a cookie, in
4 · 2 = 8 ways. So he has 5 + 8 = 13 choices for dessert. Therefore, if dessert is
considered the third course, he has 4 · 5 · 13 = 260 choices, in agreement with
what we computed above. ♦

Example 1.19 A college senior will spend her weekend visiting some gradu-
ate schools. Because of geographical constraints, she can either go to the north,
where she can visit four schools out of the ten schools in which she is inter-
ested, or she can go to the south, where she can visit five schools out of eight
schools in which she is interested. How many different itineraries can she set
up?
Note that we are interested in the number of possible itineraries, so the
order in which the student visits the schools is important.
Solution: (of Example 1.19) The student can either go to the north, in which
case, by Theorem 1.17, she will have (10)4 possibilities, or she can go to the
south, in which case she will have (8)5 possibilities. Therefore, by the addition
principle, the total number of possibilities is

(10)4 + (8)5 = 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 + 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 = 5040 + 6720 = 11760.

♦
14 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

1.3 When we divide

1.3.1 The division principle
Let us assume that several families are invited to a children’s party. Each
family comes with two children. The children then play in a room while the
adults take turns supervising them. If a visitor looks in the room where the
children are playing, how can the visitor determine the number of families at
the party?
The answer to this question is not difficult. The visitor can count the chil-
dren who are present, then divide that number by two. We included this ques-
tion, however, as it exemplifies a very often-used counting technique. When
we want to count the elements of a certain set S, it is often easier to count
elements of another set T so that each element of S corresponds to d elements
of T (for some fixed number d) while each element of T corresponds to one
element of S. In order to describe the relation between the sets T and S more
precisely, we make the following definition.

Definition 1.20 Let S and T be finite sets, and let d be a fixed positive
integer. We say that the function f : T → S is d-to-one if for each element
s ∈ S there exist exactly d elements t ∈ T so that f (t) = s.
Recall that the fact that f is a function automatically ensures that f (t) is
unique for each t ∈ T . See Figure 1.1 for an illustration.

T S
f

Figure 1.1
Diagram of a three-to-one map.
Basic methods 15

Theorem 1.21 (Division principle) Let S and T be finite sets so that a

d-to-one function f : T → S exists. Then
|T |
|S| = .
d
Proof: This is a direct consequence of Definition 1.20. ♦

In the above example, S was the set of families present, but we could not
determine |S| directly because we only saw the children and did not know
who were siblings. However, T was the set of children present. We could easily
determine |T |, then use our knowledge that each family had two children
present (so d = 2) and obtain |S| as |T |/2.
We will now turn to a classic example that will be useful in Chapter 4.
Let us ask n people to sit around a circular table, and consider two seat-
ing arrangements identical if each person has the same left neighbor in both
seatings.
For instance, the two seatings at the top of Figure 1.2 are identical, but the
one at the bottom is not, even if each person has the same neighbors in that
seating as well. This is because, in that seating, for each person, the former
left neighbor becomes the right neighbor. If the food always arrives from one
direction, this can be quite some difference.

A B

D same B A same C

C A D

B different D

Figure 1.2
Two identical seatings and a different one.

Having made clear when two seating arrangements are considered different,
we are ready to discuss our next example.
16 Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics

Example 1.22 The number of different seating arrangements for n people

around a circular table is (n − 1)!.

Solution: (of Example 1.22) If the table were linear, instead of circular, then
the number of all seating arrangements would be n!. In other words, if T is
the set of seating arrangements of n people along a linear table, then |T | = n!.
Now let S be the set of seating arrangements around our circular table. We
claim that each element of S corresponds to n elements of T . Indeed, take
a circular seating s ∈ S, and choose a person p in that seating, in one of n
ways. Then turn s into a linear seating by starting the seating with p, then
continuing with the left neighbor of p, the left neighbor of that person, then
the left neighbor of that person, and so on. As there are n choices for p, each
circular seating s can be turned into n different linear seating arrangements.
On the other hand, each linear seating lins corresponds to one circular
seating f (lins), because no matter where we “fold” lins into a circle, the left
neighbor of each person will not change.
This means that f : T → S is an n-to-one function. Therefore, by the
division principle,
|T | n!
|S| = = = (n − 1)!.
n n
So this is the number of circular seating arrangements. ♦

1.3.2 Subsets
1.3.2.1 The number of k-element subsets of an n-element set
At a certain university, the Department of Mathematics has 55 faculty mem-
bers. The department is asked to send three of its faculty members to the
commencement ceremonies to serve as marshals there. All three people cho-
sen for this honor will perform the same duties. It is up to the department chair
to choose the three professors who will serve. How many different possibilities
does the chair have?
A superficial and wrong argument would go like this: The chair has 55
choices for the first faculty member, then 54 choices for the second faculty
member, and, finally, 53 choices for the last one. Therefore, as we explained
with Theorem 1.17, the number of all possibilities is 55 · 54 · 53.
The reader should take a moment here to try to see the problem with this
argument. Once you have done that, you can read further. The problem is that
this line of thinking counts the same triple of professors many times. Indeed,
let A, B, and C be three professors from this department. (The department
hires people with short names only.) The above line of thinking considers ABC
and BAC as different triples, whereas they are in fact identical. Indeed, we
said that all three people chosen will perform the same duties. Therefore, the
order in which these people are chosen is irrelevant.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
that noble author himself alleged that he was engaged in ‘giving
fame to the Queen,’ the latter, one morning, noticed the alleged fact
to Lord Hervey. The King was present, and his Majesty remarked:—‘I
dare say he will paint you in fine colours, the dirty liar.’ ‘Why not?’
asked Caroline; ‘good things come out of dirt sometimes. I have ate
very good asparagus raised out of dung?’ When it was said that not
only Lord Carteret, but that Lords Bolingbroke and Chesterfield were
also engaged in writing the history of their times, the Queen
critically anticipated ‘that all the three histories would be three heaps
of lies; but lies of very different kinds: she said Bolingbroke’s would
be great lies; Chesterfield’s little lies; and Carteret’s lies of both
31
sorts.’ It may be added, that where there were vice and
coarseness there was little respect for justice or for independence of
conduct. The placeman who voted according to his conscience,
when he found his conscience in antagonism against the court, was
invariably removed from his place.
In concluding this chapter, it may be stated that when Frederick
was about to bring forward the question of his revenue, the Queen
would fain have had an interview with the son she alternately
despised and feared, to persuade him against pursuing this measure
—the carrying out of which she dreaded as prejudicial to the King’s
health in his present enfeebled state. Caroline, however, would not
see her son, for the reason, as the mother alleged, that he was such
an incorrigible liar that he was capable of making any mendacious
report of the interview, even of her designing to murder him. She
had, in an interview with him, at the time of the agitation connected
with the Excise bill, been compelled to place the Princess Caroline,
concealed, within hearing, that she might be a witness in case of the
prince, her brother, misrepresenting what had really taken place.
When the King learned the prince’s intentions, he took the
matter much more coolly than the Queen. Several messengers,
however, passed between the principal parties, but nothing was
done in the way of turning the prince from his purpose. It was an
innocent purpose enough, indeed, as he represented it. The
parliament had entrusted to the King a certain annual sum for the
prince’s use. The King and Queen did not so understand it, and he
simply applied to parliament to solicit that august body to put an
interpretation on its own act.
The supposed debilitated condition of the King’s health gave
increased hopes to the prince’s party. The Queen, therefore, induced
him to hold levées and appear more frequently in public. His
improvement in health and good humour was a matter of
disappointment to those who wished him dying, and feared to see
him grow popular.
The animosity of the Queen and her daughter, Caroline, against
32
the Prince of Wales was ferocious. The mother cursed the day on
which she had borne the son who was for ever destroying her
peace, and would end, she said, by destroying her life. There was no
opprobrious epithet which she did not cast at him; and they who
surrounded the Queen and princess had the honour of daily hearing
them hope that God would strike the son and brother dead with
apoplexy. Such enmity seems incredible. The gentle Princess
Caroline’s gentlest name for her brother was ‘that nauseous beast;’
and in running over the catalogue of crimes of which she declared
him capable, if not actually guilty, she did not hesitate to say that he
was capable of murdering even those whom he caressed. Never was
family circle so cursed by dissension as this royal circle; in which the
parents hated the son, the son the parents; the parents deceived
one another, the husband betrayed the wife, the wife deluded the
husband, the children were at mutual antagonism, and truth was a
stranger to all.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE BIRTH OF AN HEIRESS.

Russian invasion of the Crimea—Announcement of an heir disbelieved by the

Queen—Princess of Wales conveyed to St. James’s by the Prince in a state
of labour—Birth of a Princess—Hampton Court Palace on this night—The
palace in an uproar—Indignation of Caroline—Reception of the Queen by
the Prince—Minute particulars afforded her by him—Explanatory notes
between the royal family—Message of the King—His severity to the Prince
—The Princess Amelia double-sided—Message of Princess Caroline to the
Prince—Unseemly conduct of the Prince—The Prince an agreeable
‘rattle’—The Queen’s anger never subsided—The Prince ejected from the
palace—The Queen and Lord Carteret—Reconciliation of the royal family
attempted—Popularity of the Prince—The Queen’s outspoken opinion of
the Prince—An interview between the King, Queen, and Lord Hervey—
Bishop Sherlock and the Queen—The King a purchaser of lottery-tickets.

The parliament, having passed a Land-tax bill of two shillings in the

pound, exempted the Prince of Wales from contributing even the
usual sixpence in the pound on his civil-list revenue, and settled a
dowry on his wife of 50,000l. per annum, peremptorily rejected Sir
John Bernard’s motion for decreasing the taxation which weighed
33
most heavily on the poor. The public found matter for much
speculation in these circumstances, and they alternately discussed
them with the subject of the aggressive ambition of Russia. The
latter power was then invading the Crimea with two armies under
Munich and Lasci. The occupier of the Muscovite throne stooped to
mendacity to veil the real object of the war; and there were Russian
officers not ashamed to be assassins—murdering the wounded foe
34
whom they found lying helpless on their path.
 The interest in all home and foreign matters, however, was
speedily lost in that which the public took in the matter, which soon
presented itself, of the accession of an heir in the direct hereditary
line of Brunswick.
The prospect of the birth of a lineal heir to the throne ought to
have been one of general joy in a family whose own possession of
the crown was contested by the disinherited heir of the Stuart line.
The prospect, however, brought no joy with it on the present
occasion. It was not till within a month of the time for the event that
the Prince of Wales officially announced to his father, on the best
possible authority, the probability of the event itself. Caroline
appears at once to have disbelieved the announcement. She was so
desirous of the succession falling to her second son, William, that
she made no scruple of expressing her disbelief of what, to most
other observers, was apparent enough. She questioned the princess
herself, with more closeness than even the position of a mother-in-
law could justify; but for every query the well-trained Augusta had
one stereotyped reply—‘I don’t know.’ Caroline, on her side, resolved
to be better instructed. ‘I will positively be present,’ she exclaimed,
‘when the promised event takes place;’ adding, with her usual
broadness of illustration, ‘It can’t be got through as soon as one can
blow one’s nose; and I am resolved to be satisfied that the child is
hers.’
These suspicions, of which the Queen made no secret, were of
course well known to her son. He was offended by them; offended,
too, at a peremptory order that the birth of the expected heir should
take place in Hampton Court Palace; and he was, moreover, stirred
up by his political friends to exhibit his own independence, and to
oppose the royal wish, in order to show that he had a proper spirit
of freedom.
Accordingly, twice he brought the princess to London, and twice
returned with her to Hampton Court. Each time the journey had
been undertaken on symptoms of indisposition coming on, which,
however, passed away. At length one evening, the prince and
princess, after dining in public with the King and Queen, took leave
of them for the night, and withdrew to their apartments. Up to this
hour the princess had appeared to be in her ordinary health. Tokens
of supervening change came on, and the prince at once prepared for
action. The night (the 31st of July) was now considerably advanced,
and the Princess of Wales, who had been hitherto eager to obey her
husband’s wishes in all things, was now too ill to do anything but
pray against them. He would not listen to such petitions. He ordered
his ‘coach’ to be got ready and brought round to a side entrance of
the palace. The lights in the apartment were in the meantime
extinguished. He consigned his wife to the strong arms of
Desnoyers, the dancing-master, and Bloodworth, an attendant, who
dragged, rather than carried, her down stairs. In the meantime, the
poor lady, whose life was in very present peril, and sufferings
extreme, prayed earnestly to be permitted to remain where she was.
Subsequently she protested to the Queen that all that had been
done had taken place at her own express desire! However this may
be, the prince answered her prayers and moans by calling on her to
have courage; upbraiding her for her folly; and assuring her, with a
very manly complacency, that it was nothing, and would soon be
over! At length the coach was reached. It was the usually capacious
vehicle of the time, and into it got not only the prince and princess,
but Lady Archibald Hamilton and two female attendants. Vriad, who
was not only a valet-de-chambre, but a surgeon and accoucheur,
mounted the box. Bloodworth, the dancing-master, and two or three
more, got up behind. The prince enjoined the strictest silence on
such of his household as remained at Hampton Court, and therewith
the coach set off, at a gallop, not for the prince’s own residence at
Kew, but for St. James’s Palace, which was at twice the distance.
At the palace nothing was prepared for them. There was not a
couch ready for the exhausted lady, who had more than once on the
road been, as it seemed, upon the point of expiring; not even a bed
was ready for her to lie down and repose upon. No sheets were to
be found in the whole palace—or at least in that part over which the
prince had any authority. For lack of them, Frederick and Lady
Hamilton aired a couple of tablecloths, and these did the service
required of them.
In the meantime, notice had been sent to several officers of
state, and to the more necessary assistants required, to be present
at the imminent event. Most of the great officers were out of the
way. In lieu of them arrived the Lord President, Wilmington, and the
Lord Privy Seal, Godolphin. In their presence was born a daughter,
whom Lord Hervey designated as ‘a little rat’ and described as being
‘no bigger than a tooth-pick case.’
Perhaps it was the confusion which reigned before and at her
birth which had some influence on her intellects in after life. She was
an extremely pretty child, not without some mental qualifications;
but she became remarkable for making observations which inflicted
pain and embarrassment on those to whom they were addressed. In
after years, she also became the mother of that Caroline of
Brunswick who herself made confusion worse confounded in the
family into which she was received as a member—that Caroline
whom we recollect as the consort of George IV. and the protectress
of Baron Bergami.
At Hampton Court, the King and Queen, concluding that their
dear son and heir had, with his consort, relieved his illustrious
parents of his undesired presence for the night, thought of nothing
so little as of that son having taken it into his head to perform a trick
which might have been fittingly accompanied by the ‘Beggars’ Opera’
chorus of ‘Hurrah for the Road!’
No comedy has such a scene as that enacted at Hampton Court
on this night. While the prince was carrying off the princess, despite
all her agonising entreaties, the rest of the royal family were quietly
amusing themselves in another part of the palace, unconscious of
what was passing. The King and the Princess Amelia were at
commerce below-stairs; the Queen, in another apartment, was at
quadrille; and the Princess Caroline and Lord Hervey were soberly
playing at cribbage. They separated at ten, and were all in bed by
eleven, perfectly ignorant of what had been going on so near them.
 At a little before two o’clock in the morning, Mrs. Tichborne
entered the royal bedchamber, when the Queen, waking in alarm,
asked her if the palace was on fire. The faithful servant intimated
that the prince had just sent word that her royal highness was on
the point of becoming a mother. A courier had just arrived, in fact,
with the intelligence. The Queen leaped out of bed and called for her
‘morning gown,’ wherein to hurry to the room of her daughter-in-
law. When Tichborne intimated that she would need a coach as well
as a gown, for that her royal highness had been carried off to St.
James’s, the Queen’s astonishment and indignation were equally
great. On the news being communicated to the King, his surprise
and wrath were not less than the Queen’s, but he did not fail to
blame his consort as well as his son. She had allowed herself to be
outwitted, he said; a false child would despoil her own offspring of
their rights; and this was the end of all her boasted care and
management for the interests of her son William! He hoped that
Anne would come from Holland and scold her. ‘You deserve,’ he
exclaimed, ‘anything she can say to you.’ The Queen answered little,
lest it should impede her in her haste to reach London. In half an
hour she had left the palace accompanied by her two daughters, and
attended by two ladies and three noblemen. The party reached St.
James’s by four o’clock.
As they ascended the staircase, Lord Hervey invited her Majesty
to take chocolate in his apartments after she had visited the
princess. The Queen replied to the invitation ‘with a wink,’ and a
significant intimation that she certainly would refuse to accept of any
refreshment at the hands of her son. One would almost suppose
that she expected to be poisoned by him.
The prince, attired, according to the hour, in nightgown and cap,
met his august mother as she approached his apartments, and
kissed her hand and cheek, according to the mode of his country
and times. He then entered garrulously into details that would have
shocked the delicacy of a monthly nurse; but, as Caroline remarked,
she knew a good many of them to be ‘lies.’ She was cold and
reserved to the prince; but when she approached the bedside of the
princess, she spoke to her gently and kindly—womanly, in short; and
concluded by expressing a fear that her royal highness had suffered
extremely, and a hope that she was doing well. The lady so
sympathisingly addressed, answered, somewhat flippantly, that she
had scarcely suffered anything, and that the matter in question was
almost nothing at all. Caroline transferred her sympathy from the
young mother to her new-born child. The latter was put into the
Queen’s arms. She looked upon it silently for a moment, and then
exclaimed in French, her ordinary language, ‘May the good God bless
you, poor little creature! here you are arrived in a most disagreeable
world.’ The wish failed, but the assertion was true. The ‘poor little
creature’ was cursed with a long tenure of life, during which she saw
her husband deprived of his inheritance, heard of his violent death,
and participated in family sorrow, heavy and undeserved.
After pitying the daughter thus born, and commiserating the
mother who bore her, Caroline was condemned to listen to the too
minute details of the journey and its incidents, made by her son. She
turned from these to shower her indignation upon those who had
aided in the flight, and without whose succour the flight itself could
hardly have been accomplished. She directed her indignation by
turns upon all; but she let it descend with peculiar heaviness upon
Lady Archibald Hamilton, and made it all the more pungent by the
comment, that, considering Lady Archibald’s mature age, and her
having been the mother of ten children, she had years enough, and
experience enough, and offspring enough, to have taught her better
things and greater wisdom. To all these winged words, the lady
attacked answered no further than by turning to the prince, and
repeating, ‘You see, sir!’ as though she would intimate that she had
done all she could to turn him from the evil of his ways, and had
gained only unmerited reproach for the exercise of a virtue, which,
in this case, was likely to be its own and its only reward!
The prince was again inclined to become gossiping and offensive
in his details, but his royal mother cut him short by bidding him get
to bed; and with this message by way of farewell, she left the room,
descended the staircase, crossed the court on foot, and proceeded
to Lord Hervey’s apartments, where there awaited her gossip more
welcome and very superior chocolate.
Over their ‘cups,’ right merry were the Queen and her gallant
vice-chamberlain at the extreme folly of the royal son. They were
too merry for Caroline to be indignant, further than her indignation
could be shown by designating her son by the very rudest possible
of names, and showing her contempt for all who had helped him in
the night’s escapade. She acknowledged her belief that no foul play
had taken place, chiefly because the child was a daughter. This
circumstance was in itself no proof of the genuineness of the little
lady, for if Frederick had been desirous of setting aside his brother
William, his mother’s favourite, from all hope of succeeding to the
throne, the birth of a daughter was quite as sufficient for the
35
purpose as that of a son. The Queen comforted herself by
remarking that, at all events, the trouble she had taken that night
was not gratuitous. It would at least, as she delicately remarked, be
a ‘good grimace for the public,’ who would contrast her parental
anxiety with the marital cruelty and the filial undutifulness of the
Prince of Wales.
While this genial pair were thus enjoying their chocolate and
gossip, the two princesses, and two or three of the noblemen in
attendance, were doing the same in an adjoining apartment.
Meanwhile Walpole had arrived, and had been closeted with the
prince, who again had the supreme felicity of narrating to the
unwilling listener all the incidents of the journey, in telling which he,
in fact, gave to the minister the opportunity which Gyges was
afforded by Candaules, or something very like it, and for which
Frederick merited, if not the fate of the heathen husband, at least
the next severe penalty short of it.
The sun was up long before the royal and illustrious party
dispersed. The busy children of industry, who saw the Queen and
her equipage sweep by them along the Western Road, must have
been perplexed with attempts at guessing at the causes of her
Majesty being so early abroad, in so wayworn a guise. The last thing
they could then have conjectured was the adventure of the night—
the scene at Hampton Court, the flight of the son with his wife, the
pursuit of the royal mother with her two daughters, the occurrence
at St. James’s—or, indeed, any of the incidents of the stirring drama
that had been played out.
From the hour when royalty had been suddenly aroused to that
at which the Queen arrived at Hampton Court Palace—eight in the
morning, George II. had troubled himself as little with conjecturing
as his subjects. When the Queen detailed to him all that had passed,
he poured out the usual amount of paternal wrath, and of the usual
quality. He never was nice of epithet, and least of all when he had
any to bestow upon his son. It was not spared now, and what was
most liberally given was most bitter of quality.
Meanwhile, both prince and princess addressed to their
Majesties explanatory notes in French, which explained nothing, and
which, as far as regards the prince’s notes, were in poor French and
worse spelling. Everything, of course, had been done for the best;
and the sole regret of the younger couple was, that they had
somehow, they could not guess how or wherefore, incurred the
displeasure of the King and Queen. To be restored to the good
opinion of the latter was, of course, the one object of the involuntary
offenders’ lives. In short, they had had their way; and, having
enjoyed that exquisite felicity, they were not reluctant to pretend
that they were extremely penitent for what had passed.
The displeasure of Caroline and her consort at the unfeeling
conduct of Frederick was made known to the latter neither in a
sudden nor an undignified way. It was not till the 10th of September
that it may be said to have been officially conveyed to the prince. On
that day the King and Queen sent a message to him from Hampton
Court, by the Dukes of Grafton and Richmond and the Earl of
Pembroke, who faithfully acquitted themselves of their unwelcome
commission at St. James’s. The message was to the effect, that ‘the
whole tenor of the prince’s conduct for a considerable time had been
so entirely void of all real duty, that their Majesties had long had
reason to be highly offended with him; and, until he withdrew his
regard and confidence from those by whose instigation and advice
he was directed and encouraged in his unwarrantable behaviour to
his Majesty and the Queen, and until he should return to his duty, he
should not reside in a palace belonging to the King, which his
Majesty would not suffer to be made the resort of those who, under
the appearance of an attachment to the prince, fomented the
divisions which he had made in his family, and thereby weakened
the common interest of the whole.’ Their Majesties further made
known their pleasure that ‘the prince should leave St. James’s, with
all his family, when it could be done without prejudice or
inconvenience to the princess.’ His Majesty added, that ‘he should,
for the present, leave the care of his grand-daughter until a proper
time called upon him to consider of her education.’ In consequence
of this message, the prince removed to Kew on the 14th of
September.
The King and Queen now not only treated their son with
extraordinary severity, and spoke of him in the coarsest possible
language, but they treated in like manner all who were suspected of
aiding and counselling him. Their wrath was especially directed
against Lord Carteret, who had at first deceived them. That noble
lord censured, in their hearing, a course of conduct in the prince
which he had himself suggested, and, in the hearing of the heir-
apparent, never failed to praise. When their Majesties discovered
this double-dealing, and that an attempt was being made to
convince the people that in the matter of the birth of the princess
royal, the Queen alone was to blame for all the disagreeable
incidents attending it, their anger was extreme. The feeling for Lord
Carteret was shown when Lord Hervey one day spoke of him with
some commiseration—his son having run away from school, and
there being no intelligence of him, except that he had formed a very
improper marriage. ‘Why do you pity him?’ said the King to Lord
Hervey: ‘I think it is a very just punishment, that, while he is acting
the villainous part he does in debauching the minds of other people’s
children, he should feel a little what it is to have an undutiful puppy
of a son himself!’
Fierce, indeed, was the family feud, and undignified as fierce.
The Princess Amelia is said to have taken as double-sided a line of
conduct as Lord Carteret himself; for which she incurred the ill-will of
both parties. The prince declared not only that he never would trust
her again, but that, should he ever be reconciled with the King and
Queen, his first care should be to inform them that she had never
said so much harm of him to them as she had of them to him. The
Princess Caroline was the more fierce partisan of the mother whom
she loved, from the fact that she saw how her brother was
endeavouring to direct the public feeling against the Queen. She
was, however, as little dignified in her fierceness as the rest of her
family. On one occasion, as Desnoyers, the dancing-master, had
concluded his lesson to the young princesses, and was about to
return to the prince, who made of him a constant companion, the
Princess Caroline bade him inform his patron, if the latter should
ever ask him what was thought of his conduct by her, that it was her
opinion that he and all who were with him, except the Princess of
Wales, deserved hanging. Desnoyers delivered the message, with
the assurances of respect given by one who acquits himself of a
disagreeable commission to one whom he regards. ‘How did the
prince take it?’ asked Caroline, when next Desnoyers appeared at
Hampton Court. ‘Well, madam,’ said the dancing-master, ‘he first
spat in the fire, and then observed, “Ah, ah! Desnoyers; you know
the way of that Caroline. That is just like her. She is always like
that!”’ ‘Well, M. Desnoyers,’ remarked the princess, ‘when next you
see him again, tell him that I think his observation is as foolish as his
conduct.’
The exception made by the Princess Caroline of the Princess of
Wales, in the censure distributed by the former, was not undeserved.
She was the mere tool of her husband, who made no confidante of
her, had not yet appreciated her, but kept her in the most complete
ignorance of all that was happening around her, and much of which
immediately concerned her. He used to speak of the office of wife in
the very coarsest terms; and did not scruple to declare that he
would not be such a fool as his father was, who allowed himself to
be ruled and deceived by his consort.
In the meantime, he treated his mother with mingled contempt
and hypocrisy. When, nine days after the birth of the little Princess
Augusta, the Queen and her two daughters again visited the
Princess of Wales, the prince, who met her at the door of the
bedchamber, never uttered a single word during the period his
mother remained in the room.
He was as silent to his sisters; but he was ‘the agreeable “rattle”’
with the members of the royal suite. The Queen remained an hour;
and when she remarked that she was afraid she was troublesome,
no word fell from the prince or princess to persuade her to the
contrary. When the royal carriage had arrived to conduct her away,
her son led her downstairs, and at the coach door, ‘to make the mob
believe that he was never wanting in any respect, he kneeled down
in the dirty street, and kissed her hand. As soon as this operation
was over, he put her Majesty into the coach, and then returned to
the steps of his own door, leaving his sisters to get through the dirt
and the mob, by themselves, as they could. Nor did there come to
the Queen any message, either from the prince or princess, to thank
her afterwards for the trouble she had taken, or for the honour she
had done them in this visit.’ This was the last time the mother and
son met in this world. Horace Walpole well observes of the scene
that it must have caused the Queen’s indignation to shrink into mere
contempt.
The Queen’s wrath never subsided beyond a cold expression of
forgiveness to the prince when she was on her death-bed; but she
resolutely refused to see him when that solemn hour arrived, a few
months subsequently. She was blamed for this; but her contempt
was too deeply rooted to allow her to act otherwise to one who had
done all he could to embitter the peace of his father. She sent to
him, it is said, her blessing and pardon; ‘but conceiving the extreme
distress it would lay on the King, should he thus be forced to forgive
so impenitent a son, or to banish him if once recalled, she heroically
36
preferred a meritorious husband to a worthless child.’
Had the prince been sincere in his expressions when addressing
either of his parents by letter after the delivery of his wife, it is not
impossible but that a reconciliation might have followed. His studied
disrespect towards the Queen was, however, too strongly marked to
allow of this conclusion to the quarrel. He invariably omitted to
speak of her as ‘your Majesty;’ Madam, and you, were the simple
and familiar terms employed by him. Indeed, he more than once told
her that he considered that the Prince of Wales took precedence of
the Queen-consort; at which Caroline would contemptuously laugh,
and assure her ‘dear Fritz’ that he need not press the point, for even
if she were to die, the King could not marry him!
It was for mere annoyance’ sake that he declared, at the end of
August, after the christening of his daughter, that she should not be
called the ‘Princess Augusta,’ but the ‘Lady Augusta,’ according to the
old English fashion. At the same time he declared that she should be
styled ‘Your Royal Highness,’ although such style had never been
used towards his own sisters before their father’s accession to the
crown.
It will hardly be thought necessary to go through the
documentary history of what passed between the Sovereigns and
their son before he was finally ejected from St. James’s Palace.
Wrong as he was in his quarrel, ‘Fritz’ kept a better temper, though
with as bitter a spirit as his parents. On the 13th of September, the
day before that fixed on for the prince’s departure, ‘the Queen, at
breakfast, every now and then repeated, I hope in God I shall never
see him again; and the King, among many other paternal douceurs
in his valediction to his son, said: Thank God! to-morrow night the
puppy will be out of my house.’ The Queen thought her son would
rather like, than otherwise, to be made a martyr of; but it was
represented to her, that however much it might have suited him to
be made one politically, there was more disgrace to him personally in
the present expulsion than he would like to digest. The King
maintained that his son had not sense of his own to find this out;
and that as he listened only to boobies, fools, and madmen, he was
not likely to have his case truly represented to him. And then the
King ran through the list of his son’s household; and Lord Carnarvon
was set down as being as coxcombical and irate a fool as his master;
Lord Townshend, for a proud, surly booby; Lord North, as a poor
creature; Lord Baltimore, as a trimmer; and ‘Johnny Lumley’ (the
brother of Lord Scarborough), as, if nothing else, at least ‘a
stuttering puppy.’ Such, it is said, were the followers of a prince, of
whom his royal mother remarked, that he was ‘a mean fool’ and ‘a
poor-spirited beast.’
While this dissension was at its hottest, the Queen fell ill of the
gout. She was so unwell, so weary of being in bed, and so desirous
of chatting with Lord Hervey, that she now for the first time broke
through the court etiquette, which would not admit a man, save the
Sovereign, into the royal bed-chamber. The noble lord was with her
there during the whole day of each day that her confinement lasted.
She was too old, she said, to have the honour of being talked of for
it; and so, to suit her humour, the old ceremony was dispensed with.
Lord Hervey sate by her bed-side, gossiped the live-long day; and on
one occasion, when the Prince of Wales sent Lord North with a
message of enquiry after her health, he amused the Queen by
turning the message into very slipshod verse, the point of which is at
once obscure and ill-natured, but which seems to imply that the
prince would have been well content had the gout, instead of being
in her foot, attacked her stomach.
The prince had been guilty of no such indecency as this; but
there was no lack of provocation to make him commit himself. When
he was turned out of St. James’s, he was not permitted to take with
him a single article of furniture. The royal excuse was, that the
furniture had been purchased, on the prince’s marriage, at the King’s
cost, and was his Majesty’s property. It was suggested that sheets
ought not to be considered as furniture; and that the prince and
princess could not be expected to carry away their dirty linen in
baskets. ‘Why not?’ asked the King; ‘it is good enough for them!’
 Such were the petty circumstances with which Caroline and her
consort troubled themselves at the period in question. They at once
hurt their own dignity and made their son look ridiculous. The great
partisan of the latter (Lord Baltimore) did not rescue his master from
ridicule by comparing his conduct to that of the heroic Charles XII.
of Sweden. But the comparison was one to be expected from a man
whom the King had declared to be, in a great degree, a booby, and,
in a trifling degree, mad.
As soon as the prince had established himself at Kew, he was
waited on by Lord Carteret, Sir William Wyndham, and Mr. Pulteney.
The King could not conceal his anger under an affected contempt of
these persons or of their master. He endeavoured to satisfy himself
by abusing the latter, and by remarking that ‘they would soon be
tired of the puppy, who was, moreover, a scoundrel and a fool; and
who would talk more fiddle-faddle to them in a day than any old
woman talks in a week.’
The prince continued to address letters both to the King and
Queen, full of affected concern, expressed in rather impertinent
phrases. The princess addressed others, in which she sought to
justify her husband’s conduct; but as in all these notes there was a
studied disrespect of Caroline, the King would neither consent to
grant an audience to the offenders, nor would the Queen interfere to
induce him to relent.
The Queen, indeed, did not scruple to visit with her displeasure
all those courtiers who showed themselves inclined to bring about a
reconciliation; and yet she manifested some leaning towards Lord
Carteret, the chief agent of her son. This disposition alarmed
Walpole, who took upon himself to remind her that her minister
could serve her purpose better than her son’s, and that it was of the
utmost importance that she should conquer in this strife. ‘Is your son
to be bought?’ said Walpole. ‘If you will buy him, I will get him
cheaper than Carteret.’ Caroline answered only with ‘a flood of
grace, good words, favour, and professions’ of having full confidence
in her own minister—that is, Walpole himself—who had served her
so long and so faithfully.
A trait of Caroline’s character may here be mentioned, as
indicative of how she could help to build up her own reputation for
shrewdness by using the materials of others. Sir Robert Walpole, in
conversation with Lord Hervey, gave him some account of an
interview he had had with the Queen. The last-named gentleman
believed all the great minister had told him, because the Queen
herself had, in speaking of the subject to Lord Hervey, used the
precise terms now employed by Walpole. The subject was the
lukewarmness of some of the noblemen about court to serve the
King: the expression used was—‘People who keep hounds must not
hang every one that runs a little slower than the rest, provided, in
the main, they will go with the pack; one must not expect them all
to run just alike and to be equally good.’ Hervey told Walpole of the
use made by the Queen of this phrase, and Sir Robert naturally
enough remarked, ‘He was always glad when he heard she repeated
as her own any notion he had endeavoured to infuse, because it was
a sign what he had laboured had taken place.’
Meanwhile the prince was of himself doing little that could tend
to anything else than widen the breach already existing between him
and his family. He spoke aloud of what he would do when he came
to be King. His intentions, as reported by Caroline, were that she,
when she was Queen-dowager, should be ‘fleeced, flayed, and
minced.’ The Princess Amelia was to be kept in strict confinement;
the Princess Caroline left to starve; of the little princesses, Mary and
Louisa, then about fourteen and thirteen years of age, he made no
mention; and of his brother, the Duke of Cumberland, he always
spoke ‘with great affectation of kindness.’
Despite this imprudent conduct, endeavours continued to be
made by the prince and his friends, in order to bring about the
reconciliation which nobody seemed very sincere in desiring. The
Duke of Newcastle had implored the Princess Amelia, ‘For God’s
sake!’ to do her utmost ‘to persuade the Queen to make things up
with the prince before this affair was pushed to an extremity which
might make the wound incurable.’ The Queen is said to have been
exceedingly displeased with the Duke of Newcastle for thus
interfering in the matter. The Princess of Wales, however, continued
to write hurried and apparently earnest notes to the Queen,
thanking her for her kindness in standing godmother to her
daughter, treating her with ‘Your Majesty,’ and especially defending
her own husband, while affecting to deplore that his conduct,
misrepresented, had incurred the displeasure of their Majesties. ‘I
am deeply afflicted,’ so runs a note of the 17th of September, ‘at the
manner in which the prince’s conduct has been represented to your
Majesties, especially with regard to the two journeys which we made
from Hampton Court to London the week previous to my
confinement. I dare assure your Majesties, that the medical man and
midwife were then of opinion that I should not be confined before
the month of September, and that the indisposition of which I
complained was nothing more than the cholic. And besides, madam,
is it credible, that if I had gone twice to London with the design and
in the expectation of being confined there, I should have returned to
Hampton Court? I flatter myself that time and the good offices of
your Majesty will bring about a happy change in a situation of
affairs, the more deplorable for me inasmuch as I am the innocent
cause of it,’ &c.
This letter, delivered as the King and Queen were going to
chapel, was sent by the latter to Walpole, who repaired to the royal
closet in the chapel, where Caroline asked him what he thought of
this last performance? The answer was very much to the purpose.
Sir Robert said, he detected ‘you lie, you lie, you lie, from one end of
it to the other.’ Caroline agreed that the lie was flung at her by the
writer.
There was as much discussion touching the reply which should
be sent to this grievously offending note as if it had been a protocol
of the very first importance. One was for having it smart, another
formal, another so shaped that it should kindly treat the princess as
blameless, and put an end to further correspondence, with some
general wishes as to the future conduct of ‘Fritz.’ This was done, and
the letter was despatched. What effect it had upon the conduct of
the person alluded to may be discerned in the fact that when, on
Thursday, the 22nd of September, the prince and princess received
at Carlton House the Lord Mayor and Corporation of London, with an
address of congratulation on the birth of the Princess Augusta, the
lords of the prince’s present council distributed to everybody in the
room copies of the King’s message to the prince, ordering him to
quit St. James’s, and containing reflections against all persons who
might even visit the prince. The lords, particularly the Duke of
Marlborough and Lords Chesterfield and Carteret, deplored the
oppression under which the Prince of Wales struggled. His highness
also spoke to the citizens in terms calculated—certainly intended—to
win their favour.
He did not acquire all the popular favour he expected. Thus,
when, during the repairs of Carlton House, he occupied the
residence of the Duke of Norfolk, in St. James’s Square—a residence
which the duke and duchess refused to let to him, until they had
obtained the sanction of the King and Queen—‘he reduced the
number of his inferior servants, which made him many enemies
among the lower sort of people.’ He also diminished his stud, and
‘farmed all his tables, even that of the princess and himself.’ In other
words, his tables were supplied by a cook at so much per head.
His position was one, however, which was sure to procure for
him a degree of popularity, irrespective of his real merits. The latter,
however, were not great nor numerous, and even his own officers
considered their interests far before those of him they served—or
deserted. At the theatre, however, he was the popular hero of the
hour, and when once, on being present at the representation of
37
‘Cato,’ the words—

When vice prevails and impious men bear sway,

The post of honour is a private station—
were received with loud huzzas, the prince joined in the applause, to
show how he appreciated, and perhaps applied, the lines.
Although the King’s alleged oppression towards his son was
publicly canvassed by the latter, the prince and his followers
invariably named the Queen as the true author of it. The latter, in
commenting on this filial course, constantly sacrificed her dignity.
‘My dear lord,’ said Caroline, once, to Lord Hervey, ‘I will give it you
under my hand, if you have any fear of my relapsing, that my dear
first-born is the greatest ass, and the greatest liar, and the greatest
canaille, and the greatest beast, in the whole world, and that I most
heartily wish he was out of it!’ The King continued to treat him in
much the same strain, adding, courteously, that he had often asked
the Queen if the beast were his son. ‘The Queen was a great while,’
said he, ‘before her maternal affection would give him up for a fool,
and yet I told her so before he had been acting as if he had no
common sense.’ While so hard upon the conduct of their son, an
entry from Lord Hervey’s diary will show us what was their own: the
King’s with regard to decency, the Queen’s with respect to truth.
Whilst the Queen was talking one morning touching George I.’s
will and other family matters, with Lord Hervey, ‘the King opened her
door at the further end of the gallery; upon which the Queen chid
Lord Hervey for coming so late, saying, that she had several things
to say to him, and that he was always so long in coming, after he
was sent for, that she never had any time to talk with him. To which
Lord Hervey replied, that it was not his fault, for that he always
came the moment he was called; that he wished, with all his heart,
the King had more love, or Lady Deloraine more wit, that he might
have more time with her Majesty; but that he thought it very hard
that he should be snubbed and reproved because the King was old
and Lady Deloraine a fool. This made the Queen laugh; and the King
asking, when he came up to her, what it was at, she said it was at a
conversation Lord Hervey was reporting between the prince and Mr.
Lyttelton, on his being made secretary. The King desired him to
repeat it. Lord Hervey got out of the difficulty as he best could.
When the Queen and my lord next met, she said: “I think I was one
with you for your impertinence.” To which Lord Hervey replied, “The
next time you serve me so, madam, perhaps I may be even with
38
you, and desire your Majesty to repeat as well as report.”’
It may be noticed here, that both Frederick and the Queen’s
party published copies of the French correspondence which had
passed between the two branches of the family at feud, and that in
the translations appended to the letters, each party was equally
unscrupulous in giving such turns to the phrases as should serve
only one side, and injure the adverse faction. Bishop Sherlock, who
set the good fashion of residing much within his own diocese, once
ventured to give an opinion upon the prince’s conduct, which at least
served to show that the prelate was not a very finished courtier.
Bishops who reside within their dioceses, and trouble themselves
little with what takes place beyond it, seldom are. The bishop said
that the prince had lacked able counsellors, had weakly played his
game into the King’s hands, and made a blunder which he would
never retrieve. This remark provoked Caroline to say—‘I hope, my
lord, this is not the way you intend to speak your disapprobation of
my son’s measures anywhere else; for your saying that, by his
conduct lately, he has played his game into the King’s hands, one
would imagine you thought the game had been before in his own;
and though he has made his game still worse than it was, I am far
from thinking it ever was a good one, or that he had ever much
chance to win.’
Caroline, and indeed her consort also, conjectured that the
public voice and opinion were expressed in favour of the occupants
of the throne from the fact, that the birthday drawing-room of the
30th of October was the most splendid and crowded which had ever
been known since the King’s accession. That King himself probably
little cared whether he were popular or not. He was at this time
buying hundreds of lottery-tickets, out of the secret-service money,
and making presents of them to Madame Walmoden. A few fell,
perhaps, to the share of Lady Deloraine: ‘He’ll give her a couple of
tickets,’ said Walpole, ‘and think her generously used.’ His Majesty
would have rejoiced if he could have divided so easily his double
possession of England and Hanover. He had long entertained a wish
to give the Electorate to his second son, William of Cumberland, and
entertained a very erroneous idea that the English parliament could
assist him in altering the law of succession in the Electorate. Caroline
had, perhaps, not a much more correctly formed idea. She had a
conviction, however, touching her son, which was probably better
founded. ‘I knew,’ she said, ‘he would sell not only his reversion in
the Electorate, but even in this kingdom, if the Pretender would give
him five or six hundred thousand pounds in present; but, thank God!
he has neither right nor power to sell his family—though his folly and
39
his knavery may sometimes distress them.’
 CHAPTER VIII.
DEATH OF CAROLINE.

Indisposition of the Queen—Her anxiety to conceal the cause—Walpole

closeted with her—Her illness assumes a grave character—Obliged to
retire from the Drawing-room—Affectionate attentions of Princess Caroline
—Continued bitter feeling towards the Prince—Discussions of the
physicians—Queen takes leave of the Duke of Cumberland—Parting scene
with the King—Interview with Walpole—The Prince denied the palace—
Great patience of the Queen—The Archbishop summoned to the palace—
Eulogy on the Queen pronounced by the King—His oddities—The Queen’s
exemplary conduct—Her death—Terror of Dr. Hulse—Singular conduct of
the King—Opposition to Sir R. Walpole—Lord Chesterfield pays court to
the Prince’s favourite.

After the birth of the Princess Louisa, on the 12th of December,

1724, Caroline, then Princess of Wales, was more than ordinarily
indisposed. Her indisposition was of such a nature that, though she
had made no allusion to it herself, her husband spoke to her on the
subject. The princess avoided entering upon a discussion, and
sought to satisfy the prince by remarking that her indisposition was
nothing more than what was common to her health, position, and
circumstances. For some years, although the symptoms were
neglected, the disease was not aggravated. At length more serious
indications were so perceptible to George, who was now King, that
he did not conceal his opinion that she was suffering from rupture.
This opinion she combated with great energy, for she had a rooted
aversion to its being supposed that she was afflicted with any
complaint. She feared lest the fact, being known, might lose her
some of her husband’s regard, or lead people to think that with
personal infirmity her power over him had been weakened. The King
again and again urged her to acknowledge that she suffered from
the complaint he had named, and to have medical advice on the
subject. Again and again she refused, and each time with renewed
expressions of displeasure; until at last, the King, contenting himself
with expressing a hope that she would not have to repent of her
obstinacy, made her a promise never to allude to the subject again
without her consent. The secret, however, was necessarily known to
others also; and we can only wonder that, being so known, more
active and effective measures were not taken to remedy an evil
which, in our days, at least, formidable as it may appear in name, is
so successfully treated as almost to deserve no more serious
appellation than a mere inconvenience.
Under an appearance of, at least, fair health, Queen Caroline
may be said to have been gradually decaying for years. Her pride
and her courage would not, however, allow of this being seen; and
when she rose, as was her custom, to curtsey to the King, not even
George himself was aware of the pain the effort cost her. Sir Robert
Walpole was long aware that she suffered greatly from some secret
malady, and it was not till after a long period of observation that he
succeeded in discovering her Majesty’s secret. He was often closeted
with her, arranging business that they were afterwards to nominally
transact in presence of the King, and to settle, as he imagined,
according to his will and pleasure. It was on some such occasion
that Sir Robert made the discovery in question. The minister’s wife
had just died; she was about the same age as Caroline, and the
Queen put to the minister such close, physical questions, and
adverted so frequently to the subject of rupture, of which Sir
Robert’s wife did not die, that the minister at once came to the
conclusion that her Majesty was herself suffering from that
40
complaint. This was the case: but the fact was only known to the
King himself, her German nurse (Mrs. Mailborne), and one other
person. A curious scene often occurred in her dressing-room and the
adjoining apartment. During the process of the morning toilette,
prayers were read in the outer room by her Majesty’s chaplain, the
latter kneeling the while beneath the painting of a nude Venus—
which, as Dr. Madox, a royal chaplain on service, once observed, was
a ‘very proper altar-piece.’ On these occasions, Walpole tells us that,
‘to prevent all suspicion, her Majesty would frequently stand some
minutes in her shift, talking to her ladies, and, though labouring with
so dangerous a complaint, she made it so invariable a rule never to
refuse a desire of the King, that every morning, at Richmond, she
walked several miles with him; and more than once, when she had
the gout in her foot, she dipped her whole leg in cold water to be
ready to attend him. The pain, her bulk, and the exercise, threw her
into such fits of perspiration as routed the gout; but those exertions
hastened the crisis of her distemper.’
In the summer of 1737 she suffered so seriously, that at length,
on the 26th of August, a report spread over the town that the Queen
41
was dead. The whole city at once assumed a guise of mourning—
gay summer or cheerful autumn dresses were withdrawn from the
shop windows, and nothing was to be seen in their place but ‘sables.’
The report, however, was unfounded. Her Majesty had been ill, but
one of her violent remedies had restored her for the moment. She
was thereby enabled to walk about Hampton Court with the King;
but she was not equal to the task of coming to London on the 29th
of the same month, when her grand-daughter Augusta was
christened, and King, Queen, and Duchess of Saxe Gotha stood
sponsors, by their proxies, to the future mother of a future Queen of
England.
At length, in November 1737, the crisis above alluded to
occurred, and Caroline’s illness soon assumed a very grave character.
Her danger, of which she was well aware, did not cause her to lose
her presence of mind, nor her dignity, nor to sacrifice any
characteristic of her disposition or reigning passion.
It was on Wednesday morning, the 9th of November, that the
Queen was seized with the illness which ultimately proved fatal to
her. She was distressed with violent internal pains, which Daffy’s
Elixir, administered to her by Dr. Tessier, could not allay. The violence
of the attack compelled her to return to bed early in the morning;
but her courage was great and the King’s pity small, and
consequently she rose, after resting for some hours, in order to
preside at the usual Wednesday’s drawing-room. The King had great
dislike to see her absent from this ceremony; without her, he used to
say, there was neither grace, gaiety, nor dignity; and, accordingly,
she went to this last duty with the spirit of a wounded knight who
returns to the field and dies in harness. She was not able long to
endure the fatigue. Lord Hervey was so struck by her appearance of
weakness and suffering, that he urged her, with friendly
peremptoriness, to retire from a scene for which she was evidently
unfitted. The Queen acknowledged her inability to continue any
longer in the room, but she could not well break up the assembly
without the King, who was in another part of the room, discussing
the mirth and merits of the last uproarious burlesque extravaganza,
‘The Dragon of Wantley.’ All London was then flocking to Covent
Garden to hear Lampe’s music and Carey’s light nonsense; and
Ryan’s Hamlet was not half so much cared for as Reinhold’s Dragon,
nor Mrs. Vincent’s Ophelia so much esteemed as the Margery and
Mauxalinda of the two Misses Young.
At length, his Majesty having been informed of the Queen’s
serious indisposition, and her desire to withdraw, took her by the
hand to lead her away, roughly noticing, at the same time, that she
had ‘passed over’ the Duchess of Norfolk. Caroline immediately
repaired her fault by addressing a few condescending words to that
old well-wisher of her family. They were the last words she ever
uttered on the public scene of her grandeur. All that followed was
the undressing after the great drama was over.
In the evening Lord Hervey again saw her. He had been dining
with the French ambassador, and he returned from the dinner at an
hour at which people now dress before they go to such a ceremony.
He was again at the palace by seven o’clock. His duty authorised
him, and his inclination prompted him, to see the Queen. He found
her suffering from increase of internal pains, violent sickness, and
progressive weakness. Cordials and various calming remedies were
prescribed, and while they were being prepared, a little
‘usquebaugh’ was administered to her; but neither whisky, nor
cordials, nor calming draughts could be retained. Her pains
increased, and therewith her strength diminished. She was
throughout this day and night affectionately attended by the
Princess Caroline, who was herself in extremely weak health, but
who would not leave her mother’s bedside till two o’clock in the
morning. The King then relieved her, after his fashion, which brought
relief to no one. He did not sit up to watch the sufferer, but, in his
morning gown, lay outside the bed, by the Queen’s side. Her
restlessness was very great, but the King did not leave her space
enough even to turn in bed; and he was so uncomfortable that he
was kept awake and ill-tempered throughout the night.
On the following day the Queen was bled, but without producing
any good effect. Her illness visibly increased, and George was as
visibly affected by it. Not so much so, however, as not to be
concerned about matters of dress. With the sight of the Queen’s
suffering before his eyes, he remembered that he had to meet the
foreign ministers that day, and he was exceedingly particular in
directing the pages to see that new ruffles were sewn to his old
shirt-sleeves, whereby he might wear a decent air in the eyes of the
representatives of foreign majesty. The Princess Caroline continued
to exhibit unabated sympathy for the mother who had perhaps loved
her better than any other of her daughters. The princess was in
tears and suffering throughout the day, and almost needed as much
care as the royal patient herself; especially after losing much blood
by the sudden breaking of one of the small vessels in the nose. It
was on this day that, to aid Broxholm, who had hitherto prescribed
for the Queen, Sir Hans Sloane and Dr. Hulse were called in. They
prescribed for an obstinate internal obstruction which could not be
overcome; and applied blisters to the legs—a remedy for which both
King and Queen had a sovereign and silly disgust.
On the 11th, the quiet of the palace was disturbed by a message
from the Prince of Wales, making enquiry after the condition of his
mother. His declared filial affection roused the King to a pitch of
almost ungovernable fury. The royal father flung at the son every
missile in his well-stored vocabulary of abuse. There really seemed
something devilish in this spirit at such a time. In truth, however, the
King had good ground for knowing that the assurances of the prince
were based upon the most patent hypocrisy. The spirit of the dying
Queen was nothing less fierce and bitter against the prince and his
adherents—that ‘Cartouche gang,’ as she was wont to designate
them. There was no touch of mercy in her, as regarded her feelings
or expressions towards him; and her epithets were not less
degrading to the utterer and to the object against whom they were
directed, than the King’s. She begged her husband to keep her son
from her presence. She had no faith, she said, in his assertions of
concern, respect, or sympathy. She knew he would approach her
with an assumption of grief; would listen dutifully, as it might seem,
to her laments; would ‘blubber like a calf’ at her condition; and
laugh at her outright as soon as he had left her presence.
It seems infinitely strange that it was not until the 12th of the
month that the King hinted to the Queen the propriety of her
physicians knowing that she was suffering from rupture. Caroline
listened to the suggestion with aversion and displeasure; she
earnestly entreated that what had hitherto been kept secret should
remain so. The King apparently acquiesced, but there is little doubt
of his having communicated a knowledge of the fact to Ranby, the
surgeon, who was now in attendance. When the Queen next
complained of violent internal pain, Ranby approached her, and she
directed his hand to the spot where she said she suffered most. Like
the skilful man that he was, Ranby contrived at the same moment to
satisfy himself as to the existence of the more serious complaint;
and having done so, went up to the King, and spoke to him in a
subdued tone of voice. The Queen immediately suspected what had
taken place, and, ill as she was, she railed at Ranby for a
‘blockhead.’ The surgeon, however, made no mystery of the matter;
but declared, on the contrary, that there was no time to be lost, and
that active treatment must at once be resorted to. The discovery of
the real malady which was threatening the Queen’s life, and which
would not have been perilous had it not been so strangely
neglected, cost Caroline the only tears she shed throughout her
trying illness.
Shipton and the able and octogenarian Bussier were now called
in to confer with the other medical men. It was at first proposed to
operate with the knife; but ultimately it was agreed that an attempt
should be made to reduce the tumour by less extreme means. The
Queen bore the necessary treatment patiently. Her chief watcher
and nurse was still the gentle Princess Caroline. The latter, however,
became so ill, that the medical men insisted on bleeding her. She
would not keep her room, but lay dressed on a couch in an
apartment next to that in which lay her dying mother. Lord Hervey,
when tired with watching—and his post was one of extreme fatigue
and anxiety—slept on a mattress, at the foot of the couch of the
Princess Caroline. The King retired to his own bed, and on this night
the Princess Amelia waited on her mother.
The following day, Sunday, the 13th, was a day of much
solemnity. The medical men announced that the wound from which
the Queen suffered had begun to mortify, and that death must
speedily supervene. The danger was made known to all; and of all,
Caroline exhibited the least concern. She took a solemn and
dignified leave of her children, always excepting the Prince of Wales.
Her parting with her favourite son, the young Duke of Cumberland,
was touching, and showed the depth of her love for him.
Considering her avowed partiality, there was some show of justice in
her concluding counsel to him that, should his brother Frederick ever
be King, he should never seek to mortify him, but simply try to
manifest a superiority over him only by good actions and merit. She
spoke kindly to her daughter Amelia, but much more than kindly to
the gentle Caroline, to whose care she consigned her two youngest
daughters, Louisa and Mary. She appears to have felt as little
inclination to see her daughter Anne, as she had to see her son
Frederick. Indeed, intimation had been given to the Prince of Orange
to the effect that not only was the company of the princess not
required, but that should she feel disposed to leave Holland for St.
James’s, he was to restrain her, by power of his marital authority.
 The parting scene with the King was one of mingled dignity and
farce, touching incident and crapulousness. Caroline took from her
finger a ruby ring, and put it on a finger of the King. She tenderly
declared that whatever greatness or happiness had fallen to her
share, she had owed it all to him; adding, with something very like
profanity and general unseemliness, that naked she had come to
him and naked she would depart from him; for that all she had was
his, and she had so disposed of her own that he should be her heir.
The singular man to whom she thus addressed herself acted
singularly; and, for that matter, so also did his dying consort. Among
her last recommendations made on this day, was one enjoining him
to marry. The King, overcome, or seemingly overcome, at the idea of
being a widower, burst into a flood of tears. The Queen renewed her
injunctions that after her decease he should take a second wife. He
sobbed aloud; but amid his sobbing he suggested an opinion that he
thought that, rather than take another wife, he would maintain a
mistress or two. ‘Eh, mon Dieu!’ exclaimed Caroline, ‘the one does
not prevent the other! Cela n’empêche pas!’
A dying wife might have shown more decency, but she could
hardly have been more complaisant. Accordingly, when, after the
above dignified scene had been brought to a close, the Queen fell
into a profound sleep, George kissed her unconscious cheeks a
hundred times over, expressed an opinion that she would never
wake to recognition again, and gave evidence, by his words and
actions, how deeply he really regarded the dying woman before him.
It happened, however, that she did wake to consciousness again;
and then, with his usual inconsistency of temper, he snubbed as
much as he soothed her, yet without any deliberate intention of
being unkind. She expressed her conviction that she should survive
till the Wednesday. It was her peculiar day, she said. She had been
born on a Wednesday, was married on a Wednesday, first became a
mother on a Wednesday, was crowned on a Wednesday, and she
was convinced she should die on a Wednesday.
Her expressed indifference as to seeing Walpole is in strong
contrast with the serious way in which she did hold converse with
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