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 GRAPHS,
ALGORITHMS,
AND OPTIMIZATION
Second edition
 DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
ITS APPLICATIONS
R. B. J. T. Allenby and Alan Slomson, How to Count: An Introduction to Combinatorics,
Third Edition
Craig P. Bauer, Secret History: The Story of Cryptology
Jürgen Bierbrauer, Introduction to Coding Theory, Second Edition
Katalin Bimbó, Combinatory Logic: Pure, Applied and Typed
Katalin Bimbó, Proof Theory: Sequent Calculi and Related Formalisms
Donald Bindner and Martin Erickson, A Student’s Guide to the Study, Practice, and Tools of
Modern Mathematics
Francine Blanchet-Sadri, Algorithmic Combinatorics on Partial Words
Miklós Bóna, Combinatorics of Permutations, Second Edition
Miklós Bóna, Handbook of Enumerative Combinatorics
Miklós Bóna, Introduction to Enumerative and Analytic Combinatorics, Second Edition
Jason I. Brown, Discrete Structures and Their Interactions
Richard A. Brualdi and Dragos̆ Cvetković, A Combinatorial Approach to Matrix Theory and Its
Applications
Kun-Mao Chao and Bang Ye Wu, Spanning Trees and Optimization Problems
Charalambos A. Charalambides, Enumerative Combinatorics
Gary Chartrand and Ping Zhang, Chromatic Graph Theory
Henri Cohen, Gerhard Frey, et al., Handbook of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
Charles J. Colbourn and Jeffrey H. Dinitz, Handbook of Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
Abhijit Das, Computational Number Theory
Matthias Dehmer and Frank Emmert-Streib, Quantitative Graph Theory:
Mathematical Foundations and Applications
Martin Erickson, Pearls of Discrete Mathematics
Martin Erickson and Anthony Vazzana, Introduction to Number Theory
 Titles (continued)

Steven Furino, Ying Miao, and Jianxing Yin, Frames and Resolvable Designs: Uses,
Constructions, and Existence
Mark S. Gockenbach, Finite-Dimensional Linear Algebra
Randy Goldberg and Lance Riek, A Practical Handbook of Speech Coders
Jacob E. Goodman and Joseph O’Rourke, Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry,
Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Combinatorial Methods with Computer Applications
Jonathan L. Gross and Jay Yellen, Graph Theory and Its Applications, Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Jay Yellen, and Ping Zhang Handbook of Graph Theory, Second Edition
David S. Gunderson, Handbook of Mathematical Induction: Theory and Applications
Richard Hammack, Wilfried Imrich, and Sandi Klavžar, Handbook of Product Graphs,
Second Edition
Darrel R. Hankerson, Greg A. Harris, and Peter D. Johnson, Introduction to Information Theory
and Data Compression, Second Edition
Darel W. Hardy, Fred Richman, and Carol L. Walker, Applied Algebra: Codes, Ciphers, and
Discrete Algorithms, Second Edition
Daryl D. Harms, Miroslav Kraetzl, Charles J. Colbourn, and John S. Devitt, Network Reliability:
Experiments with a Symbolic Algebra Environment
Silvia Heubach and Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Compositions and Words
Leslie Hogben, Handbook of Linear Algebra, Second Edition
Derek F. Holt with Bettina Eick and Eamonn A. O’Brien, Handbook of Computational Group Theory
David M. Jackson and Terry I. Visentin, An Atlas of Smaller Maps in Orientable and
Nonorientable Surfaces
Richard E. Klima, Neil P. Sigmon, and Ernest L. Stitzinger, Applications of Abstract Algebra
with Maple™ and MATLAB®, Second Edition
Richard E. Klima and Neil P. Sigmon, Cryptology: Classical and Modern with Maplets
Patrick Knupp and Kambiz Salari, Verification of Computer Codes in Computational Science
and Engineering
William L. Kocay and Donald L. Kreher, Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization, Second Edition
Donald L. Kreher and Douglas R. Stinson, Combinatorial Algorithms: Generation Enumeration
and Search
Hang T. Lau, A Java Library of Graph Algorithms and Optimization
C. C. Lindner and C. A. Rodger, Design Theory, Second Edition
San Ling, Huaxiong Wang, and Chaoping Xing, Algebraic Curves in Cryptography
Nicholas A. Loehr, Bijective Combinatorics
Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Set Partitions
 Titles (continued)

Toufik Mansour and Matthias Schork, Commutation Relations, Normal Ordering, and Stirling
Numbers
Alasdair McAndrew, Introduction to Cryptography with Open-Source Software
Elliott Mendelson, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, Fifth Edition
Alfred J. Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschot, and Scott A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied
Cryptography
Stig F. Mjølsnes, A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Information Security
Jason J. Molitierno, Applications of Combinatorial Matrix Theory to Laplacian Matrices of Graphs
Richard A. Mollin, Advanced Number Theory with Applications
Richard A. Mollin, Algebraic Number Theory, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, Codes: The Guide to Secrecy from Ancient to Modern Times
Richard A. Mollin, Fundamental Number Theory with Applications, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, An Introduction to Cryptography, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, Quadratics
Richard A. Mollin, RSA and Public-Key Cryptography
Carlos J. Moreno and Samuel S. Wagstaff, Jr., Sums of Squares of Integers
Gary L. Mullen and Daniel Panario, Handbook of Finite Fields
Goutam Paul and Subhamoy Maitra, RC4 Stream Cipher and Its Variants
Dingyi Pei, Authentication Codes and Combinatorial Designs
Kenneth H. Rosen, Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics
Yongtang Shi, Matthias Dehmer, Xueliang Li, and Ivan Gutman, Graph Polynomials
Douglas R. Shier and K.T. Wallenius, Applied Mathematical Modeling: A Multidisciplinary
Approach
Alexander Stanoyevitch, Introduction to Cryptography with Mathematical Foundations and
Computer Implementations
Jörn Steuding, Diophantine Analysis
Douglas R. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition
Roberto Tamassia, Handbook of Graph Drawing and Visualization
Roberto Togneri and Christopher J. deSilva, Fundamentals of Information Theory and Coding
Design
W. D. Wallis, Introduction to Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
W. D. Wallis and J. C. George, Introduction to Combinatorics
Jiacun Wang, Handbook of Finite State Based Models and Applications
Lawrence C. Washington, Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography, Second Edition
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

GRAPHS,
ALGORITHMS,
AND OPTIMIZATION
Second edition

William l. Kocay
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Canada

DonalD l. Kreher
Michigan Technological University
Houghton, USA
CRC Press
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The authors would like to take this opportunity to express their appreciation and
gratitude to the following people who have had a very significant effect on their
mathematical development:
Adrian Bondy, Earl Kramer, Spyros Magliveras, Ron Read, and Ralph Stanton.

This book is dedicated to the memory of

William T. Tutte, (1917–2002)
“ the greatest of the graphmen ”
Contents

Preface xvii

1 Graphs and Their Complements 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Degree sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Havel-Hakimi theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.2 Erdös-Gallai theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Paths and Walks 23

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 The shortest-path problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Weighted graphs and Dijkstra’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Floyd’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3 Subgraphs 45
3.1 Counting subgraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.1 Möbius inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.2 Counting triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Multiplying subgraph counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Mixed subgraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Graph reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.1 Nash-Williams’ lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

ix
x Contents

3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4 Some Special Classes of Graphs 57

4.1 Bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2 Line graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Moore graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Euler tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.1 An Euler tour algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5 Trees and Cycles 73

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 Fundamental cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Co-trees and bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4 Spanning tree algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4.1 Prim’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4.1.1 Data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.2 Kruskal’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.2.1 Data structures and complexity . . . . . . . 85
5.4.3 The Cheriton-Tarjan algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.4 Leftist binary trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6 The Structure of Trees 97

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Non-rooted trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Read’s tree encoding algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.1 The decoding algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4 Generating rooted trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.5 Generating non-rooted trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.6 Prüfer sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.7 Spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Contents xi

6.8 The matrix-tree theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

7 Connectivity 125
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3 Finding the blocks of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4 The depth-first search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.5 Sections and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

8 Graphs and Symmetry 147

8.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 Cayley graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3 Coset diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.3.1 Double cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.4 Conjugation, Sylow subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.5 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.6 Primitivity and block systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.7 Self-complementary graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.8 Pseudo-similar vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

9 Alternating Paths and Matchings 169

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.2 The Hungarian algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.2.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.3 Edmonds’ algorithm, blossoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.3.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.4 Perfect matchings and 1-factorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.5 The subgraph problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.6 Coverings in bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9.7 Tutte’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
xii Contents

10 Network Flows 193

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.2 The Ford-Fulkerson algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.3 Matchings and flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.4 Menger’s theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
10.5 Disjoint paths and separating sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

11 Hamilton Cycles 217

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.2 The crossover algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.2.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.3 The Hamilton closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.4 The extended multi-path algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.4.1 Data structures for the segments . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11.5 Decision problems, NP-completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.6 The traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
11.7 The ∆TSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
11.8 Christofides’ algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

12 Digraphs 251
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.2 Activity graphs, critical paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.3 Topological order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.4 Strong components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.4.1 An application to fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.5 Tournaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
12.5.1 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
12.6 2-Satisfiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Contents xiii

12.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

13 Graph Colorings 271

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
13.1.1 Intersecting lines in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
13.2 Cliques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
13.3 Mycielski’s construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
13.4 Critical graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
13.5 Chromatic polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.6 Edge colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
13.7 Graph homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
13.8 NP-completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

14 Planar Graphs 305

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
14.2 Jordan curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
14.3 Graph minors, subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.4 Euler’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.5 Rotation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
14.6 Dual graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
14.7 Platonic solids, polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
14.8 Triangulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
14.9 The sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
14.10 Whitney’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
14.11 Medial digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
14.12 The 4-color problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
14.13 Nowhere-zero flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
14.14 Straight-line drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
14.15 Coordinate averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
14.16 Kuratowski’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
14.17 The Hopcroft-Tarjan algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
14.17.1 Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
14.17.2 Switching bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
14.17.3 The general Hopcroft-Tarjan algorithm . . . . . . . . . 353
xiv Contents

14.18 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

15 Graphs and Surfaces 359

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
15.2 Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
15.2.1 Handles and crosscaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
15.2.2 The Euler characteristic and genus of a surface . . . . 368
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
15.3 Isometries of surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
15.4 Graph embeddings, obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
15.5 Graphs on the torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
15.5.1 Platonic maps on the torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
15.5.2 Drawing torus maps, triangulations . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
15.6 Coordinate averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
15.7 Graphs on the projective plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
15.7.1 The facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.7.2 Double covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
15.8 Embedding algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
15.9 Heawood’s map coloring theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
15.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

16 The Klein Bottle and the Double Torus 425

16.1 The Klein bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
16.1.1 Rotation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
16.1.2 The double cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
16.2 The double torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
16.2.1 Isometries of the hyperbolic plane . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
16.2.2 The double torus as an octagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
16.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

17 Linear Programming 451

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
17.1.1 A simple example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
17.1.2 Simple graphical example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
17.1.3 Slack and surplus variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
17.2 The simplex algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Contents xv

17.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

17.2.2 Some notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
17.2.3 Phase 0: finding a basis solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
17.2.4 Obtaining a basis feasible solution . . . . . . . . . . . 460
17.2.5 The tableau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
17.2.6 Phase 2: improving a basis feasible solution . . . . . . 462
17.2.7 Unbounded solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
17.2.8 Conditions for optimality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
17.2.9 Phase 1: initial basis feasible solution . . . . . . . . . 469
17.2.10 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
17.3 Cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
17.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

18 The Primal-Dual Algorithm 479

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
18.2 Alternate form of the primal and its dual . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
18.3 Geometric interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
18.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
18.4 Complementary slackness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
18.5 The dual of the shortest-path problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.6 The primal-dual algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
18.6.1 Initial feasible solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
18.6.2 The shortest-path problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
18.6.3 Maximum flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
18.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

19 Discrete Linear Programming 507

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
19.2 Backtracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
19.3 Branch and bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
19.4 Totally unimodular matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
19.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Bibliography 527

Index 539
Preface

Our objective in writing this book is to present the theory of graphs from an al-
gorithmic viewpoint. We present the graph theory in a rigorous, but informal style
and cover most of the main areas of graph theory. The ideas of surface topology are
presented from an intuitive point of view. We have also included a discussion on lin-
ear programming that emphasizes problems in graph theory. The text is suitable for
students in computer science or mathematics programs.
Graph theory is a rich source of problems and techniques for programming and
data structure development, as well as for the theory of computing, including NP-
completeness and polynomial reduction.
This book could be used a textbook for a third or fourth year course on graph
algorithms which contains a programming content, or for a more advanced course
at the fourth year or graduate level. It could be used in a course in which the pro-
gramming language is any major programming language (e.g., C, C++, Java). The
algorithms are presented in a generic style and are not dependent on any particular
programming language.
The text could also be used for a sequence of courses like “Graph Algorithms I”
and “Graph Algorithms II”. The courses offered would depend on the selection of
chapters included. A typical course will begin with Chapters 1, 2, 4, and 5. At this
point, a number of options are available.
A possible first course would consist of Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13,
and 14, and a first course stressing optimization would consist of Chapters 1, 2, 3,
5, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, and 19. Experience indicates that the students consider these
substantial courses. One or two chapters could be omitted for a lighter course.
We would like to thank the many people who provided encouragement while
we wrote this book, pointed out typos and errors, and gave useful suggestions. In
particular, we would like to convey our thanks to Ben Li and John van Rees of the
University of Manitoba for proofreading some chapters.

William Kocay
Donald L. Kreher
August, 2004

xvii
xviii Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization

Preface to the second edition

The second edition of Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization contains three com-
pletely new chapters. New material has also been added to previously existing chap-
ters. There is a new chapter on subgraph counting containing identities connecting
various kinds of subgraphs in a graph. The graph reconstruction problem is intro-
duced in this chapter. There is a chapter on graphs and symmetries, where the relation
of permutation groups to graphs is considered. This chapter contains the basic theory
of permutation groups. In particular, groups are used to construct symmetric graphs,
and to understand self-complementary graphs and graphs with pseudo-similar ver-
tices. A chapter on graph embeddings on the Klein bottle and double torus has also
been added.
Some of the new material added to previously existing chapters is :
• A proof of the Erdös-Gallai theorem has been included;
• Sections on isometries of surfaces have been added, according to their applica-
tion to graph embeddings in the plane and torus;
• The treatment of the double cover of graphs on the projective plane has been
expanded;
• Automorphism groups of graph embeddings have been included;
• The proof of the NP-completeness of 3-coloring a graph has been corrected;
• The algorithm using Vizing’s technique for edge-coloring a graph has been im-
proved;
• A section on modules in graphs and digraphs has been added;
• Edmonds’ matching algorithm using blossoms now has a section;
• Nowhere-zero flows are introduced;
• The use of coordinate averaging to produce nice drawings of graphs on surfaces
is introduced;
• The basics of graph homomorphisms are now presented.
Also all the diagrams in the text have been redrawn and enhanced. We convey our
thanks and gratitude to Andrei Gagarin for his help in the proof-reading of this second
edition.

William Kocay
Donald L. Kreher
August, 2016
Preface xix

William Kocay obtained his Ph.D. in Combinatorics and Optimization from the
University of Waterloo in 1979. He is currently a member of the Computer Sci-
ence Department, and an adjunct member of the Mathematics Department, at the
University of Manitoba, and a member of St. Paul’s College, a college affiliated
with the University of Manitoba. He has published numerous research papers,
mostly in graph theory and algorithms for graphs. He was managing editor of the
mathematics journal Ars Combinatoria from 1988 to 1997. He is currently on
the editorial board of that journal. He has had extensive experience developing
software for graph theory and related mathematical structures.
Donald L. Kreher obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska in 1984.
He has held academic positions at Rochester Institute of Technology and the
University of Wyoming. He is currently a University Professor of Mathematical
Sciences at Michigan Technological University, where he teaches and conducts
research in combinatorics and combinatorial algorithms. He has published nu-
merous research papers and is a co-author of the internationally acclaimed text
“Combinatorial Algorithms: Generation Enumeration and Search”, CRC Press,
1999. He serves on the editorial boards of two journals.

Professor Kreher is the sole recipient of the 1995 Marshall Hall Medal, awarded
by the Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications.
1
Graphs and Their Complements

1.1 Introduction
The diagram in Figure 1.1 illustrates a graph. It is called the graph of the cube. The
edges of the geometric cube correspond to the line segments connecting the nodes in
the graph, and the nodes correspond to the corners of the cube where the edges meet.
They are the vertices of the cube.

2 6
3 7

0 4
1 5

FIGURE 1.1
The graph of a cube

This diagram is drawn so as to resemble a cube, but if we were to rearrange it,

as in Figure 1.2, it would still be the graph of the cube, although it would no longer
look like a cube. Thus, a graph is a graphical representation of a relation in which
edges connect pairs of vertices.

5 7
1 3

0 2
4 6

FIGURE 1.2
The graph of the cube

1
2 Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization

DEFINITION 1.1: A simple graph G consists of a vertex set V (G) and an edge
set E(G), where each edge is a pair {u, v} of vertices u, v ∈ V (G).



We denote the set of all pairs of a set V by V2 . Then E(G) ⊆ V (G) 2 . In the
example of the cube, V (G) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, and E(G) = {01, 13, 23, 02, 45,
57, 67, 46, 15, 37, 26, 04}, where we have used the shorthand notation uv to stand
for the pair {u, v}. If u, v ∈ V (G), then u −→ v means that u is joined to v by
an edge. We say that u and v are adjacent. We use this notation to remind us of the
linked list data structure that we will use to store a graph in the computer. Similarly,
u 6−→ v means that u is not joined to v. We can also express these relations by
writing uv ∈ E(G) or uv 6∈ E(G), respectively. Note that in a simple graph if
u −→ v, then v −→ u. If u is adjacent to each of u1 , u2 , . . . , uk , then we write
u −→ {u1 , u2 , . . . , uk }.
These graphs are called simple graphs because each pair u, v of vertices is joined
by at most one edge. Sometimes we need to allow several edges to join the same pair
of vertices. Such a graph is also called a multigraph. An edge can then no longer be
defined as a pair of vertices, (or the multiple edges would not be distinct), but to each
edge there still corresponds a pair {u, v}. We can express this formally by saying that
a graph G consists of a vertex set V (G), an edge set E(G), and a correspondence


ψ : E(G) → V (G) 2 . Given an edge e ∈ E(G), ψ(e) is a pair {u, v} which are
the endpoints of e. Different edges can then have the same endpoints. We shall use
simple graphs most of the time, which is why we prefer the simpler definition, but
many of the theorems and techniques will apply to multigraphs as well.
This definition can be further extended to graphs with loops as well. A loop is an
edge in which both endpoints are equal. We can include
this in the general definition
of a graph by making the mapping ψ : E(G) → V (G) 2 ∪ V (G). An edge e ∈ E(G)
for which ψ(e) = u ∈ V (G) defines a loop. Figure 1.3(a) shows a graph with
multiple edges and loops. However, we shall use simple graphs most of the time, so
that an edge will be considered to be a pair of vertices.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.3
A multigraph (a) and a digraph (b)
Graphs and Their Complements 3

A directed graph or digraph has edges which are ordered pairs (u, v) rather than
unordered pairs {u, v}. In this case an edge is also called an arc. The direction of an
edge is indicated by an arrow in diagrams, as in Figure 1.3(b).
The number of vertices of a graph G is denoted |G|. It is called the order of G.


The number of edges is ε(G). If G is simple, then obviously ε(G) ≤ |G| 2 , because


E(G) ⊆ V (G) 2 . We shall often use node or point as synonyms for vertex.
Many graphs have
special names. The complete graph Kn is a simple graph with
|Kn | = n and ε = n2 . The empty graph K n is a graph with |K n | = n and ε = 0.
K n is the complement of Kn .

FIGURE 1.4
The complete graph K5

DEFINITION 1.2: Let G be a simple

graph. The complement of G is G, where
V (G) = V (G) and E(G) = V (G)
2 \ E(G).
E(G) consists of all those pairs uv which are not edges of G. Thus, uv ∈ E(G)
if and only if uv 6∈ E(G). Figure 1.5 shows a graph and its complement.

1 2 1 2

G= G=

4 3 4 3

FIGURE 1.5
A graph and its complement

Figure 1.6 shows another graph and its complement. Notice that in this case,
when G is redrawn, it looks identical to G.
In a certain sense, this G and G are the same graph. They are not equal, because
E(G) 6= E(G), but it is clear that they have the same structure. If two graphs have
the same structure, then they can only differ in the names of the vertices. Therefore,
we can rename the vertices of one to make it exactly equal to the other graph. In the
4 Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization

1 1 1

5 2 5 2 4 3
−→

4 3 4 3 2 5
G G G

FIGURE 1.6
Another graph and its complement

Figure 1.6 example, we can rename the vertices of G by the mapping θ given by

k: 1 2 3 4 5
,
θ(k) : 1 3 5 2 4

then θ(G) would equal G. This kind of equivalence of graphs is known as isomor-
phism. Observe that a one-to-one mapping θ of the vertices of a graph G can be
extended to a mapping of the edges of G by defining θ({u, v}) = {θ(u), θ(v)}.
DEFINITION 1.3: Let G and H be simple graphs. G and H are isomorphic if
there is a one-to-one correspondence θ : V (G) → V (H) such that θ(E(G)) =
E(H), where θ(E(G)) = {θ(uv) : uv ∈ E(G)}.
We write G ∼ = H to denote isomorphism. If G ∼ = H, then uv ∈ E(G) if and
only if θ(uv) ∈ E(H). One way to determine whether G ∼ = H is to try and redraw
G so as to make it look identical to H. We can then read off the mapping θ from the
diagram. However, this is limited to small graphs. For example, the two graphs G and
H shown in Figure 1.7 are isomorphic, because the drawing of G can be transformed
into H by first moving vertex 2 to the bottom of the diagram, and then moving vertex
5 to the top. Comparing the two diagrams then gives the mapping

k: 1 2 3 4 5 6
θ(k) : 6 4 2 5 1 3

as an isomorphism.
It is usually more difficult to determine when two graphs G and H are not iso-
morphic than to find an isomorphism when they are isomorphic. One way is to find
a portion of G that cannot be part of H. For example, the graph H of Figure 1.7 is
not isomorphic to the graph of the prism, which is illustrated in Figure 1.8, because
the prism contains a triangle, whereas H has no triangle. A subgraph of a graph G is
a graph K such that V (K) ⊆ V (G) and E(K) ⊆ E(G). If θ : G → H is a possible
isomorphism, then θ(K) will be a subgraph of H which is isomorphic to K.
A subgraph K is an induced subgraph if for every u, v ∈ V (K) ⊆ V (G), uv ∈
E(K) if and only if uv ∈ E(G). That is, we choose a subset U ⊆ V (G) and all
Graphs and Their Complements 5

1
1 2 3
6 2

G= H=

5 3
4 5 6
4

FIGURE 1.7
Two isomorphic graphs

edges uv with both endpoints in U . We can also form an edge subgraph or partial
subgraph by choosing a subset of E(G) as the edges of a subgraph K. Then V (K)
will be all vertices which are an endpoint of some edge of K.

FIGURE 1.8
The graph of the prism

The degree of a vertex u ∈ V (G) is D EG(u), the number of edges which con-
tain u. If k = D EG(u) and u −→ {u1 , u2 , . . . , uk }, then θ(u) −→ {θ(u1 ), θ(u2 ),
. . . , θ(uk )}, so that D EG(u) = D EG(θ(u)). Therefore a necessary condition for G
and H to be isomorphic is that they have the same set of degrees. The examples of
Figures 1.7 and 1.8 show that this is not a sufficient condition.
In Figure 1.6, we saw an example of a graph G that is isomorphic to its comple-
ment. There are many such graphs.
DEFINITION 1.4: A simple graph G is self-complementary if G ∼
= G.

Lemma 1.1. If G is a self-complementary graph, then |G| ≡ 0 or 1 (mod 4).

Proof. If G ∼
= G, then ε(G) = ε(G). But E(G) = V (G) 2 \ E(G), so that ε(G) =
|G|

1 |G|


2 − ε(G) = ε(G), so ε(G) = 2 2 = |G|(|G| − 1)/4. Now |G| and |G| − 1
 6 Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization

TABLE 1.1
Graphs up to 10 vertices
n No. graphs
1 1
2 2
3 4
4 11
5 34
6 156
7 1,044
8 12,346
9 247,688
10 12,005,188

are consecutive integers, so that one of them is odd. Therefore |G| ≡ 0 (mod 4) or
|G| ≡ 1 (mod 4).
So possible orders for self-complementary graphs are 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, . . ., 4k,
4k + 1, etc.

Exercises
1.1.1 The four graphs on three vertices in Figure 1.9 have 0, 1, 2, and 3 edges,
respectively. Every graph on three vertices is isomorphic to one of these
four. Thus, there are exactly four different isomorphism types of graphs
on three vertices.

G1 G2 G3 G4

FIGURE 1.9
Four graphs on three vertices

Find all the different isomorphism types of graph on 4 vertices (there are
11 of them). Hint: Adding an edge to a graph with ε = m, gives a graph
with ε = m + 1. Every graph with ε = m + 1 can be obtained in this
way. Table 1.1 shows the number of isomorphism types of graphs up to
10 vertices.
1.1.2 Determine whether the two graphs shown in Figure 1.10 are isomorphic
to each other or not. If they are isomorphic, find an explicit isomorphism.
 Graphs and Their Complements 7

FIGURE 1.10
Two graphs on eight vertices

1.1.3 Determine whether the three graphs shown in Figure 1.11 are isomorphic
to each other or not. If they are isomorphic, find explicit isomorphisms.

FIGURE 1.11
Three graphs on 10 vertices

1.1.4 Find a self-complementary graph on four vertices.

1.1.5 Figure 1.6 illustrates a self-complementary graph, the pentagon, with five
vertices. Find another self-complementary graph on five vertices.
1.1.6 We have seen that the pentagon is a self-complementary graph. Let G
be the pentagon shown in Figure 1.6, with V (G) = {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5 }.
Notice that θ = (u1 )(u2 , u3 , u5 , u4 ) is a permutation which maps G to
G; that is, θ(G) = G, and θ(G) = G. θ is called a complementing permu-
tation. Because u2 u3 ∈ E(G), it follows that θ(u2 u3 ) = u3 u5 ∈ E(G).
Consequently, θ(u3 u5 ) = u5 u4 ∈ E(G) again. Applying θ twice more
gives θ(u5 u4 ) = u4 u2 ∈ E(G) and θ(u4 u2 ) = u2 u3 , which is where
we started. Thus, if we choose any edge ui uj and successively apply θ
to it, we alternately get edges of G and G. It follows that the number
of edges in the sequence so-obtained must be even. Use the permutation
(1,2,3,4)(5,6,7,8) to construct a self-complementary graph on eight ver-
tices.
1.1.7 Can the permutation (1,2,3,4,5)(6,7,8) be used as a complementing per-
mutation? Can (1,2,3,4,5,6)(7,8) be? Prove that the only requirement is
that every sequence of edges obtained by successively applying θ be of
even length.
 8 Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization

1.1.8 If θ is any permutation of {1, 2, . . . , n}, then it depends only on the cycle
structure of θ whether it can be used as a complementing permutation.
Discover what condition this cycle structure must satisfy, and prove it
both necessary and sufficient for θ to be a complementing permutation.

1.2 Degree sequences

Theorem 1.2. For any simple graph G we have
X
D EG(u) = 2ε(G).
u∈V (G)

Proof. An edge uv has two endpoints. Therefore each edge will be counted twice in
the summation, once for u and once for v.
We use δ(G) to denote the minimum degree of G; that is, δ(G) = MIN{D EG(u) |
u ∈ V (G)}. ∆(G) denotes the maximum degree of G. By Theorem 1.2, the average
degree equals 2ε/|G|, so that δ ≤ 2ε/|G| ≤ ∆.
Corollary 1.3. The number of vertices of odd degree is even.
Proof. Divide V (G) into VP odd = {u | D EG (u) P is odd }, and Veven = {u |
deg(u)
P is even }. Then 2ε = u∈Vodd D EG (u) + u∈Veven D EG (u). Clearly 2ε and
P
u∈Veven D EG (u) are both even. Therefore, so is u∈Vodd D EG(u), which means
that |Vodd | is even.

DEFINITION 1.5: A graph G is a regular graph if all vertices have the same
degree. G is k-regular if it is regular, of degree k.
For example, the graph of the cube (Figure 1.1) is 3-regular.
Lemma 1.4. If G is simple and |G| ≥ 2, then there are always two vertices of the
same degree.
Proof. In a simple graph, the maximum degree ∆ ≤ |G| − 1. If all degrees were
different, then they would be 0, 1, 2, . . . , |G| − 1. But degree 0 and degree |G| − 1
are mutually exclusive. Therefore there must be two vertices of the same degree.
Let V (G) = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un }. The degree sequence of G is

DEG(G) = (D EG (u1 ), D EG(u2 ), . . . , D EG(un ))

where the vertices are ordered so that

D EG(u1 ) ≥ D EG(u2 ) ≥ · · · ≥ D EG(un ).

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
home when they were working and he was explaining something important.
And then her own eyes dropped, and a deep blush spread over all her face.
“I wasn’t asleep—really,” she said, as he took her at last into his arms; “I
was wondering—when—you’d find out——”
“Come to myself, you mean?” he asked tremblingly.
“Well,” she hesitated, as soon as she got breath, “that I am yourself—and
that you are me. Of course, we’re really only one. I knew it years—oh,
years and years ago....”
 XV

ANCIENT LIGHTS
From Southwater, where he left the train, the road led due west. That he
knew; for the rest he trusted to luck, being one of those born walkers who
dislike asking the way. He had that instinct, and as a rule it served him well.
“A mile or so due west along the sandy road till you come to a stile on the
right; then across the fields. You’ll see the red house straight before you.”
He glanced at the post-card’s instructions once again, and once again he
tried to decipher the scratched-out sentence—without success. It had been
so elaborately inked over that no word was legible. Inked-out sentences in a
letter were always enticing. He wondered what it was that had to be so very
carefully obliterated.
The afternoon was boisterous, with a tearing, shouting wind that blew
from the sea, across the Sussex weald. Massive clouds with rounded, piled-
up edges, cannoned across gaping spaces of blue sky. Far away the line of
Downs swept the horizon, like an arriving wave. Chanctonbury Ring rode
their crest—a scudding ship, hull down before the wind. He took his hat off
and walked rapidly, breathing great draughts of air with delight and
exhilaration. The road was deserted; no horsemen, bicycles, or motors; not
even a tradesman’s cart; no single walker. But anyhow he would never have
asked the way. Keeping a sharp eye for the stile, he pounded along, while
the wind tossed the cloak against his face, and made waves across the blue
puddles in the yellow road. The trees showed their under leaves of white.
The bracken and the high new grass bent all one way. Great life was in the
day, high spirits and dancing everywhere. And for a Croydon surveyor’s
clerk just out of an office this was like a holiday at the sea.
It was a day for high adventure, and his heart rose up to meet the mood
of Nature. His umbrella with the silver ring ought to have been a sword, and
his brown shoes should have been top-boots with spurs upon the heels.
Where hid the enchanted Castle and the princess with the hair of sunny
gold? His horse....
The stile came suddenly into view and nipped adventure in the bud.
Everyday clothes took him prisoner again. He was a surveyor’s clerk,
middle-aged, earning three pounds a week, coming from Croydon to see
about a client’s proposed alterations in a wood—something to ensure a
better view from the dining-room window. Across the fields, perhaps a mile
away, he saw the red house gleaming in the sunshine; and resting on the
stile a moment to get his breath he noticed a copse of oak and hornbeam on
the right. “Aha,” he told himself, “so that must be the wood he wants to cut
down to improve the view? I’ll ’ave a look at it.” There were boards up, of
course, but there was an inviting little path as well. “I’m not a trespasser,”
he said; “it’s part of my business, this is.” He scrambled awkwardly over
the gate and entered the copse. A little round would bring him to the field
again.
But the moment he passed among the trees the wind ceased shouting and
a stillness dropped upon the world. So dense was the growth that the
sunshine only came through in isolated patches. The air was close. He
mopped his forehead and put his green felt hat on, but a low branch
knocked it off again at once, and as he stooped an elastic twig swung back
and stung his face. There were flowers along both edges of the little path;
glades opened on either side; ferns curved about in damper corners, and the
smell of earth and foliage was rich and sweet. It was cooler here. What an
enchanting little wood, he thought, turning down a small green glade where
the sunshine flickered like silver wings. How it danced and fluttered and
moved about! He put a dark blue flower in his buttonhole. Again his hat,
caught by an oak branch as he rose, was knocked from his head, falling
across his eyes. And this time he did not put it on again. Swinging his
umbrella, he walked on with uncovered head, whistling rather loudly as he
went. But the thickness of the trees hardly encouraged whistling, and
something of his gaiety and high spirits seemed to leave him. He suddenly
found himself treading circumspectly and with caution. The stillness in the
wood was so peculiar.
There was a rustle among the ferns and leaves and something shot across
the path ten yards ahead, stopped abruptly an instant with head cocked
sideways to stare, then dived again beneath the underbrush with the speed
of a shadow. He started like a frightened child, laughing the next second
that a mere pheasant could have made him jump. In the distance he heard
wheels upon the road, and wondered why the sound was pleasant. “Good
old butcher’s cart,” he said to himself—then realised that he was going in
the wrong direction and had somehow got turned round. For the road should
be behind him, not in front.
And he hurriedly took another narrow glade that lost itself in greenness
to the right. “That’s my direction, of course,” he said; “the trees has mixed
me up a bit, it seems”—then found himself abruptly by the gate he had first
climbed over. He had merely made a circle. Surprise became almost
discomfiture then. And a man, dressed like a gamekeeper in browny green,
leaned against the gate, hitting his legs with a switch. “I’m making for Mr.
Lumley’s farm,” explained the walker. “This is his wood, I believe——”
then stopped dead, because it was no man at all, but merely an effect of
light and shade and foliage. He stepped back to reconstruct the singular
illusion, but the wind shook the branches roughly here on the edge of the
wood and the foliage refused to reconstruct the figure. The leaves all rustled
strangely. And just then the sun went behind a cloud, making the whole
wood look otherwise. Yet how the mind could be thus doubly deceived was
indeed remarkable, for it almost seemed to him the man had answered,
spoken—or was this the shuffling noise the branches made?—and had
pointed with his switch to the notice-board upon the nearest tree. The words
rang on in his head, but of course he had imagined them: “No, it’s not his
wood. It’s ours.” And some village wit, moreover, had changed the lettering
on the weather-beaten board, for it read quite plainly, “Trespassers will be
persecuted.”
And while the astonished clerk read the words and chuckled, he said to
himself, thinking what a tale he’d have to tell his wife and children later
—“The blooming wood has tried to chuck me out. But I’ll go in again.
Why, it’s only a matter of a square acre at most. I’m bound to reach the
fields on the other side if I keep straight on.” He remembered his position in
the office. He had a certain dignity to maintain.
The cloud passed from below the sun, and light splashed suddenly in all
manner of unlikely places. The man went straight on. He felt a touch of
puzzling confusion somewhere; this way the copse had of shifting from
sunshine into shadow doubtless troubled sight a little. To his relief, at last, a
new glade opened through the trees and disclosed the fields with a glimpse
of the red house in the distance at the far end. But a little wicket gate that
stood across the path had first to be climbed, and as he scrambled heavily
over—for it would not open—he got the astonishing feeling that it slid off
sideways beneath his weight, and towards the wood. Like the moving
staircases at Harrod’s and Earl’s Court, it began to glide off with him. It was
quite horrible. He made a violent effort to get down before it carried him
into the trees, but his feet became entangled with the bars and umbrella, so
that he fell heavily upon the farther side, arms spread across the grass and
nettles, boots clutched between the first and second bars. He lay there a
moment like a man crucified upside down, and while he struggled to get
disentangled—feet, bars, and umbrella formed a regular net—he saw the
little man in browny green go past him with extreme rapidity through the
wood. The man was laughing. He passed across the glade some fifty yards
away, and he was not alone this time. A companion like himself went with
him. The clerk, now upon his feet again, watched them disappear into the
gloom of green beyond. “They’re tramps, not gamekeepers,” he said to
himself, half mortified, half angry. But his heart was thumping dreadfully,
and he dared not utter all his thought.
He examined the wicket gate, convinced it was a trick gate somehow—
then went hurriedly on again, disturbed beyond belief to see that the glade
no longer opened into fields, but curved away to the right. What in the
world had happened to him? His sight was so utterly at fault. Again the sun
flamed out abruptly and lit the floor of the wood with pools of silver, and at
the same moment a violent gust of wind passed shouting overhead. Drops
fell clattering everywhere upon the leaves, making a sharp pattering as of
many footsteps. The whole copse shuddered and went moving.
“Rain, by George,” thought the clerk, and feeling for his umbrella,
discovered he had lost it. He turned back to the gate and found it lying on
the farther side. To his amazement he saw the fields at the far end of the
glade, the red house, too, ashine in the sunset. He laughed then, for, of
course, in his struggle with the gate, he had somehow got turned round—
had fallen back instead of forwards. Climbing over, this time quite easily, he
retraced his steps. The silver band, he saw, had been torn from the umbrella.
No doubt his foot, a nail, or something had caught in it and ripped it off.
The clerk began to run; he felt extraordinarily dismayed.
But, while he ran, the entire wood ran with him, round him, to and fro,
trees shifting like living things, leaves folding and unfolding, trunks darting
backwards and forwards, and branches disclosing enormous empty spaces,
then closing up again before he could look into them. There were footsteps
everywhere, and laughing, crying voices, and crowds of figures gathering
just behind his back till the glade, he knew, was thick with moving life. The
wind in his ears, of course, produced the voices and the laughter, while sun
and clouds, plunging the copse alternately in shadow and bright dazzling
light, created the figures. But he did not like it, and he went as fast as ever
his sturdy legs could take him. He was frightened now. This was no story
for his wife and children. He ran like the wind. But his feet made no sound
upon the soft mossy turf.
Then, to his horror, he saw that the glade grew narrow, nettles and weeds
stood thick across it, it dwindled down into a tiny path, and twenty yards
ahead it stopped finally and melted off among the trees. What the trick gate
had failed to achieve, this twisting glade accomplished easily—carried him
in bodily among the dense and crowding trees.
There was only one thing to do—turn sharply and dash back again, run
headlong into the life that followed at his back, followed so closely too that
now it almost touched him, pushing him in. And with reckless courage this
was what he did. It seemed a fearful thing to do. He turned with a sort of
violent spring, head down and shoulders forward, hands stretched before his
face. He made the plunge; like a hunted creature he charged full tilt the
other way, meeting the wind now in his face.
Good Lord! The glade behind him had closed up as well; there was no
longer any path at all. Turning round and round, like an animal at bay, he
searched for an opening, a way of escape, searched frantically, breathlessly,
terrified now in his bones. But foliage surrounded him, branches blocked
the way; the trees stood close and still, unshaken by a breath of wind; and
the sun dipped that moment behind a great black cloud. The entire wood
turned dark and silent. It watched him.
Perhaps it was this final touch of sudden blackness that made him act so
foolishly, as though he had really lost his head. At any rate, without pausing
to think, he dashed headlong in among the trees again. There was a
sensation of being stiflingly surrounded and entangled, and that he must
break out at all costs—out and away into the open of the blessed fields and
air. He did this ill-considered thing, and apparently charged straight into an
oak that deliberately moved into his path to stop him. He saw it shift across
a good full yard, and being a measuring man, accustomed to theodolite and
chain, he ought to know. He fell, saw stars, and felt a thousand tiny fingers
tugging and pulling at his hands and neck and ankles. The stinging nettles,
no doubt, were responsible for this. He thought of it later. At the moment it
felt diabolically calculated.
But another remarkable illusion was not so easily explained. For all in a
moment, it seemed, the entire wood went sliding past him with a thick deep
rustling of leaves and laughter, myriad footsteps, and tiny little active,
energetic shapes; two men in browny green gave him a mighty hoist—and
he opened his eyes to find himself lying in the meadow beside the stile
where first his incredible adventure had begun. The wood stood in its usual
place and stared down upon him in the sunlight. There was the red house in
the distance as before. Above him grinned the weather-beaten notice-board:
“Trespassers will be prosecuted.”
Dishevelled in mind and body, and a good deal shaken in his official
soul, the clerk walked slowly across the fields. But on the way he glanced
once more at the post-card of instructions, and saw with dull amazement
that the inked-out sentence was quite legible after all beneath the scratches
made across it: “There is a short cut through the wood—the wood I want
cut down—if you care to take it.” Only “care” was so badly written, it
looked more like another word; the “c” was uncommonly like “d.”
“That’s the copse that spoils my view of the Downs, you see,” his client
explained to him later, pointing across the fields, and referring to the
ordnance map beside him. “I want it cut down and a path made so and so.”
His finger indicated direction on the map. “The Fairy Wood—it’s still
called, and it’s far older than this house. Come now, if you’re ready, Mr.
Thomas, we might go out and have a look at it....”
 XVI

DREAM TRESPASS
The little feathers of the dusk were drifting through the autumn leaves when
we came so unexpectedly upon the inn that was not marked upon our big-
scaled map. And most opportunely, for Ducommun, my friend, was clearly
overtired. An irritability foreign to his placid temperament had made the
last few hours’ trudge a little difficult, and I felt we had reached that narrow
frontier which lies between non-success and failure.
“Another five miles to the inn we chose this morning,” I told him; “but
we’ll soon manage it at a steady pace.”
And he groaned, “I’m done! I simply couldn’t do it.”
He sank down upon the bit of broken wall to rest, while the darkness
visibly increased, and the wind blew damp and chill across the marshes on
our left. But behind the petulance of his tone, due to exhaustion solely, lay
something else as well, something that had been accumulating for days. For
our walking tour had not turned out quite to measure, distances always
under-calculated; the inns, moreover, bad; the people surly and
inhospitable; even the weather cross.
And Ducommun’s disappointment had in a sense been double, so that I
felt keen sympathy with him. For this was the country where his ancestors
once reigned as proprietors, grand seigneurs, and the rest; he had always
longed to visit it; and secretly in his imagination had cherished a
reconstructed picture in which he himself would somehow play some high,
distinguished rôle his proud blood entitled him to. Clerk to-day in a mere
insurance office, but descendant of romantic, ancient stock, he knew the
history of the period intimately; the holiday had been carefully, lovingly
planned; and—the unpleasantness of the inhabitants had shattered his dream
thus fostered and so keenly anticipated. The breaking-point had been
reached. Was not this inn we hoped to reach by dark a portion of the very
château—he had established it from musty records enough—where once his
family dwelt in old-time splendour? And had he not indulged all manner of
delightful secret dreaming in advance?...
 It was here, then, returning from a little private reconnoitring on my own
account, that I reported my brave discovery of an unexpected half-way
house, and found him almost asleep upon the stones, unwilling to believe
the short half-mile I promised. “Only another nest of robbery and
insolence,” he laughed sourly, “and, anyhow, not the inn we counted on.”
He dragged after me in silence, eyeing askance the tumbled, ivy-covered
shanty that stood beside the roadway, yet gladly going in ahead of me to
rest his weary limbs, and troubling himself no whit with bargaining that he
divined might be once more unpleasant.
Yet the inn proved a surprise in another way—it was entirely delightful.
There was a glowing fire of peat in a biggish hall, the patron and his wife
were all smiles and pleasure, welcoming us with an old-fashioned dignity
that made bargaining impossible, and in ten minutes we felt as much at
home as if we had arrived at a country house where we had been long
expected.
“So few care to stop here now,” the old woman told us, with a gracious
gesture that was courtly rather than deferential, “we stand no longer upon
the old high road,” and showed in a hundred nameless ways that all they
had was entirely at our disposal. Till even Ducommun melted and turned
soft: “Only in France could this happen,” he whispered with a touch of
pride, as though claiming that this fragrance of gentle life, now fast
disappearing from the world, still lingered in the land of his descent and in
his own blood too. He patted the huge, rough deer-hound that seemed to fill
the little room where we awaited supper, and the friendly creature,
bounding with a kind of subdued affection, added another touch of
welcome. His face and manners were evidence of kind treatment; he was
proud of his owners and of his owners’ guests. I thought of well-loved pets
in our English country houses. “This beast,” I laughed, “has surely lived
with gentlemen.” And Ducommun took the compliment to himself with
personal satisfaction.
It is difficult to tell afterwards with accuracy the countless little touches
that made the picture all so gentle—they were so delicately suggested,
painted in silently with such deft spiritual discretion. It stands out in my
memory, set in some strange, high light, as the most enchanting experience
of many a walking tour; and yet, about it all, like a veil of wonder that
evades description, an atmosphere of something at the same time—I use the
best available word—truly singular. This touch of something remote,
indefinite, unique, began to steal over me from the very first, bringing with
it an incalculable, queer charm. It lulled like a drug all possible suspicions.
And in my friend—detail of the picture nearest to my heart, that is—it first
betrayed itself, with a degree of surprise, moreover, not entirely removed
from shock.
For as he passed before me underneath that low-browed porch, quite
undeniably he—altered. This indefinable change clothed his entire
presentment to my eyes; to tired eyes, I freely grant, as also that it was
dusk, and that the transforming magic of the peat fire was behind him. Yet,
eschewing paragraphs of vain description, I may put a portion of it crudely
thus, perhaps: that his lankiness turned suddenly all grace; the atmosphere
of the London office stool, as of the clerk a-holidaying, vanished; and that
the way he bowed his head to enter the dark-beamed lintel of the door was
courtly and high bred, instinct with native elegance, and in the real sense
aristocratic. It came with an instant and complete conviction. It was
wonderful to see; and it gave me a moment’s curious enchantment. All that
I divined and loved in the man, usually somewhat buried, came forth upon
the surface. A note of explanation followed readily enough, half
explanation at any rate—that houses alter people because, like dressing-up
with women and children, they furnish a new setting to the general
appearance, and the points one is accustomed to undergo a readjustment.
Yet with him this subtle alteration did not pass; it not only clung to him
during the entire evening, but most curiously increased. He maintained,
indeed, his silence the whole time, but it was a happy, dreaming silence
holding the charm of real companionship, his disappointment gone as
completely as the memory of our former cheerless inns and ill-conditioned
people.
I cannot pretend, though, that I really watched him carefully, since an
attack from another quarter divided my attention equally, and the charm of
the daughter of the house, in whose eyes, it seemed to me, lay all the quiet
sadness of the country we had walked through—triste, morne, forsaken
land—claimed a great part of my observant sympathy. The old people left
us entirely to her care, and the way she looked after us, divining our wants
before we ventured to express them, was more suggestive of the perfect
hostess than merely of someone who would take payment for all that she
supplied. The question of money, indeed, did not once intrude, though I
cannot say whence came my impression that this hospitality was, in fact,
offered without the least idea of remuneration in silver and gold. That it did
come, I can swear; also, that behind it lay no suggestion of stiff prices to be
demanded at the last moment on the plea that terms had not been settled in
advance. We were made welcome like expected guests, and my heart leaped
to encounter this spirit of old-fashioned courtesy that the greed of modern
life has everywhere destroyed.
“To-morrow or the next day, when you are rested,” said the maiden
softly, sitting beside us after supper and tending the fire, “I will take you
through the Allée des tilleuls towards the river, and show you where the
fishing is so good.”
For it seemed natural that she should sit and chat with us, and only
afterwards I remembered sharply that the river was a good five miles from
where we housed, across marshes that could boast no trees at all, tilleuls
least of all, and of avenues not a vestige anywhere.
“We’ll start,” Ducommun answered promptly, taking my breath a little,
“in the dawn”; and presently then made signs to go to bed.
She brought the candles, lit them for us with a spill of paper from the
peat, and handed one to each, a little smile of yearning in her deep, soft
eyes that I remember to this day.
“You will sleep long and well,” she said half shyly, accompanying us to
the foot of the stairs. “I made and aired the beds with my own hands.”
And the last I saw of her, as we turned the landing corner overhead, was
her graceful figure against the darkness, with the candle-light falling upon
the coiled masses of her dark-brown hair. She gazed up after us with those
large grey eyes that seemed to me so full of yearning, and yet so sad, so
patient, so curiously resigned....
Ducommun pulled me almost roughly by the arm. “Come,” he said with
sudden energy, and as though everything was settled. “We have an early
start, remember!”
I moved unwillingly; it was all so strange and dreamlike, the beauty of
the girl so enchanting, the change in himself so utterly perplexing.
“It’s like staying with friends in a country house,” I murmured, lingering
in a moment of bewilderment by his door. “Old family retainers almost,
proud and delighted to put one up, eh?”
 And his answer was so wholly unexpected that I waited, staring blankly
into his altered eyes:
“I only hope we shall get away all right,” he muttered. “I mean, that is—
get off.”
Evidently his former mood had flashed a moment back. “You feel tired?”
I suggested sympathetically, “so do I.”
“Dog-tired, yes,” he answered shortly, then added in a slow, suggestive
whisper—“And I feel cold, too—extraordinarily cold.”
The significant, cautious way he said it made me start. But before I could
prate of chills and remedies, he quickly shut the door upon me, leaving
those last words ringing in my brain—“cold, extraordinarily cold.” And an
inkling stole over me of what he meant; uninvited and unwelcome it came,
then passed at once, leaving a vague uneasiness behind. For the cold he
spoke of surely was not bodily cold. About my own heart, too, moved some
strange touch of chill. Cold sought an entrance. But it was not common
cold. Rather it was in the mind and thoughts, and settled down upon the
spirit. In describing his own sensations he had also described my own; for
something at the very heart of me seemed turning numb....
I got quickly into bed. The night was still and windless, but, though I
was tired, sleep held long away. Uneasiness continued to affect me. I lay,
listening to the blood hurrying along the thin walls of my veins, singing and
murmuring, and, when at length I dropped off, two vivid pictures haunted
me into unconsciousness—his face in the doorway as he made that last
remark, and the face of the girl as she had peered up so yearningly at him
over the shaded candle.
Then—at once, it seemed—I was wide awake again, aware, however,
that an interval had passed, but aware also of another thing that was
incredible, and somehow dreadful, namely, that while I slept, the house had
undergone a change. It caught me, shivering in my bed, utterly unprepared,
as though unfair advantage had been taken of me while I lay unconscious.
This startling idea of external alteration made me shudder. How I so
instantly divined it lies beyond all explanation. I somehow realised that,
while the room I woke in was the same as before, the building of which it
formed a little member had known in the darkness some transmuting,
substituting change that had turned it otherwise. My terror I also cannot
explain, nor why, almost immediately, instead of increasing, it subtly shifted
into that numbness I have already mentioned—a curious, deep bemusement
of the spirit that robbed it of really acute distress. It seemed as if only a part
of me—the wakened part—knew what was going on, and that some other
part remained in sleep and ignorance.
For the house was now enormous. It had experienced this weird
transformation. The roof, I somehow knew, rose soaring through the
darkness; the walls ran over acres; it had towers, wings, and battlements,
broad balconies, and magnificent windows. It had grown both dignified and
ancient ... and had swallowed up our little inn as comfortably as a palace
includes a single bedroom. The blackness about me of course concealed it,
but I felt the yawning corridors, the gape of lofty halls, high ceilings,
spacious chambers, till I seemed lost in the being of some stately building
that extended itself with imposing majesty upon the night.
Then came the instinct—more, perhaps, a driving impulse than a mere
suggestion—to go out and see. See what? I asked myself, as I made my way
towards the window gropingly, unwilling or afraid to strike a light. And the
answer, utterly without explanation, came hard and sharp like this—
“To catch them on the lawn.”
And the curious phrase I knew was right, for the surroundings had
changed equally with the house. I drew aside the curtain and peered out
upon a lawn that a few hours ago had been surely a rather desolate, plain
roadway, and beyond it into spacious gardens, bounded by park-like timber,
where before had been but dreary, half-cultivated fields.
Through a risen mist the light of the moon shone faintly, and everywhere
my sight confirmed the singular impression of extension I have mentioned,
for away to the left another mass of masonry that was like the wing of some
great mansion rose dimly through the air, and beneath my very eyes a
projecting balcony obscured pathways and beds of flowers. Next, where a
gleam of moonlight caught it, I saw the broad, slow bend of river edging the
lawn through clumps of willows. Even the river had come close. And while
I stared, striving to force from so much illusion a single fact that might
explain, a little tree upon the lawn just underneath moved slightly nearer,
and I saw it was a human figure—a figure that I recognised. Wrapped in
some long, loose garment, the daughter of the house stood there in an
attitude of waiting. And the waiting was at once explained, for another
figure—this time the figure of a man that seemed to me both strange and
familiar at the same time—emerged from the shadows of the house to join
her. She slipped into his arms. Then came a sound of horses neighing in
their stalls, and the couple moved away with sudden swiftness silently as
ghosts, disappearing in the mist while three minutes later I heard the crunch
of hoofs on gravel, dying rapidly away into the distance of the night.
And here a sudden, wild reaction, not easy of analysis, rushed over me,
as if that other part of me that had not waked now came sharply to the
rescue, set free from the inhibition of some drug. I felt anger, disgust,
resentment, and a wave of indignation that somehow I was being tricked.
Impulsively—there seemed no time for judgment or reflection—I crossed
the landing, now so oddly deep and lofty, and, without knocking, ran
headlong into my friend’s room. The bed, I saw at once, was empty, the
sheets not even lain in. The furniture was in disorder, garments strewn
about the floor, signs of precipitate flight in all directions. And Ducommun,
of course, was gone.
What happened next confuses me when I try to think of it, for my only
recollection is of hurrying distractedly to and fro between his bedroom and
my own. There was a rush and scuttling in the darkness, and then I
blundered heavily against walls or furniture or both, and the darkness rose
up over my mind with a smothering thick curtain that blinded everything ...
and I came to my senses in the open road, my friend standing over me,
enormous in the dusk, and the bit of broken wall where he had rested while
I reconnoitred, just behind us. The moon was rising, the air was damp and
chill, and he was shouting in my ear, “I thought you were never coming
back again. I’m rested now. We’d better hurry on and do those beastly five
miles to the inn.”
We started, walking so briskly that we reached it in something over
seventy minutes, and passing on the way no single vestige of a house nor of
any kind of building. I was the silent one, but when Ducommun talked it
was only to curse the desolate, sad country, and wonder why his forbears
had ever chosen such a wilderness to live in. And when at length we put up
at this inn which he made out was a part of his original family estate, he
spent the evening poring over maps and papers, by means of which he
admitted finally his calculations were all wrong. “The house itself,” he said,
“must have stood farther back along the road we came by. The river, you
see,” pointing to the dirty old chart, “has changed its course a bit since then.
Its older bed lay much nearer to the château, flanking the garden lawn
below the park.” And he pointed again to the place with a finger that
obviously now held office pens.
 XVII

LET NOT THE SUN——

It began delightfully: “Where are you going for your holiday, Bill?” his
sister asked casually one day at tea, someone having mentioned a trip to
Italy; “climbing, I suppose, as usual?” And he had answered just as
casually, “Climbing, yes, as usual.”
They were both workers, she a rich woman’s secretary, and he keeping a
stool warm in an office. She was to have a month, he a bare three weeks,
and this summer it so happened, the times overlapped. To each the holiday
was of immense importance, looked forward to eagerly through eleven
months of labour, and looked back upon afterwards through another long
eleven months. Frances went either to Scotland or some little pension in
Switzerland, painting the whole time, and taking a friend of similar tastes
with her. He went invariably to the Alps. They had never gone together as
yet, because—well, because she painted and he climbed. But this year a
vague idea had come to each that they might combine, choosing some place
where both tastes might be satisfied. Since last summer there had been
deaths in the family; they realised loneliness, felt drawn together like
survivors of a wreck. He often went to tea with her in her little flat, and she
accompanied him sometimes to dinner in his Soho restaurants.
Fundamentally, however, they were not together, for their tastes did not
assimilate well, and their temperaments lacked that sympathy which fuses
emotion and thought in a harmonious blend. Affection was real and deep,
but strongest when they were apart.
Now, as he walked home to his lodgings on the other side of London, he
felt it would be nice if they could combine their holidays for once. Her
casual question was a feeler in the same direction. A few days later she
repeated it in a postscript to a letter: “Why not go together this year,” she
wrote, “choosing some place where you can climb and Sybil and I can
paint? I leave on the 1st; you follow on the 15th. We could have two weeks
in the same hotel. It would be awfully jolly. Let me know what you feel,
and mind you are quite frank about it.”
 They exchanged letters, discussed places, differed mildly, and agreed to
meet for full debate. The stage of suggestion was past; it was a plan now.
They must decide, or go separately. One of them, that is to say, must take
the responsibility of saying No. Frances leaned to the Engadine—Maloja—
whereas her brother thought it “not a bad place, but no good as a climbing
centre. Still, Pontresina is within reach, and there are several peaks I’ve
never done round Pontresina. We’ll talk it over.” The exchange of letters
became wearisome and involved, because each wrote from a different point
of view and feeling, and each gave in weakly to the other, yet left a hint of
sacrifice behind. “It’s a very lovely part,” she wrote of his proposal for the
Dolomites, “only it’s a long way off and expensive to get at, and the scenery
is a bit monotonous for painting. You understand. Still, for two weeks——“;
while he criticised her alternative selections in the Rhone Valley as “rather
touristy and overcrowded, don’t you think?—the sort of thing that
everybody paints.” Both were busy, and wrote sometimes briefly, not
making themselves quite plain, each praising the other’s choice, then
qualifying it destructively at the end of apparently unselfish sentences with
a formidable and prohibitive “but.” The time was getting short meanwhile.
“We ought to take our rooms pretty soon,” wrote Frances. “Immediately, in
fact, if we want to get in anywhere,” he answered on a letter-card. “Come
and dine to-night at the Gourmet, and we’ll settle everything.”
They met. And at first they talked of everything else in the world but the
one thing in their minds. They talked a trifle boisterously; but the
boisterousness was due to excitement, and the excitement to an unnatural
effort to feign absolute sympathy which did not exist fundamentally. The
bustle of humanity about them, food, and a glass of red wine, gradually
smoothed the edges of possible friction, however.
“You look tired, Bill.”
“I am rather,” he laughed. “We both need a holiday, don’t we?”
The ice was broken.
“Now, let’s talk of the Alps,” she said briskly. “It’s been so difficult to
explain in writing, hasn’t it?”
“Impossible,” he laughed, and pulled out of his pocket a sheet of
notepaper on which he had made some notes. Frances took a Baedeker from
her velvet bag on the hook above her head. “Capital,” he laughed; “we’ll
settle everything in ten minutes.”
 “It will be so awfully jolly to go together for once,” she said, and they
felt so happy and sympathetic, so sure of agreement, so ready each to give
in to the other, that they began with a degree of boldness that seemed hardly
wise. “Say exactly what you think—quite honestly,” each said to the other.
“We must be candid, you know. It’s too important to pretend. It would be
silly, wouldn’t it?” But neither realised that this meant, “I’ll persuade you
that my place is best and the only place where I could really enjoy my
holiday.” Bill cleared a space before him on the table, lit a cigarette, and felt
the joy of making plans in his heart. Francis turned the pages to her
particular map, equally full of delight. What fun it was!
“All I want, Bill dear, is a place where I can paint—forests, streams, and
those lovely fields of flowers. Almost anywhere would do for me. You
understand, don’t you?”
“Rather,” he laughed, making a little more room for his own piece of
paper, “and you shall have it, too, old girl. All I want is some good peaks
within reach, and good guides on the spot. We’ll have our evenings
together, and when I’m not climbing, we’ll go for picnics while you paint,
and—and be awfully jolly all together. Sybil’s a nice girl. We shall be a
capital trio.” He put her Baedeker at the far corner of the table for a
moment.
“Oh, please don’t lose my place in it,” she said, pulling the marker
across the page and leaving the tip out.
“I’m sorry,” he replied, and they laughed—less boisterously.
“You tell me your ideas first,” she decided, “and then I’ll tell you mine.
If we can’t agree then, we’re not fit to have a holiday at all!”
It worked up with deadly slowness to the rupture that was inevitable
from the beginning. Both were tired after, not a day’s, but a year’s work;
both felt selfish and secretly ashamed; both realised also that an
unsuccessful holiday was too grave a risk to run—it involved eleven
months’ disappointment and regret. Yet, if this plan failed, any future
holiday together would be impossible.
“After all,” sighed Frances peevishly at length, “perhaps we had better
go separately.”
It was so tiring, this endless effort to find the right place; their reserve of
vitality was not equal to the obstacles that cropped up everywhere. Full,
high spirits are necessary to see things whole. They exaggerated details.
“It’s funny,” he thought; “she might realise that climbing is what I need.
One can paint everywhere!” But in her own mind the reflection was the
same, turned the opposite way: “Bill doesn’t understand that one can’t paint
anything. Yet, for climbing, one peak is just as good as another.” He thought
her obstinate and faddy; she felt him stubborn and rather stupid.
“Now, old girl,” he said at length, pushing his papers aside with a weary
gesture of resignation, having failed to convince her how admirable his
choice had been, “let’s look at your place.” He laughed patiently, but the
cushions provided by food and wine and excitement had worn thin. Friction
increased; words pricked; the tide of sympathy ebbed—it had been forced
really all along, pumped up; their tastes and temperaments did not
amalgamate. Frances opened her Baedeker and explained mechanically. She
now saw clearly the insuperable difficulties in the way, but for sentimental
and affectionate reasons declined to be the first to admit the truth. She was
braver, bigger than he was, but her heart prevented the outspoken honesty
that would have saved the situation. He, though unselfish as men go, could
not conceal his knowledge that he was so. Each vied with the other in the
luxury of giving up with apparent sweetness, only the luxury was really
beyond the means of either. With the Baedeker before them on the table, the
ritual was again gone through—from her point of view, while in sheer
weariness he agreed to conditions his strength could never fulfil when the
time came. They met half-way upon Champéry in the Valais Alps above the
Rhone. It satisfied neither of them. But speech was exhausted; energy
flagged; the restaurant, moreover, was emptying and lights being turned out.
They put away Baedeker and paper, paid the bill, and rose to go, each
keenly disappointed, each feeling conscious of having made a big sacrifice.
On the steps he turned to help her put her coat on, and their eyes met. They
felt miles apart. “So much for my holiday,” he thought, “after waiting
eleven months!” and there was a flash of resentful anger in his heart. He
turned it unconsciously against his sister.
“Don’t write for rooms till the end of the week,” he suggested. “I may
think of a better place after all.”
It was the tone that stung her nerves, perhaps. She really hated
Champéry—a crowded, touristy, ‘organised’ place. Her sacrifice had gone
for nothing. “Even now he’s not satisfied!” she realised with bitterness.
 “Oh, if you don’t feel it’ll do, Bill, dear,” she answered coolly, “I really
think we’d better give it up—going together, I mean.” Her force was
exhausted.
He felt sore, offended, injured. He looked sharply at her, almost glared.
A universe lay between them now. Before there was time to reflect or
choose his words, even to soften his tone, he had answered coldly:
“Just as you like, Frances. I don’t want to spoil your holiday. You’re
right. We’d better go separately then.”
Nothing more was said. He saw her to the station of the Tube, but the
moment the train had gone he realised that the final wave of her little hand
betrayed somehow that tears were very close. She had not shown her face
again. He felt sad, ashamed, and bitter. Deeper than the resentment,
however, was a great ache in his heart that was pain. Remorse surged over
him. He thought of her year of toil, her tired little face, her disappointment.
Her brief holiday, so feverishly yearned for, would now be tinged with
sadness and regret, wherever she went. Memory flashed back to their
childhood together, when life smiled upon them in that Kentish garden.
They were the only two survivors. Yet they could not manage even a
holiday together....
Though so little had been said at the end, it was a rupture.... He went
home to bed, planning a splendid reconstruction. Before they went to their
respective work-places in the morning he would run over and see her, put
everything straight and sweet again, explaining his selfishness, perhaps, on
the plea that he was overtired. He wondered, as he lay ashamed and sad
upon his sleepless bed, what she was thinking and feeling now ... and fell
asleep at last with his plan of reconstruction all completed. His last
conscious thought was—“I wish I had not let her go like that ... without a
nice good-bye!”
In the morning, however, he had not time to go; he postponed it to the
evening, sending her a telegram instead: “Come dinner to-night same place
and time. Have worked out perfect plan.” And all day long he looked
forward eagerly to their meeting. Those childhood thoughts haunted him
strangely—he remembered the enormous plans all had made together years
ago in that old Kentish garden where the hopfields peered above the privet
hedge and frightened them. There were five of them then; now there were
only two.
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