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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
Joel P. Conte
Rodrigo Astroza
Gianmario Benzoni
Glauco Feltrin
Kenneth J. Loh
Babak Moaveni Editors

Experimental
Vibration
Analysis for Civil
Structures
Testing, Sensing, Monitoring,
and Control
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Volume 5
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering (LNCE) publishes the latest developments in
Civil Engineering - quickly, informally and in top quality. Though original research
reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNCE, edited
volumes of exceptionally high quality and interest may also be considered for
publication. Volumes published in LNCE embrace all aspects and subfields of, as
well as new challenges in, Civil Engineering. Topics in the series include:

– Construction and Structural Mechanics

– Building Materials
– Concrete, Steel and Timber Structures
– Geotechnical Engineering
– Earthquake Engineering
– Coastal Engineering
– Hydraulics, Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering
– Environmental Engineering and Sustainability
– Structural Health and Monitoring
– Surveying and Geographical Information Systems
– Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
– Transportation and Traffic
– Risk Analysis
– Safety and Security

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15087

Joel P. Conte Rodrigo Astroza
•

Gianmario Benzoni Glauco Feltrin

•

Kenneth J. Loh Babak Moaveni

•

Editors

Experimental Vibration
Analysis for Civil
Structures
Testing, Sensing, Monitoring,
and Control

123
Editors
Joel P. Conte Glauco Feltrin
Department of Structural Engineering Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials
University of California at San Diego Science and Technology (EMPA)
La Jolla, CA Zürich
USA Switzerland

Rodrigo Astroza Kenneth J. Loh

Faculty of Engineering and Applied Department of Structural Engineering
Sciences University of California at San Diego
Universidad de los Andes La Jolla, CA
Las Condes, RM - Santiago USA
Chile
Babak Moaveni
Gianmario Benzoni Department of Civil and Environmental
Department of Structural Engineering Engineering
University of California at San Diego Tufts University
La Jolla, CA Medford, MA
USA USA

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-67442-1 ISBN 978-3-319-67443-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67443-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953432

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Research, development, and applications in Experimental Vibration Analysis for

Civil Engineering Structures are being fed by the continuous progress in the fields
of sensor and testing technologies, instrumentation, data acquisition systems,
computer technology, and computational modeling and simulation of large and
complex civil infrastructure systems. The objectives and challenges are to under-
stand the behavior and state of health of structural, geo-structural, and soil–foun-
dation–structural systems as well as predicting their remaining useful life using
vibration data collected from these systems when subjected to operational and
extreme loads. Advanced data analysis (e.g., system and damage identification)
methods are required to extract the needed information from the data and to gain
from the information the knowledge required to support decision making related to
maintenance and inspection, retrofit, upgrade, and rehabilitation of these systems as
well as in case of emergency response. These data analysis methods are developed
using numerically simulated structural response data, experimental data from
small-scale physical structural models, experimental data from large- or full-scale
physical structural specimens tested under laboratory conditions, or field data
collected from civil structures under in-situ conditions.
EVACES, the International Conference on Experimental Vibration Analysis for
Civil Engineering Structures, is a premier venue where recent progress in the field is
presented and discussed by experts from all over the world. After the first six
successful editions of EVACES which took place in Bordeaux, France (2005);
Porto, Portugal (2007); Wroclaw, Poland (2009); Varenna, Italy (2011); Ouro
Preto, Brazil (2013); and Dübendorf, Switzerland (2015), EVACES 2017 was
organized by the University of California at San Diego and held on the main
campus of the University in July 12–14, 2017.
The papers presented at EVACES 2017 are subdivided into the following sub-
areas: (1) keynote papers; (2) damage identification and structural health moni-
toring; (3) testing, sensing, and modeling; (3) vibration isolation and control;
(4) system and model identification; and (5) coupled dynamical systems (including
human–structure, vehicle–structure, and soil–structure interactions).

v
vi Preface

We express our sincere thanks to the members of the Organizing Committee, the
members of the Scientific Committee, and, in particular, all the authors and par-
ticipants for their essential and valuable contributions.

Joel P. Conte
Rodrigo Astroza
Gianmario Benzoni
Glauco Feltrin
Kenneth Loh
Babak Moaveni
Organization

Editors/Organizing Committee

Joel P. Conte
Professor, Ph.D.
Department of Structural Engineering
University of California, San Diego
USA
jpconte@ucsd.edu

Rodrigo Astroza
Assistant Professor, Ph.D.
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Universidad de los Andes
Chile
rastroza@miuandes.cl

Gianmario Benzoni
Research Scientist, Ph.D.
Department of Structural Engineering
University of California, San Diego
USA
gbenzoni@ucsd.edu

Glauco Feltrin
Senior Researcher, Ph.D.
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA)
Switzerland
glauco.feltrin@empa.ch

vii
viii Organization

Kenneth Loh
Associate Professor, Ph.D.
Department of Structural Engineering
University of California, San Diego
USA
kjloh@ucsd.edu

Babak Moaveni
Associate Professor, Ph.D.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tufts University
USA
babak.moaveni@tufts.edu

Scientific Committee

A. Emin Aktan Drexel University, USA

Rodrigo Astroza Universidad de los Andes, Chile
Flavio Barbosa Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Jan Bien Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
Elsa Caetano University of Porto, Portugal
Joel P. Conte University of California San Diego, USA
Christian Cremona Bouygues Construction, France
Alvaro Cunha University of Porto, Portugal
Alexandre Cury Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil
Guido De Roeck KU Leuven, Belgium
Glauco Feltrin EMPA, Switzerland
Alain Fournol AVLS, France
Carmelo Gentile Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Raid Karoumi KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Mieszko Kuzawa Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
Antonino Morassi University of Udine, Italy
Alex Pavic University of Exeter, UK
Patrick Paultre University of Sherbrooke, Canada
Luis F. Ramos University of Minho, Portugal
Contents

Keynote Papers
Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal
Strain Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
G. De Roeck, E. Reynders, and D. Anastasopoulos
Flexible Architectures for Full-Scale Performance Evaluation
of Tall Buildings: Burj Khalifa and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tracy Kijewski-Correa and Andrew Bartolini
Information-Driven Modeling of Structures
Using a Bayesian Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Costas Papadimitriou, Costas Argyris, and Panagiotis Panetsos
Development of a High Accuracy and High Sampling Rate
Displacement Sensor for Civil Engineering Structures Monitoring . . . . 62
Hoon Sohn, Kiyoung Kim, Jaemook Choi, Gunhee Koo,
and Junyeon Chung

Damage Identification and Structural Health Monitoring

A New Approach to Damage Detection in Bridges
Using Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A.C. Neves, Ignacio González, John Leander, and Raid Karoumi
Vibration Based Damage Identification Method for Cantilever
Beam Using Artificial Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Putti Srinivasa Rao and N.V.D. Mahendra
Advanced Statistical Techniques Applied to Raw Data
for Structural Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Alan S. Torres, Vinicius N. Alves, Alexandre A. Cury,
and Flavio S. Barbosa

ix
x Contents

Virtual Laboratory for Leveraging Technology for Bridges

and Constructed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Emin Aktan, Ivan Bartoli, Franklin Moon, Marcello Balduccini,
Kurt Sjoblom, Antonios Kontsos, Hoda Azari, Matteo Mazzotti,
John Braley, Charles Young, Shi Ye, and Andrew Ellenberg
Radio-Frequency Identification Triggering System
for Structural Health Monitoring of Highway Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Johnn Judd, Richard Schmidt, McKenzie Danforth, James Branscomb,
and Michael Jung
Evaluating Vibration Serviceability Using Experimental
Modal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Anthony R. Barrett, D. Bradley Davis, and Thomas M. Murray
Damage Detection by Experimental Modal Analysis
in Fiber-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
C.A. Geweth, F. Saati Khosroshahi, K. Sepahvand, C. Kerkeling,
and S. Marburg
Retrofitting of Damaged Structure Using Vibration
Monitoring Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Vishisht Bhaiya, Shiv Dayal Bharti, Mahendra Kumar Shrimali,
and Tushar Kanti Datta
Experimental Damage Identification Using SVD-Based Sensitivities
of Truncated Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Mohammad Rahai, Ali Bakhshi, and Akbar Esfandiari
Vibration-Based Support Vector Machine for Structural
Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Hong Pan, Mohsen Azimi, Guoqing Gui, Fei Yan, and Zhibin Lin
Structural Health Monitoring of a Curved Segment
of an Elevated Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Carlos H. Huerta-Carpizo, David Murià-Vila, Gerardo Aguilar,
and Abraham R. Sánchez
Performance Evaluation of Hinges in Cantilever Steel Truss
Bridges by Temperature Induced Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Takeshi Miyashita, Eiji Iwasaki, and Masatsugu Nagai
Vibration-Based SHM of Railway Bridges Using Machine Learning:
The Influence of Temperature on the Health Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Elisa Khouri Chalouhi, Ignacio Gonzalez, Carmelo Gentile,
and Raid Karoumi
Contents xi

Finite Element Model Calibration of a Historic Wiegmann–Polonceau

Truss Based on Experimental Modal Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Hoa T.M. Luong, Werner Lorenz, Rolf G. Rohrmann, Volkmar Zabel,
and Samir Said
General Conditions for Full-Field Response Monitoring
in Structural Systems Driven by a Set of Identified
Equivalent Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Eliz-Mari Lourens and Dominik Fallais
Experimental Vibration Tests in Fatigue Evaluation
of a Riveted Truss Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Mieszko Kużawa, Tomasz Kamińki, and Jan Bień
Damage Sensitivity Evaluation of Vibration Parameters
Under Ambient Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
John James Moughty and Joan Ramon Casas
Operational Damage Localization of Wind Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . 261
Yaowen W. Ou, Vasilis K. Dertimanis, and Eleni N. Chatzi
Study on the Vibration Feature of Concrete Deck Slabs
Under Fatigue Wheel Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Chen Xu and Hiroshi Masuya
Fuzzy Pattern Recognition in Vibration-Based Structural
Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Mohammad Azarbayejani
Efficient Finite Elements Model Updating for Damage
Detection in Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
M. Saidou Sanda, O. Gauron, N. Turcotte, C.-P. Lamarche, P. Paultre,
M. Talbot, and J.-F. Laflamme
A Comparison of Damage Detection Methods Applied
to Civil Engineering Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Szymon Gres, Palle Andersen, Rasmus Johan Johansen,
Martin Dalgaard Ulriksen, and Lars Damkilde
A Displacement Reconstruction Strategy for Long, Slender Structures
from Limited Strain Measurements and Its Application
to Underground Pipeline Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Mayank Chadha and Michael D. Todd
xii Contents

Testing, Sensing and Modeling

Displacements Monitoring of Suspension Bridge
Using Geodetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Wojciech Anigacz, Damian Beben, and Jacek Kwiatkowski
Modelling of Pot Bearings – A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Mahir Ülker-Kaustell, Gabriel F. Boschmonar, Pablo B. Isusi,
Stefan Trillkott, Claes Kullberg, and Raid Karoumi
Full-Scale Dynamic Testing of a Railway Bridge
Using a Hydraulic Exciter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Andreas Andersson, Johan Östlund, Mahir Ülker-Kaustell,
Jean-Marc Battini, and Raid Karoumi
A Practical Multi-cross-line Model for Simulating Nonlinear Cyclic
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Shear Wall in Super
High-Rise Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Baoyin Sun, Quan Gu, Peizhou Zhang, and Jinping Ou
Dynamic Shake-Table Tests on Two Full-Scale, Unreinforced
Masonry Buildings Subjected to Induced Seismicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Gabriele Guerrini, Francesco Graziotti, Andrea Penna, and Guido Magenes
Utilising an Advanced Technology of People Tracking
in Vibration Serviceability Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Ahmed S. Mohammed and Aleksandar Pavic
Forced-Vibration Tests of the Daniel-Johnson Multiple-Arch Dam . . . . 397
O. Gauron, Y. Boivin, S. Ambroise, P. Paultre, J. Proulx, M. Roberge,
and S.-N. Roth
Experimental Vibration Analysis of Composite Bridge
Superstructure with Excessive Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Mieszko Kużawa and Jan Bień
Real-Time Structural Instrumentation as an Emergency Response
and Business Continuity Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Erik Bishop, Kenny O’Neill, Drew Nielson, Dave Swanson,
David Gonzalez, and Derek Skolnik
A Comparison of Two Data Acquisition Techniques for Modal
Strain Identification from Sub-microstrain FBG Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Dimitrios Anastasopoulos, Kristof Maes, Guido De Roeck,
and Edwin Reynders
Strong Motion Structural Monitoring in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
K. O’Neill, E. Bishop, D. Swanson, D. Aveyard, D. Skolnik,
and M. Fraser
Contents xiii

A Bio-inspired Framework for Highly Efficient Structural

Health Monitoring and Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Maria-Giovanna Masciotta, Alberto Barontini, Luís F. Ramos,
Paulo Amado-Mendes, and Paulo B. Lourenço
Development of the UPRM Hybrid Simulation Facilities:
Substructuring Techniques Coupled Numerical Simulations . . . . . . . . . 469
Maria D. Cortes-Delgado and Lemuel González Hernández
Shake-Table Testing and Performance Assessment
of a Partially Grouted Reinforced Masonry Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Andreas Koutras and P. Benson Shing

Vibration Isolation and Control

Vortex-Induced Vibration of Stay Cables, Verification
on the Footbridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Shota Urushadze and Miroš Pirner
Vertical Vibration Mitigation of a Bridge Cable
Using a Non Smooth Absorber Under Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Mathieu Weiss, Bastien Vaurigaud, A. Ture Savadkoohi,
and C.-H. Lamarque
An Assessment of a Fractional Derivative Model Applied
to Simulate the Dynamic Behavior of Viscoelastic Sandwich Beam . . . . 514
Waldir Felippe and Flavio Barbosa
Modal Phase Compensation for Application of Direct Velocity
Feedback to Active Control of Floor Vibration
Under Impact Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Kai Xue, Akira Igarashi, and Takahiro Kachi
Application of a 240 Metric Ton Dual-Use Tuned Mass
Damper System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Christian Meinhardt
Mitigate Seismic Response of Three-Span Bridge Using MR
Damping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
G. Heo, C. Kim, S. Jeon, C. Lee, and S. Seo
An Analytic Comparison Regarding Steady-State Damping
Performance Between the Twin Rotor Damper and a Dynamic
Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Richard Bäumer, Richard Terrill, and Uwe Starossek
Design of Test Setup for Prototype Testing of Base Isolators . . . . . . . . . 568
Shiv Dayal Bharti, Mahendra Kumar Shrimali, Arnav Anuj Kasar,
and Tushar Kanti Datta
xiv Contents

Comparison of State-of-the-Art Methods of Estimating & Controlling

Floor Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Austin Devin and Paul J. Fanning
Optimal Design of Active Tuned Mass Dampers for Mitigating
Translational–Torsional Motion of Irregular Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Mohsen Azimi, Hong Pan, Mehdi Abdeddaim, and Zhibin Lin
Active Vibration Control of a Three Degree of Freedom
Oscillator Using Two Eccentrically Rotating Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
R. Terrill, R. Bäumer, and U. Starossek

System and Modal Identification

Experimental Evaluation of the Effect of Geometric Nonlinearities
on Structural Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Reyolando M. Brasil and Alexandre M. Wahrhafitg
The Selection of a Dynamic Model of a RC Chimney Based
on In Situ Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Tadeusz Tatara and Bartłomiej Ratajewicz
A New System Identification Method Operated in the Pole Domain . . . 631
Qianying Cao, Bin Gao, Huajun Li, and Sau-Lon James Hu
Discussion of Several “RSID” Algorithms to Linear Time-Varying
System and System with Abrupt Change of Joint Failure . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Chin-Hsiung Loh and Jun-Da Chen
Dynamic Characteristics of a 55-Story Building Before
and After Retrofit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
Mehmet Çelebi, Toshihide Kashima, S. Farid Ghahari, Shin Koyama,
Ertuǧrul Taciroğlu, and Izuru Okawa
Time-Frequency Analysis of Suspension Bridge Response
for Identification of Vortex Induced Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Daniel Cantero, Ole Øiseth, and Anders Rønnquist
Dynamic Characteristics of Layered Stone Pagoda System . . . . . . . . . . 676
Byeong Hwa Kim
Identification of Symmetrical Structures with Fabrication
and Damage Induced Asymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Abhineet Gupta, Wei Zhao, Chris Regan, Peter Seiler,
and Rakesh K. Kapania
Experimental Incremental System Identification Method
Using Separate Time Windows on Basis of Ambient Signals . . . . . . . . . 694
Simon Schleiter, Okyay Altay, and Sven Klinkel
Contents xv

Effect of Cross-Section and Discontinuities on Damping

Enhancement in Composites: An Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Komal Chawla and Samit Ray. Chaudhuri
Modal Strain Energy Based Structural Parameter Identification
from Limited Vibration Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
D. Bandyopadhyay and J.S. Ali
Experimental Modal Properties of a Steel Arch Bridge During
the Static Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
Fabrizio Gara, Vanni Nicoletti, Davide Roia, and Andrea Dall’Asta
Evaluation of Vibration Problems in Existing Office Buildings . . . . . . . 736
Matthew A. Pavelchak
Post-earthquake Field Measurement-Based System Identification
and Finite Element Modeling of an 18-Story Masonry-Infilled
RC Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
Mohammed A. Mohammed, Hanshun Yu, Andre Furtado,
Andre R. Barbosa, Babak Moaveni, Humberto Varum, Hugo Rodrigues,
Nelson Vila-Pouca, and Richard L. Wood
Study of the Environmental Influence on the Dynamic Behavior
of Adobe Walls: Preliminary Test in Laboratory Specimens . . . . . . . . . 758
Rick Delgadillo, Giacomo Zonno, Rubén Boroschek, Paulo B. Lourenço,
and Rafael Aguilar
Assessing the Performance of a Heavy Haul Railway Viaduct
Through Monitoring Traffic Loads and Dynamic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
Fulvio Busatta and Pilate Moyo
Specific Dynamic Properties of SFRC Based on Waste
Ceramic Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Jacek Katzer and Jacek Domski
Parametric Estimation of Wave Dispersion for System
Identification of Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Hamed Ebrahimian, Monica Kohler, Anthony Massari,
and Domniki Asimaki

Coupled Dynamical Systems (Includes Human-Structure,

Vehicle-Structure and Soil-Structure Interaction)
Experimental Testing of Soil-Steel Railway Bridge Under
Normal Train Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Damian Beben
Analysis of Records from Downhole Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Erdal Şafak and Eser Çaktı
xvi Contents

Effect of Soil-Structure Interaction on Low to Medium-Rise

Steel Frames Through Shake Table Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
B. Vivek and Prishati Raychowdhury
Natural Vibration Characteristics and Seismic Response Analysis
of Train-Bridge Coupling System in High-Speed Railway . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Zhi Liu, Hui Jiang, Lanfang Zhang, and Endong Guo
Simulation of Human Induced Vibration of a Lively Footbridge . . . . . . 839
Eleonora Lai and Maria G. Mulas
Vibrations in Multilayered Soils: A Simplified and Robust
Prediction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Abdul Karim Jamal Eddine, Luca Lenti, and Jean-Francois Semblat
The Effect of Traffic Modeling on Damage Detection Procedure
of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
A.H. Hadjian Shahri and A.K. Ghorbani-Tanha
Soil-Foundation Compliance Evidence of the “Chiaravalle Viaduct” . . . 871
Marco Regni, Fabrizio Gara, Francesca Dezi, Davide Roia,
and Sandro Carbonari
Experimental Analysis of Arroyo Bracea II Bridge in Madrid – Sevilla
High-Speed Railway Line: Dynamic Response of the Structure
and Effect of Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Pedro Galvín, Antonio Romero, Emmanuela Moliner,
and María D. Martínez-Rodrigo
Dynamic Modeling of Train and Bridge with Stepped-Beam
Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Hani Nassif, Yingjie Wang, and Peng Lou
Nonlinear Stay Cable – Bridge Deck Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
Benedikt Weber
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Keynote Papers
 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal
Strain Measurements

G. De Roeck(&), E. Reynders, and D. Anastasopoulos

Department of Civil Engineering,

KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
guido.deroeck@kuleuven.be

Abstract. Vibration based Structural Health Monitoring was and is still a hot
topic in research. Much progress has been made both from the theoretical as well
as the practical side. Vibration-based SHM traditionally makes use of
uniaxial/triaxial accelerometers or velocity meters. Also sometimes inclinome-
ters are installed. Recent trends in SHM are the use of high-rate GPS receivers
[1], wave propagation-based piezoelectric ceramic sensing technology and
optical fiber sensors for dynamic strain and temperature measurements [2].
A particular challenge for structural health assessment is the discovery of
small local damage. It is well known that for small damages, the changes in
natural frequencies remain very low. Moreover, they are considerably influenced
by environmental conditions (mainly temperature) [3], which influence has to be
eliminated on beforehand [4, 5]. Also modal displacements are rather insensitive
to small stiffness perturbations. On the contrary, modal strains (or curvatures)
are very receptive to small stiffness changes. Additionally, they immediately
spot the damage location. Some authors have tried to derive curvatures from
modal displacements but this procedure is very prone to even slight measure-
ment and/or identification errors. Therefore, the key issue is the direct mea-
surement of (modal) strains. However, the development of a distributed strain
sensor network able to cope with the very low strain intensities during ambient
excitation is still a challenge. In this paper by recent experiments on steel and
concrete beams the extreme accuracy of dynamic measurements with optical
FBG strain sensors is demonstrated.
Another possibility to obtain precise modal strains would be the development
of a transducer that amplifies the strains. In a recent research project, by using
Topology Optimization [6], a transducer was developed that measures differ-
ential axial displacements over a sufficient long distance and at the same time is
upscaling the strains. Results obtained with this transducer are reported.
In this context, a new challenge for Optimal Sensor Placement [7] is to deal
with different sensor types, e.g. displacement transducers, accelerometers and
strain sensors.
For localization and quantification of damage, the most powerful method is
FE-model updating based on minimizing differences between measured and
calculated modal parameters [8]. The addition of modal strains to the objective
function of the minimization problem will improve the damage identification
process.

Keywords: Modal analysis
Modal strains
Damage assessment
Structural

health monitoring
Optical strain fibers

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

J.P. Conte et al. (eds.), Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Structures,
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67443-8_1
4 G. De Roeck et al.

1 Introduction

Vibration-based structural health monitoring (SHM) is based on the principle that

modal parameters of a structure are like a signature of structural behaviour.
Output-only or operational modal analysis (OMA) became very popular as no artificial
vibration source is needed which is anyhow impossible in many cases. Powerful time
domain system identification algorithms like Stochastic Subspace Iteration (SSI) have
replaced the obsolete “peak-picking” method [9, 10].
Vibration-based SHM traditionally makes use of uniaxial/triaxial accelerometers or
velocity meters. Also sometimes inclinometers are installed. Recent trends in SHM are
the use of high-rate GPS receivers [1], wave propagation-based piezoelectric ceramic
(PZT) sensing technology and optical fiber sensors (OFS) for dynamic strain and
temperature measurements [2].
Because of the omission of cables, wireless networks (WNs) have a lot of evident
advantages, like the ease of system setup, the largely reduced installation time, the
possibility of local data processing, data interpretation and anomaly detection. In a
recent project a wireless measurement with high time-synchronization accuracy was
developed [11]. Spatial jitter was reduced to 125 ns, far below the 120 µs required for
high-precision acquisition systems and much better than the 10-µs current solutions,
without adding complexity. Moreover, the system is scalable to a large number of
nodes to allow for dense sensor coverage of real-world structures.
In most of modal testing campaigns, there are more degrees-of-freedom (DOFs) to
be measured than sensors available. The whole measurement grid then needs to be
covered in several phases by different measurement setups. A number of reference
locations are then selected and transducers at these points are often kept fixed in all
setups. The ideal location for a reference sensor is a position where all modes have
relatively large modal amplitudes. However, there exists no guidelines or general
principles for evaluating whether a chosen number of reference sensors leads to suffi-
ciently accurate mode shape estimates. In practice, even when measuring large struc-
tures, often a very limited number of reference sensors is allocated. The other
transducers are roved in successive setups, hence these transducers are often termed
`roving’ sensors, so that by the end of the last setup, vibration responses at all grid points
will have been recorded. So for any measurement campaign, the following questions
have to be answered: (i) the location of the reference sensors, (ii) their number, (iii) the
location of the roving sensors in the different setups. Answers can be given by applying
Optimal sensor location (OSL) approaches. In [7] their practical applicability has been
illustrated on a large-scale operational modal test of a five-span steel truss railway
bridge. The measurement layout was designed according to intuitive reasoning, based
on the modal results of a preliminary Finite Element analysis. Afterwards, this test
design has been reviewed using OSL. A new challenge is to deal with different sensor
types, e.g. displacement transducers, accelerometers and strain sensors.
Results can be used for calibration of numerical FE-models inherently containing
uncertainties especially related to boundary conditions, joint stiffnesses, structural
contribution of non-bearing parts, material parameters, damping, …
 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal Strain Measurements 5

Subsequently, properly calibrated FE-models can be used to derive from response

measurements the actual excitation like moving loads on road or railway bridges and
wind forces on tall structures. Moreover, these models can be used to obtain from the
response measurements in a limited number of sensors information in otherwise dif-
ficult to assess points, like strains close to weldings or forces in bolts [12].
Other interesting applications relate to the follow-up of critical phases during
erection of constructions.
Moreover, changes in modal parameters (i.e. natural frequencies, damping ratios,
mode shapes and modal strains) can be used as features to detect and to identify
damage. Compared to other approaches for structural damage identification, vibration-
based damage identification has the advantages of (1) being nondestructive, (2) being
able to identify damage that is invisible at the surface, (3) being ‘global’ because no a
priori location of the damage needs to be assumed as opposed to local methods such as
ultrasonic testing. A good overview of recent trends is given in [13].
Unfortunately, modal parameters are not only sensitive to damage, but also to
changing environmental conditions such as temperature variations, and moreover, their
estimation from vibration response data is also prone to experimental errors. This is well
known for natural frequencies but less observed and understood for mode shapes and
modal strains. Challenge is to eliminate the environmental influences by prediction models
that just rely on estimated modal properties (i.e. output-only models [4]) or on the mea-
sured environment as input and the estimated modal parameters as output (i.e. input-output
models [5]). These models are trained by using data gathered in undamaged condition.

2 Small Local Damage

2.1 Background
A particular challenge for structural health assessment is the discovery of small local
damage. Not only natural frequencies and mode shapes will hardly be affected but also
its influence hidden in the uncertainty blur. Therefore, the development of a distributed
strain sensor network able to cope with the very low strain intensities during ambient
excitation is a challenge. Optical fiber sensors with Bragg grating technology perma-
nently attached to the structure could be a good choice in this respect. Interrogation
units are still quite expensive but can be coupled and uncoupled when adopting a
periodic monitoring maintenance strategy. An additional advantage of the measured
strain field is that it can be directly related to the stress field. Such a system will also be
able to measure quasi-static deformation as occurs in case of shrinkage, creep, thermal
expansion and very slowly applied dynamic loads. The idea of directly measuring
accurate strains is explored in the next sections.

2.2 Upscaling Strain Transducer

During ambient excitation strains are very small so extracting modal strains is rather
cumbersome. Moreover, in concrete structures when mean strains are measured over a
long enough stretch, the classical Bernoulli assumption that plane sections remain plane
6 G. De Roeck et al.

is still reasonably well fulfilled. This also implies that (modal) curvatures can be used
for damage assessment.
Therefore a transducer that measures differential axial displacements over a suffi-
cient long distance and at the same time amplifies the strains would be of great benefit.
In a recent research project such transducer was developed by using Topology Opti-
mization [14]. The transducer is connected by bolts to the test structure (Fig. 2: points 1
and 2). The actual strain is the one between the two bolts. The goal of the Topology
Optimization is to amplify the strain occurring between points A and B (Fig. 1), which
is measured by a Bragg grating on an optical fiber between these two points.

Fig. 1. Grid used in the topology optimization.

In Topology Optimization, a design is obtained by optimizing the distribution of a

certain amount of material in the design domain. This design domain (grid) is displayed
in Fig. 2. Note that some elements of this design domain are filled with material in
advance. This due to the way the transducer and optical fiber will be mounted. The
objective of the optimization is to minimize the horizontal displacement at the fixation
point of the fiber, in case a positive horizontal force is applied at the fixation bolt of the
transducer. This obtained by defining a minimum compliance optimization function as
described in Wang (2011) [19]:

min cðxÞ
x

V
subject to : KU ¼ F;  fv ; 0  xe  1 ð1Þ
V0

In this equation, x is the vector with the element densities xe, ranging from 0 (void)
to 1 (solid). These element densities will be altered to obtain an optimal objective value
c. K is the global stiffness matrix, U is the global displacement vector containing the
displacements in all degrees of freedom and F is the global force vector. V is the
material volume and V0 is the total volume of the design domain. The ratio of these
parameters must be smaller than a prescribed volume fraction fv. This volume con-
straint is applied to this optimization, ensuring the total amount of material remains
below a certain amount. Through calibration a volume constraint of 50% was selected,
as a higher volume would not result in a higher objective value but would have a
negative influence on the natural frequencies of the transducer.
 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal Strain Measurements 7

The optimum of the objective function is calculated using the Method of Moving
Asymptotes [6]. This algorithm will iteratively calculate the optimum. Convergence
will be assumed when a change in material distribution of less than 5% occurs. This
standard optimization approach results in one node hinges and bending in the optical
fiber. To obtain a more robust design, extra constraints are applied. The first constraints
ensured a local length scale control, preventing one node hinges. Another constraint
was added, ensuring the mounting platforms of the optical fiber will not rotate, pre-
venting bending of the fiber. This algorithm will iteratively calculate the optimum.
Convergence will be assumed when a change in material distribution of less than 5%
occurs.
The result of the optimization is shown in Fig. 2. A strain amplification by a factor
120 can theoretically be obtained.

Fig. 2. Strain transducer from Topology Optimization.

Figure 3 shows a displacement plot by ANSYS for the right half of the sensor.
A compression between 1 and 2 results in an elongation of AB. A prototype of this

Fig. 3. Displacement plot.

8 G. De Roeck et al.

sensor has been produced by laser cutting and its upscaling factor tested in the labo-
ratory [14].

2.3 Strain Optical Fiber Network

To demonstrate the high accuracy that can be obtained from optical fiber strain sensors,
an extensive experimental modal analysis test has been performed on a steel I-beam
IPE 100 (Fig. 4) at the Structural Mechanics Laboratory of KU Leuven [15, 16]. The
length of the beam is 3.0 m and steel plates are welded at its ends. The boundary
conditions are set to approximate free-free conditions. For that purpose, the beam was

Fig. 4. Instrumented steel beam.

suspended on flexible springs. The beam was excited through a shaker located at the
left end (Fig. 5) with various force amplitudes (2.3–13.5 N) and excitation signals
(pure random, swept sign, periodic random) from [0:200] Hz and from [0:500] Hz. The
low forces produce strain RMS values below one micro-strain.

Fig. 5. FBGs setup - front view.

Fig. 6. Accelerometers setup - top view.

 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal Strain Measurements 9

The beam was instrumented with a chain of multiplexed Bragg Grating (FBG) strain
sensors glued at the top and the bottom flange of the beam (Fig. 5) and accelerometers
(Fig. 6). The sampling frequency was fs = 20000 Hz for the accelerometers and fs =
950 Hz for the FBGs.
FBG based sensing relies on tracking the Bragg peak wavelength as it shifts with a
change in the measured peak. Recently a fast and accurate peak detection algorithm has
been recently proposed [17]. The fast phase-correlation (FPC) algorithm determines the
wavelength shift from the phase shift between the undisturbed FBG spectrum and the
perturbed spectrum.
Three modal analyses were performed by applying the Matlab toolbox MACEC
[18] with two algorithms, SSI-cov and CSI [10]: (1) using FBG strain data; (2) using
accelerometer data; (3) using both data. In the latter case, the accelerometer data were
down-sampled at 950 Hz.
In the interval [0:200] Hz 2 bending modes and 3 torsional modes could be
identified. An excellent correspondence with FE calculated modal properties is
observed [16]. Moreover, the obtained modal characteristics from the combined modal
analysis show a high consistency with the ones obtained from the separate analyses.
The differences in modal displacements are less than 5%. The combined analysis, using
data from both FBG strain sensors and accelerometers, allows to obtain mass nor-
malized modal strains. Mass normalization is possible because acceleration was
measured at the same location and direction as the applied force. Figure 7 shows the

Fig. 7. Normalized modal strains of the third torsional mode T3.

comparison between calculated and measured mass normalized strains. Remarkable is

the excellent agreement, taken into account the very low strain levels and the longi-
tudinal orientation of the FBG strain fibers. They sense the torsional modes because of
the restrained warping effect.
10 G. De Roeck et al.

2.4 Damage Identification by Modal Strains

In a very recent experiment the ability of modal strains to identify more accurately
structural damage in reinforced concrete beams is investigated. In order to comply with
the Bernoulli assumption for beams, mean strains have to be measured over a suffi-

Fig. 8. Connector system for optical strain fiber.

ciently long length (e.g. typically one or two crack distances). Small measurement
lengths will show a clear discontinuous behavior, depending on the location of the
strain sensor: above a crack or between cracks.
A connector (Fig. 8) has been developed to clamp an optical glass fiber containing

Fig. 9. Beam cross section.

several Bragg gratings at discrete points with proper spacing.

The experiment is aiming to identify the dynamic characteristics of a reinforced con-
crete beam at increasing damage levels. The beam has a length of 1.7 m and a rectangular
cross section with dimensions 125  225 mm (Fig. 9). Steel reinforcement consists of 2
bars of 12 mm diameter at the tensile side and 2 bars of 8 mm at the compression side.

Fig. 10. FBG sensors setup - front view.

 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal Strain Measurements 11

Shear reinforcement is by stirrups of 6 mm diameter. Concrete cover of these

stirrups is 25 mm.

Fig. 11. Accelerometers setup - top view.

Two chains of multiplexed FBG strain sensors were attached: one on the front side
at the bottom and on the back side at the top (Fig. 10). Each chain contains 14 FBG

Fig. 12. Four point bending static test setup.

sensors which measure the average strain along a length of 100 mm. The chains
measure the strains of the beam at a distance of about 1 cm from its edges.
At the top side of the beam 20 accelerometers were installed (Fig. 11). The distance
between the accelerometers was about 20 cm.
Prior to the dynamic tests, damage is induced by static loads in a four point bending
configuration (Fig. 12).
After each static test producing progressive damage, the beam is suspended from
flexible springs, approaching dynamic free-free boundary conditions, to perform a
modal identification. Dynamic response is provoked by hammer impacts and by a
12 G. De Roeck et al.

shaker, exciting both the bending and the torsion modes. Input signal to the shaker is a
sine sweep. The sampling frequency of the FBG strain acquisition system (FAZT I4) is
fs = 1000 Hz and 10000 Hz for the acceleration acquisition system (NI PXI-1050
chassis with NI PXI-4472B modules).
In the initial state, by using the acceleration data in MACEC, three vertical bending

Table 1. Natural frequencies

Mode Type f (Hz) ANSYS f (Hz) measured Difference (%)
1 L1 172 168 2.5
2 B1 304 301 1.3
3 L2 460
4 T1 589 590 −0.2
5 B2 767 761 0.7
6 L3 865
7 A1 1175
8 T2 1179 1184 −0.4
9 B3 1356 1371 −1.1
10 L4 1360
11 T3 1771 1766 0.3

modes (B1, B2, B3) and three torsional modes (T1, T2, T3) are identified (Table 1).
When applying system identification to the strain data, only one lateral bending mode
(L1) and one vertical bending mode (B1) could be extracted due to the limited sam-
pling frequency of the FBG strain acquisition system. No axial modes (A) are found. In
Table 1 also a comparison is made with a FE model (ANSYS) consisting of solid
elements for the concrete and truss elements for the reinforcement.
Table 2 gives a view of the corresponding experimental mode shapes.
Damage is applied at different static loads (Fig. 12) till failure. Dynamic tests are
performed after each unloading and change of boundary conditions to free-free, by
attaching the beam to flexible springs. The extensive dataset is currently analyzed. Some
preliminary results obtained after applying a static load P of 80 kN are presented. This
load exceeds the crack load (about 30 kN). Table 5 resumes the frequency shifts. Despite
the clear decrease of natural frequencies, the changes in mass normalized mode shapes
are rather small, as shown in Table 3 for the first bending mode B1 and the third bending
mode B3. The changes for the higher mode B3 are more pronounced, but still small.
The simultaneous measurement of accelerations (at the location of the applied load)
and strains also allows to obtain mass normalized modal strains.
Table 4 shows for mode B1 the mass normalized modal strains at the top (left
column) and at the bottom (right column). Results are given at initial undamaged state
and at P equal to 80 kN. The initial modal strains, measured over a length of 10 cm)
show a very good correspondence with the mass normalized strains from the FE model.
For the damaged beam the modal strains are more irregular. One of the reasons
could be the short measurement length (10 cm) compared to the mean crack spacing,
which is about 9 cm. Integrating over a longer length (by summing up over several
 Assessment of Small Damage by Direct Modal Strain Measurements 13

Table 2. Mode shapes

Table 3. Mass normalized mode shapes B1 and B3, before (blue) and after damage (red).
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 More generous were the caciques of two towns at the other end
of the valley, who brought a few golden trifles and eight female
slaves.[278] The revelations of the Cempoalans and of Marina
concerning the wonderful power of the Spaniards, and the honors
paid them by Montezuma’s envoys, had the effect of making Olintetl
also more liberal with provisions at least. Being asked about the road
to Mexico he recommended that through Cholula, but the
Cempoalans representing the Cholultecs as highly treacherous, and
devoted to the Aztecs, the Tlascalan route was chosen, and four
Totonac chiefs were despatched to ask permission of the republican
rulers to pass through their lands. A letter served as mystic
credentials, and a red bushy Flemish hat for a present.[279]
After a stay of four days the army proceeded up the valley,
without leaving the customary cross, it seems, with which they had
marked their route hitherto; the reason for this was the objection of
Padre Olmedo to expose the emblem to desecration in a place not
wholly friendly to them.[280] The road lay for two leagues through a
densely settled district to Iztacmixtitlan, the seat of Tenamaxcuicuitl,
a town which Cortés describes as situated upon a lofty height, with
very good houses, a population of from five to six thousand families,
and possessing comforts superior to those of Xocotlan. “It has a
better fortress,” he writes, “than there is in half Spain, defended by a
wall, barbican, and moats.” The cacique who had invited the visit
made amends for the cold reception of the previous chief, and the
Spaniards remained for three days waiting in vain for the return of
the messengers sent to Tlascala. They then passed onward,
reinforced by about three hundred warriors from the town.[281] Two
leagues’ march brought them to the boundary of Tlascala,
conspicuous by a wall of stone and mortar nine feet in height and
twenty in breadth, which stretched for six miles across a valley, from
mountain to mountain, and was provided with breastworks and
ditches.[282]
Between latitude 19° and 20° ranges of hills cut the plain of
Anáhuac into four unequal parts. In the centre of the one eastward
stood the capital of Tlascala. The state so carefully protected was
about the same small territory which we now see on the map,[283]
with twenty-eight towns, and one hundred and fifty thousand
families, according to the rough census taken by Cortés.[284] A
branch of the Teo-Chichimec nation, the Tlascaltecs had, according
to tradition, entered upon the plateau shortly before the cognate
Aztecs, and, after occupying for a time a tract on the western shore
of Tezcuco Lake, they had tired of the constant disputes with
neighboring tribes and proceeded eastward, in three divisions, the
largest of which had, late in the thirteenth century, taken possession
of Tlascala, ‘Place of Bread.’ The soil was rich, as implied by the
name, but owing to the continued wars with former enemies,
reinforced by the Aztecs, they found little opportunity to make
available their wealth by means of industries and trade, and of late
years a blockade had been maintained which deprived them of many
necessaries, among others salt. But the greater attention given in
consequence to agriculture, had fostered temperate habits and a
sinewy constitution, combined with a deep love for the soil as the
source of all their prosperity. Compelled also to devote more time
and practice to warfare for the preservation of their liberty than to the
higher branches of culture, they presented the characteristics of an
isolated community, in being somewhat behind their neighbors in
refinement, as well as in the variety of their resources.
In government the state formed an aristocracy, ruled by a senate
of the nobility, presided over by four supreme hereditary lords, each
independent in his own section of the territory. This division extended
also to the capital, which consisted of four towns, or districts,
Tizatlan, Ocotelulco, Quiahuiztlan, and Tepeticpac, ruled respectively
by Xicotencatl, Maxixcatzin, Teohuayacatzin, and Tlehuexolotl.[285]
It was before this senate that the messengers of Cortés
appeared, informing them in the name of the Cempoalan lord of the
arrival of powerful gods from the east, who having liberated the
Totonacs from Montezuma’s sway, now desired to visit Tlascala in
passing through to Mexico, and to offer their friendship and alliance.
The messengers recommended an acceptance of the offer, for
although few in number the strangers were more than equal to a
host. They thereupon depicted their appearance, their swift steeds,
their savage dogs, their caged lightning, as well as their gentle faith
and manners. The messengers having retired, the senate proceeded
to discussion. Prudent Maxixcatzin, lord of the larger and richer
industrial district, called attention to the omens and signs which
pointed to these visitors, who from all accounts must be more than
mortal, and, if so, it would be best to admit them, since resistance
must be vain. Xicotencatl, the eldest lord, replied to this that the
interpretation of the signs could not be relied on. To him these beings
seemed monsters rejected by the sea-foam, greedy of gold and
luxuries, whose steeds devoured the very ground. To admit them
would be ruinous. Besides, should the invincible Tlascaltecs submit
to a mere handful? The gods forbid! It was further argued that the
amicable relations of the strangers with Montezuma and his vassals
did not accord with their protestations of friendship. This might be
one of the many Aztec plots to obtain a footing in the country. Nor
did the destruction of idols at Cempoala increase the confidence of a
people so jealous of its institutions. The discussion waxing warmer,
senator Temilotecatl suggested the middle course of letting the
Otomí frontier settlers, who were thoroughly devoted to their
Tlascaltec patrons, make an attack on the invaders, aided by their
own general Axayacatzin Xicotencatl, son of the old lord, and known
by the same name. If successful, they could claim the glory; if not,
they might grant the victors the permission they had desired, while
casting the blame for the attack on the Otomís. This was agreed to.
[286]

As the Spaniards halted before the great wall, speculating on the

strength of the people who had erected it, and upon the possible
traps it might hide, their late hosts again besought them to take the
Cholula route, but Cempoalan counsel prevailed. Waving aloft his
banner, Cortés exclaimed: “Behold the cross! Señores, follow it!” And
with this he led the way through the semicircular laps of the
entrance. The wall was not provided with sentinels, and the army
met with no obstacles.[287] Attended by ten horsemen, the general
advanced to reconnoitre. After proceeding about four leagues he
caught sight of fifteen armed Indians, who were pursued and
overtaken. A fight ensued, in which the natives, nerved by despair,
fought so fiercely that two horses were killed, and three horses and
two riders wounded.[288] Meanwhile a force of Indians came up,
estimated at from three to five thousand, and a horseman was at
once sent back to hurry forward the infantry, while the rest boldly
charged the enemy, riding through their ranks, and killing right and
left without being injured themselves. On the approach of the foot-
soldiers, and the discharge of a volley, the natives retired with about
sixty of their number slain.[289] Shortly afterward two of the
Cempoalan messengers returned with some Tlascaltecs, who
expressed their sorrow at the attack made by a tribe not belonging to
their nation. They offered to pay for the horses killed, and invited the
Spaniards in the name of the lords to proceed. The army advanced
for a league into more open country, and camped among some
abandoned farms, where dogs proved to be the only food left. Thus
ended the first day in Tlascalan territory, the first of September,
according to Bernal Diaz.
 In the morning the Spaniards met the two other messengers
returning from their mission to Tlascala, who told a harrowing story
of their seizure for the sacrificial stone, and of their escape by night.
It is probable that their detention by the Tlascaltecs for messenger
purposes had frightened them into believing that they were destined
to be sacrificed, for envoys enjoyed the greatest respect among the
Nahuas.[290] Shortly after a body of over one thousand warriors[291]
appeared, to whom Cortés, in presence of the notary Godoy, sent
three prisoners, with a formal assurance of his friendly intentions.
The only reply being showers of arrows, darts, and stones, Cortés
gave the “Santiago, and at them!” and charged. The enemy retreated
with the face to their pursuers, enticing them toward some broken
ground intersected by a creek, where they found themselves
surrounded by a large force, some bearing the red and white devices
of Xicotencatl. Missiles were showered, while double-pointed spears,
swords, and clubs pressed closely upon them, wielded by bolder
warriors than those whom the Spaniards had hitherto subdued.
Many were the hearts that quaked, and many expected that their last
moment had come; “for we certainly were in greater peril than ever
before,” says Bernal Diaz. “None of us will escape!” exclaimed
Teuch, the Cempoalan chief, but Marina who stood by replied with
fearless confidence: “The mighty God of the Christians, who loves
them well, will let no harm befall them.”[292] The commander rode
back and forth cheering the men, and giving orders to press onward,
and to keep well together. Fortunately the pass was not long, and
soon the Spaniards emerged into an open field, where the greater
part of the enemy awaited them, estimated in all, by different
authorities, at from thirty thousand to one hundred thousand.[293]
How long was this to continue, each new armed host being
tenfold greater than the last? Yet once again the Spaniards whet
their swords, and prepare for instant attack, as determined to fight it
out to the death, as Leonidas and his brave Spartans at the pass of
Thermopylæ. The cavalry charged with loose reins, and lances fixed
on a range with the heads of the enemy, opening a way through the
dense columns and spreading a confusion which served the infantry
well. Bernal Diaz relates how a body of natives, determined to obtain
possession of a horse, surrounded an excellent rider named Pedro
de Moron, who was mounted upon Sedeño’s fine racing mare,
dragged him from the saddle, and thrust their swords and spears
through the animal in all directions. Moron would have been carried
off but for the infantry coming to his rescue. In the struggle which
ensued ten Spaniards were wounded, while four chiefs bit the dust.
Moron was saved only to die on the second day, but the mare was
secured by the natives and cut into pieces, which were sent all over
the state to afford opportunity for triumphal celebrations. The loss
was greatly regretted, since it would divest the horses of their
terrifying character. Those previously killed had been secretly buried.
The battle continued until late in the afternoon, without enabling the
Indians to make any further impression on the Spanish ranks than
inflicting a few wounds, while their own were rapidly thinning under
the charges of the cavalry and the volleys of artillery and firelocks.
The slaughter had been particularly heavy among the chiefs, and
this was the main reason for the retreat which the enemy now
began, in good order.[294] Their actual loss could not be ascertained,
for with humane devotion the wounded and dead were carried off the
moment they were stricken; and in this constant self-sacrificing effort
the Tlascaltecs lost many lives and advantages. Robertson regards
with suspicion the accounts of the great battles fought during the
conquest, wherein Indians fell by the score while the Spaniards
stood almost unscathed, and Wilson ridicules the whole campaign,
reducing the Tlascalan population, for instance, to about ten
thousand, with a fighting force of less than one thousand men. Such
remarks certainly show a want of familiarity with the subject.[295] We
have often seen, in the New World wars, a thousand naked
Americans put to flight by ten steel-clad Europeans, and I have
clearly given the reasons. When we look at the Indians, with their
comparatively poor weapons, their unprotected bodies, their
inefficient discipline and tactics, whereby only a small portion of their
force could be made available, the other portion serving rather as an
obstruction, their custom of carrying off the dead, and other weak
points, and when we contrast them with the well armored Spaniards,
with their superior swords and lances, their well calculated
movements, and their concerted action carried out under strict and
practised officers, and above all their terror-inspiring and ravaging
fire-arms and horses—how can we doubt that the latter must have
readily been able to overcome vast numbers of native warriors? It
was soon so understood in Europe. For once when Cortés was in
Spain he scoffed at certain of his countrymen for having fled before a
superior force of Moors, whereupon one remarked: “This fellow
regards our opponents like his, of whom ten horsemen can put to
flight twenty-five thousand.” In the retreat of the Ten Thousand, who
under Cyrus had invaded Persia, we have an example of the
inadequacy of numbers against discipline. Though for every Greek
the Persians could bring a hundred men, yet the effeminate Asiatic
absolutely refused to meet the hardy European in open conflict.
Æschylus was inspired by personal experience in his play of the
Persians when he makes the gods intimate to the wondering Atossa,
the queen-mother, that free Athenians, unwhipped to battle, could
cope successfully with the myriads of despotic Xerxes. The poor
Americans had yet to learn their own weakness, and to pay dearly
for the knowledge.
“It well seems that God was he who fought for us to enable us to
get free from such a multitude,” says Cortés. He attempted no
pursuit, but hastened to take possession of Tecohuatzinco, a small
town on the hill of Tzompachtepetl,[296] where they fortified
themselves upon the temple pyramid, and proceeded to celebrate
the victory with songs and dances, a performance wherein the allies
took the leading part. The following day[297] Cortés sallied forth with
the horses, one hundred infantry, and seven hundred allies, partly to
forage before the enemy appeared, but also to inflict some damage,
and to show that they were as fresh as ever. “I burned five or six
small villages,” he says, “each of about one hundred families, and
returned with four hundred prisoners.”[298] After being consoled with
food and beads, the captives, including fifteen taken during the late
battle, were despatched to the camp of Xicotencatl, two leagues off,
with a letter to serve as credentials, and a message assuring him of
the friendly intentions of the Spaniards, although they had been
obliged to resort to severe measures. By no means impressed either
with his defeat or with the assurances, Xicotencatl replied that peace
would be celebrated at his father’s town with a feast on the
Spaniards’ flesh, while their hearts and blood were delighting the
gods. They would receive a more decisive answer on the morrow.
With this defiant message came the report that the Tlascalan army,
largely reinforced, was preparing to march on and overwhelm them.
“When we learned this,” says Bernal Diaz, “being men, we feared
death, many of us; and all made confession to the Merced father,
and the clergyman Juan Diaz, who all night remained present to
listen to the penitent; and we commended ourselves to God, praying
that we might not be conquered.” Cortés applied himself
energetically to supervise preparations and give the enemy a
welcome. A fresh supply of arrows, and of Indian shields of plaited
cane and cotton, were made, and the arms and accoutrements
inspected. He impressed upon the soldiers the necessity of keeping
close together, round the banner to be carried well aloft by Alférez
Corral, in order that they might not be cut off. As for the cavalry they
were to make repeated charges, without losing time in delivering
thrusts.
 Early in the morning of September 5th the Indian army could be
seen extending far over the field, terrible in war-paint, plumed
helmets, and gaudy shields, with their double-edged flint swords and
many-pointed lances gleaming in the sun, while the air resounded
with shrill yells, mingling with the melancholy tones of their drums
and the doleful blasts of conchs and trumpets.[299] It was the largest
and finest army yet seen by the Spaniards, numbering, according to
Gomara, one hundred and fifty thousand men, but according to
Bernal Diaz only fifty thousand,[300] in four divisions, representing
Tizatlan, Ocotelulco, Quiahuiztlan, and Tepeticpac, each
distinguished by its own banner and colors, the latter noticeable also
in the war-paint of the common soldier and in the quilted armor of the
officers. Far in the rear, indicative of hostile sentiment, rose the
standard of the state, bearing a bird with wings extended.[301]
Gomara relates that, confident of success, the Tlascaltecs sent
messengers to the camp with three hundred turkey-cocks and two
hundred baskets of tamales, each of one hundred arrobas, so that
they might not be taunted with having fought starved men, or having
offered such to the idols.
But this story, adopted by Herrera, Clavigero, Robertson, and
nearly every other writer, implies a generosity altogether too impolitic
for an enemy who had already suffered two severe defeats. It is
probable, however, that Xicotencatl may have sent small presents of
food in order to obtain an opportunity for his spies to examine the
camp.[302]
The Indians advanced in several columns up the sides of the hill,
and, despite the resistance offered, pressed onward into the very
camp, but were soon obliged to yield before murderous bullets and
cutting blades. Cortés allowed the Indians to become tired and
discouraged with repeated charges, and then with a ringing
“Santiago!” the Spaniards, followed by the allies, sallied forth,[303]
driving them in confusion to the plain, where the cavalry followed up
the advantage, leaving bloody paths in all directions. Checked and
reinforced by the reserve, the enemy turned with fresh courage on
their pursuers. The shock was overwhelming. The tired Castilians
yielded; their ranks were broken, and all seemed lost. Even Cortés
was seized with a terrible misgiving, but it was only for a moment.
Leading the cavalry to the rescue, he raised his voice above the din
of battle, and called on all to rally. Nerved by his words and deeds,
the men plied lustily their swords, and, driving back the enemy,
formed anew. “So ably and valiantly fought the horsemen,” writes
Bernal Diaz, “that next to God who protected us, they proved our
strength.” Following up their advantage, the Spaniards hewed down
the enemy in great numbers.
Victory might yet have turned against them but for a quarrel
between Xicotencatl and another captain,[304] one accusing the
other of mismanaging the late battle. The latter not only challenged
the other, it seems, but withdrew his troops, and induced another
division to follow him.[305] Thus left with only half his army, and that
shattered and discouraged, Xicotencatl retired before the handful on
whom his every effort seemed to have made no impression. He
retreated in good order, carrying off most of the dead, for the
opponents were too exhausted to pursue. Indeed, all the horses
were wounded, and fully sixty men, of whom it appears several must
have died soon after, though Cortés admits of no dead, and Bernal
Diaz of only one.[306]

FOOTNOTES
[265] ‘Y todos â vna le respondimos, que hariamos lo que ordenasse, que echada
estaua la suerte de la buena ò mala ventura.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 40.
[266] Bernal Diaz states, 65, that on reaching Mexico City ‘no llegauamos á 450
soldados,’ intimating that they must have amounted to fully this figure on leaving
Villa Rica. This would allow fully 120 men to Escalante, which appears a large
garrison, even after making allowances for the old and infirm. Gomara places the
force at 400 Spaniards, with 15 horses, 6 guns, and 1300 Indians, including
Cubans and carriers. Conq. Mex., 67; Herrera, dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. i.; Torquemada,
i. 411, 517. Ixtlilxochitl increases this to 7 guns, 1300 warriors, and 1000 carriers.
‘Con quince de caballo y trescientos peones.’ Cortés, Cartas, 52. Cortés refers
later on to 400 Cempoalans. He mentions merely 200 carriers. Clavigero has 415
Spaniards, a figure resulting from a misreading of his original. Storia Mess., iii. 36.
Solis, Hist. Mex., i. 216-17, followed of course by Robertson, changes the figures
to 500 men, 200 carriers, and 400 Indian troops. A page, twelve years old, was left
with the lord of Cempoala to learn the language. ‘Tomaron un indio principal que
llamaban Tlacochalcatl para que los mostrase el camino,’ taken from the country
by Grijalva, and brought back by Cortés. Sahagun, Conq. Mex., 16. Shortly before
beginning the march, says Duran, a messenger arrived from Mexico in the person
of Motelchiuh, sent by Montezuma to serve as guide, and to provide for the proper
service and hospitality on the way. Being told that no guide was needed, he
returned, leaving orders with the caciques en route to tender good reception to the
strangers. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 405-10.

[267] Meaning ‘Spring in the Sand.’ Rivera, Hist. Jalapa, i. app. 7. ‘Y la primera
jornado fuimos â vn pueblo, que se dize Xalapa.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 41.
But the road was too long for one day’s march. I may here observe that Bernal
Diaz is remarkably faulty in his account of this march and of the campaign into
Tlascala, and this is admitted by several writers, who nevertheless follow him
pretty closely. The place is known the world over for its fairs and productions,
particularly for the drug bearing its name, and is famous in the neighboring
districts for its eternal spring and beautiful surroundings.

[268] Identified with Naulinco. Lorenzana, Viage, p. ii.

[269] Cortés refers to a friendly chat with the governor, who mentioned the orders
he had received to offer the Spaniards all necessities. Cartas, 57.

[270] ‘Por ser el primero que en estas tierras habíamos pasado. El cual es tan
agro y alto, que no lo hay en España otro.’ Cortés, Cartas, 57. ‘Hoy se llama el
Paso del Obispo.’ Lorenzana, ubi sup. ‘Ay en ella muchas parras con vuas, y
arboles cõ miel.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 68.

[271] ‘Hoy se nombra Ixhuacán de los Reyes.’ Lorenzana, Viage.

[272] ‘De Nauhcampa, quatre parties, et tepetl, montagne.’ Humboldt, Vues, ii.
191. Equivalent to the Spanish name of Cofre de Perote.
[273]Lorenzana believes it to be the later Sierra de la Agua. A map with profile of
the route is given in Carbajal Espinosa, Hist. Mex., ii. 201; and a still better map by
Orozco y Berra, Itinerario, in Noticias Mex., 233.

[274] The name must not be confounded with Zacatlan, as Ixtlilxochitl calls it, for
this lies north of Tlascala. ‘Este valle y poblacion se llama Caltanmi.’ ‘Tenia las
mayores y mas bien labradas casas que hasta entonces ... habiamos visto.’
Cortés, Cartas, 58. Lorenzana says, ‘the present Tlatlanquitepec,’ in the lower
lying portion of which stood the palace of Caltanni, ‘house below;’ and there
stands the big tree to which the natives say that Cortés tied his horse. Viage, pp.
iii.-iv. ‘Llamase ... Zaclotan aquel lugar, y el valle Zacatami.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex.,
68; Oviedo, iii. 260. Cocotlan. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 41.

[275] Gomara intimates that the Spaniards were well received, and had 50 men
sacrificed in their honor. Hist. Mex., 68. The native records state that bread
sprinkled with the blood of fresh victims was offered to them, as to idols, but this
being rejected with abhorrence, pure food was brought. Before this sorcerers had
been sent to use their arts against them, by spreading diseases, casting spells to
prevent their advance, and otherwise opposing them. But everything failed before
the magic influence shed perhaps by the banner of the cross. Duran, Hist. Ind.,
MS., ii. 401-8; Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 14; Acosta, Hist. Ind., 518; Torquemada, i.
417-8.

[276] ‘Tenia Montezuma en este pueblo, y su comarca, cinco mil soldados de

guarnicion.’ Herrera, dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. ii.

[277] Conq. Mex., 42. ‘A muchos valientes por ventura desmayara,’ says to the
contrary Gomara, Hist. Mex., 69.

[278] Cortés, Cartas, 59. Bernal Diaz assumes that Olintetl was persuaded by the
Cempoalans to conciliate Cortés with four slaves, a few paltry pieces of jewelry,
and a load of cloth.

[279] Camargo sends the letter from Cempoala, together with a sword, a
crossbow, and a red silk cap. Hist. Tlax., 145. But it is not probable that Cortés
would deprive himself of such needful articles, not overabundant with him, even if
he had no objection to let Indians examine them. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 42-3,
despatches two Cempoalans from a later station, and this on hearing that the
Tlascaltecs had risen to oppose them.

[280] Still Gomara, in his sweeping way, declares that Cortés ‘puso muchas
cruzes en los templos, derrocãdo los idolos como lo hazia en cada lugar.’ Hist.
Mex., 70; Tapia, Relacion, in Icazbalceta, Col. Doc., ii. 567. Twenty leading
warriors were taken from here, says Bernal Diaz.
[281] Clavigero calls them ‘un competente numero di truppe Messicane del
presidio di Xocotla,’ Storia Mess., iii. 41, which is unlikely.

[282] See Native Races, ii. 568, et seq.

[283] Fifteen leagues from west to east, ten from north to south, says
Torquemada, i. 276. Herrera extends it to 30 leagues in width.

[284] ‘Hay en esta provincia, por visitacion que yo en ella mandé hacer, ciento
cincuenta mil vecinos.’ Cortés, Cartas, 69. In the older edition of these letters by
Lorenzana, it reads, 500,000 families, a figure which in itself indicates an
exaggeration, but has nevertheless been widely copied. Gomara, Hist. Mex., 87.

[285] For further information about Tlascala, see Native Races, ii. and v.
Torquemada gives a detailed history of the state in i. 259-78. See also Prescott’s
Mex., 411-19; Soria, Istoria y Fundacion de la Ciudad de Tlaxcala, MS. in Aztec,
sm. 4o of 48 leaves.

[286] Herrera, dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. iii., confounds the two Xicotencatls, and
Torquemada, in seeking to correct him, applies the title of general to Maxixcatzin,
i. 416, supposing besides, with Clavigero, that Temilotecatl may be another name
for Tlehuexolotl. Storia Mess., iii. 40; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., iv.
133. Jealous of the honor of his countrymen, and eager to vindicate them against
the charge of duplicity or enmity toward the Spaniards, Camargo lets the
messengers go back with a friendly invitation. After they had started on this
mission the idols were consulted, but remained mute; the temples were
overthrown by earthquakes, and comets appeared, creating a general panic. Hist.
Tlax., 144-6. The account of the conquest by this author is particularly interesting
since Diego Muñoz Camargo was a native of the valiant little republic of Tlascala,
a mestizo, says Veytia, Hist. Ant. Méj., ii. 91, who calls him Domingo, while
Clavigero gives him nobility. Storia Mess., i. 10. Born shortly after these events,
and in contact with the very men who figured therein, his stories are reproduced
from their lips, though colored with the spirit of a convert and patriot who, like
nearly all of his countrymen, was only too eager to curry favor with the dominant
race. This is apparent in nearly every line of his text, wherein the terms of praise
bestowed on the conquerors become not unfrequently absurd from the
contradictions implied by other passages. Nor does he neglect to hold forth on his
own people for their bravery and exploits in fighting the detested Aztecs, and their
unswerving devotion to the Spaniards. In the pursuit of this pleasing theme he
scruples not to sacrifice truth when it proves a stumbling-block. He leaves the
impression, for instance, that the Tlascaltecs never raised sword against Cortés.
Many of the misstatements are due to a non-critical acceptance of tales, for
Camargo was as simple and superstitious as any of his contemporaries. Although
acting as interpreter in the province, Torquemada, i. 523, he exhibits a not very
thorough acquaintance with Spanish, which is the cause of errors and repetitions.
The conquest forms but a portion of his narrative, which treats chiefly of aboriginal
history and customs, and touches lightly the events that passed before his eyes. It
was written in 1585, and lay for some time in the Felipe Neri convent archives,
where it was consulted by Torquemada. Taken afterward by Panes to Spain, it was
deposited by Muñoz with the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, from which
source copies were obtained, among others one by Ternaux-Compans, and a
faulty translation was published in the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, xcviii.-ix.

[287] A short distance further they passed through a pine grove, wherein threads
and papers were fixed and scattered across the path, the work of Tlascaltec
sorcerers, who thus sought to cast a spell upon the invaders. Herrera, dec. ii. lib.
vi. cap. iv.

[288] ‘Segun algunos que lo vieron, cortaron cercen de vn golpe cada pescueço
con riendas y todo.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 71. ‘Io viddi che cõbattẽdosi vn dì, diede
vn Indiano vna cortellata a vn cauallo ... nel petto, che glielo aperse fin alle
ĩteriora, et cadde icõtanẽte morto, & ... che vn’ altro Indiano diede vn’ altra
cortellata a vn’ altro cauallo su il collo che se lo gettò morto.’ Relatione per vn
gentil’huomo, in Ramusio, Viaggi, iii. 305. According to Duran two warriors
stepped forth from a vast Tlascalan army before the regular battle, and issued a
challenge, which was accepted by two horsemen. After a short combat the
Indians, by deft movements, killed both horses, cutting off the neck of one, and
wounding the other in the pasterns. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 411-20; Tezozomoc, Hist.
Mex., ii. 255-6. This attack is the only resistance admitted by Camargo. The
assailants were all Otomís, who killed one Spaniard and two horses. Hist. Tlax.,
146.

[289] ‘Hirieron á quatro de los nuestros, y pareceme que desde alli á pocos dias
muriò el vno de las heridas ... quedaron muertos hasta diez y siete dellos.’ Bernal
Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 43; Cortés, Cartas, 61; Lorenzana calls the scene of this battle
the plain of Quimichoccan. Viage, p. viii.

[290] See Native Races, ii. 413; Solis, Hist. Mex., i. 230. According to Bernal Diaz
the messengers are met before the Tlascalan border is reached, and they deliver
the announcement that the Tlascaltecs will kill the Spaniards and eat their flesh, in
order to test their reputed strength. The Cempoalans shall suffer the same fate,
since they are assumed to be plotting in behalf of the Aztecs, loc. cit. Sahagun
supposes that the Cempoalan guide had treacherously led the Spaniards against
the Otomís. Conq. Mex. (ed. 1840), 40; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 42-3.

[291] Bernal Diaz says 6000.

[292] Herrera, dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. v. A pious conquistador who was present, says
Duran, told me that many wept, wishing they had never been born, and cursing
the marquis for having led them into such danger. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 417.

[293] Tapia gives the higher and Herrera the lower figure, while Ixtlilxochitl makes
it 80,000.

[294] During the battle one of the late Cempoalan envoys recognized the captain
who had bound him for sacrifice, and with Cortés’ permission he sent him a
challenge. The duel was held in front of the armies, and after a tough struggle the
Cempoalan, with a feint, threw his opponent off guard, and secured his head,
which served as a centre-piece during the Cempoalan victory celebration. Herrera,
dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. vi. This author also relates that one of the final acts of the battle
was the capture by Ordaz, with 60 men, of a pass. ‘Les matamos muchos Indios, y
entre ellos ocho Capitanes muy principales, hijos de los viejos Caciques.’ Five
horses were wounded and fifteen soldiers, of whom one died. The other chronicles
admit of no dead. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 44.

[295] Robertson, Hist. Am., ii. 38-9; Wilson’s Conq. Mex., 360-70; Benzoni, Hist.
Mondo Nvovo, 51. It is seldom that I encounter a book which I am forced to regard
as beneath censure. He who prints and pays the printer generally has something
to say, and generally believes something of what he says to be true. An idiot may
have honest convictions, and a knave may have talents, but where a book carries
to the mind of the reader that its author is both fool and knave, that is, that he
writes only foolishness and does not himself believe what he says, I have not the
time to waste in condemning such a work. And yet here is a volume purporting to
be A New History of the Conquest of Mexico, written by Robert Anderson Wilson,
and bearing date Philadelphia, 1859, which one would think a writer on the same
subject should at least mention. The many and magnificent monuments which to
the present day attest the great number and high culture of the Nahua race, and
the testimony to this effect offered by witnesses on all sides, are ignored by him
with a contempt that becomes amusing as the pages reveal his lack of
investigation and culture. Indeed, the reader need go no further than the
introduction to be convinced on the latter point. Another amusing feature is that
the work pretends to vindicate the assertions of Las Casas, who, in truth, extols
more than other Spanish author the vast number and advanced culture of the
natives. In addition to this mistaken assumption, which takes away his main
support, he states that Prescott worked in ignorance of his subject and his
authorities, and to prove the assertion he produces wrongly applied or distorted
quotations from different authors, or assumes meanings that were never intended,
and draws erroneous conclusions. Thus it is he proves to his own satisfaction that
Mexico City was but a village occupied by savages of the Iroquois stamp, and that
Cortés was the boastful victor over little bands of naked red men. As for the ruins,
they were founded by Phœnician colonists in remote ages. Another tissue of
superficial observations, shaped by bigotry and credulous ignorance, was issued
by the same author under the title of Mexico and its Religion, New York, 1855,
most enterprisingly reprinted in the disguise of Mexico: its Peasants and its
Priests, New York, 1856. In common with Mr Morgan, and others of that stamp, Mr
Wilson seems to have deemed it incumbent on him to traduce Mr Prescott and his
work, apparently with the view of thereby attracting attention to himself. Such men
are not worthy to touch the hem of Mr Prescott’s garment; they are not worthy of
mention in the same category with him.

[296] Lorenzana, Viage, ix., wherein the appearance of the hill is described as the
bishop saw it. Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 292; Camargo, Hist. Tlax., 146. Other
authors differ. ‘Teoatzinco, cioè il luogo dell’acqua divina.’ Clavigero, Storia Mess.,
iii. 44. Duran assumes that the battle was for the possession of this place, which
he calls Tecoac. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 418, 422; Tezozomoc, Hist. Mex., ii. 256. ‘Aldea
de pocas casas, que tenia vna torrezilla y tẽplo.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 74.

[297] So Cortés distinctly says. Bernal Diaz writes, however, that this day was
devoted to rest. Still, a later observation indicates that Cortés is right.

[298] Id. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 44, admits only twenty captives, and blames
the allies for firing the villages; but Cortés is frank enough about it.

[299] Prescott, Mex., 438-42, gives a pretty description of the army, but is so
carried away that he dons it with helmets glittering with gold and precious stones,
etc.; and this in spite of the efforts of the chroniclers to exhibit the Tlascaltecs as
very poor in anything but rude comforts.

[300] Under five captains, to whom he applies the names of the four lords, as he
understands them, and of the ruler of Huexotzinco. Hist. Verdad., 45; Gomara,
Hist. Mex., 75. 149,000 men, says Cortés, in his second letter, 62, but this
exactness is probably due to a printer’s mistake.

[301] For colors and banners, and how carried, see Native Races, ii. 411-12, and
Torquemada, i. 436.

[302] He was detected in this trick afterward. ‘Lo qual fue gran refrigerio y socorro
para la necesidad que tenian.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 76. Oviedo increases the gift
to 700 baskets. iii. 495. Gomara proceeds to relate that in sign of contempt for the
small number of the enemy, whom it could be no honor for his large army to
overcome, Xicotencatl detached 2000 warriors—200 says Oviedo—to seize and
bring him the strangers bound. They attacked, and were routed with an almost
total destruction of their number. ‘No escapo hombre dellos, sino los q̄ acertaron el
passo de la barranca.’ loc. cit. 76.
[303] Bernal Diaz states that they did not wait for the enemy to attack, but
marched forth and met them one eighth of a league from camp. Hist. Verdad., 45.
But Cortés says distinctly, ‘Otro dia en amaneciendo dan sobre nuestro real mas
de ciento y cuarenta y nueve mil hombres.’ Cartas, 62. Gomara and Herrera also
allow Indians to attack the camp first. Cortés is too fond of announcing when he
takes the initiative to have failed to say so had he done it in this case.

[304] ‘Son of Chichimeclatecle,’ says Bernal Diaz, a name which should read
Chichimeca-tecuhtli.

[305] That of Guaxolcingo—meaning Huexotzinco. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 45.

That of Tlehuexolotzin. Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 46. Solis exaggerates this into
an actual battle between the leaders and their followers. Hist. Mex., i. 255-8.
Herrera intimates that a secret arrangement had been formed between Cortés and
the seceding captain, the latter appearing with his officers at the camp, the
evening after the previous battle, and, declaring himself convinced that the
Spaniards were invincible, offered not only to remain neutral, but to aid them in
entering Tlascala. Cortés agreed. When the captain returned to Xicotencatl’s
camp he was so badly beaten that he came back to Cortés for medical treatment.
Certain signs were to be worn, so that the Spaniards might respect the neutral
troops. dec. ii. lib. vi. cap. vi. He also relates that one Tlascaltec maintained
himself so long and bravely against two Spanish soldiers that Láres, the smith,
rushed up, cried shame upon the twain, and lanced the warrior. Id., cap. vii.

[306] This soldier himself received two wounds, which did not prevent him from
fighting, however. ‘Nos mataron vn soldado,’ he says, and a few lines further
down, ‘y enterramos los muertos ... porque no viessen los Indios que eramos
mortales.’ Hist. Verdad., 45. Thus even the ‘True Historian’ reveals the common
weakness. Hazart, Kirchen-Geschichte, ii. 512-14; West-Indische Spieghel, 224-
35; Franck, Weltbuch, ccxxix.
 CHAPTER XIII.
ENTRY INTO TLASCALA.

September, 1519.

Native Chiefs Sent as Envoys to the Tlascalan Capital—Their Favorable

Reception—Xicotencatl Plans Resistance to Cortés—Sends out Spies
—Cortés Sends them back Mutilated—The Spaniards Attack and Defeat
Xicotencatl—Night Encounters—General Dissatisfaction and a Desire
to Return to Villa Rica—Envoys Arrive from Montezuma—Cortés
Receives Xicotencatl and the Tlascalan Lords—Peace Concluded—
Tlascala—Festivities and Rejoicings—Mass Celebrated—Cortés
Inclined to Extreme Religious Zeal—Brides Presented to the Spaniards
—Appropriate Ceremonies—Preparing to Leave Tlascala for Cholula—
Communications with the Cholultecs.

In the late battle three chiefs had been captured, and they
together with two others were sent, this time to the Tlascalan capital
direct, to carry an offer of peace, and to explain that the Spaniards
would not have harmed their warriors had they not been obliged to
do so. If peace was still declined they would come and destroy them
all. Meanwhile Cortés set out on another foraging and raiding
expedition, and “burned more than ten towns, one exceeding three
thousand houses,” retiring by the early afternoon, when the Indians
began to gather in aid of the raided neighbors.[307]
Tired of the fruitless fighting, attended with loss of life and
property only to themselves as it appeared, the peace party in
Tlascala had been gaining the ascendancy, with the efforts of
Maxixcatzin, supported as he now was by the powerful factions
which had quarrelled with the general. When the peace messengers
of Cortés arrived they were therefore received with favor. His
previous friendly offers were considered, also his kind treatment of
captives, so unusual with the natives, and the oracles and signs of a
coming race of rulers. Whether gods or men, they were evidently
invincible, and the friendship and alliance held out by them must be
desirable, and ought to be secured before the strangers, embittered
by further resistance, should pass on to join their enemies. An
embassy, headed by Costomatl and Tolinpanecatl,[308] was
accordingly despatched with provisions and some other trifling gifts
to open negotiations for peace. Humbly these men appeared before
Cortés, expressing the sorrow of the lords for the hostility shown,
and their desire for peace. With a grave reproval for their obstinacy,
Cortés said that he would admit their apology, and the envoys
departed, after leaving beside the other gifts a number of male and
female slaves.[309]
Smarting under the disgrace of his defeats, Xicotencatl had
meanwhile been laying plans to retrieve himself. Among other
counsellors he had summoned diviners to his aid, and they, calling to
mind the assumption that the Spaniards were children of the sun,
declared that as such the new-comers were invincible only when
animated by its beams, and at night, when deprived of this
invigorating power, they became mortals, who must bow to superior
force. Knowing the strength of the party opposed to him in the
Tlascalan capital, he does not appear to have submitted his projects
there, but to have ventured upon detaining the envoys as they were
returning from the Spanish camp until the result of his plans should
have been ascertained; and this in face of the command to desist
from hostility.[310] In order to make everything as sure as possible for
the intended blow, Xicotencatl sent fifty Indians to the camp, with
instructions to gather information concerning the approaches, the
condition of the soldiers, and other points. They appeared before
Cortés with the usual demonstrations of respect, and, placing before
him five female slaves, a quantity of food, and other presents, they
said: “Lord, behold these slaves! If you are fierce gods, eat their
flesh and blood, and more shall be brought; if gentle gods, take
these feathers and incense; if men, here are fowl, bread, and fruit.”
Cortés answered that they required no sacrifices of men. Had they
desired such they could have taken by force all the victims needed.
He rebuked their obstinacy and advised submission.[311] They were
then taken aside to receive the hospitalities of the camp, after which
they dispersed to satisfy their curiosity, and to question the allies.
This aroused the suspicions of Teuch, the Cempoalan chief, who
warned the general. Seizing the men he examined them singly, and
soon ascertained that their object was not only to spy, but to fire the
huts, and otherwise to aid the attack which would be made upon the
camp that very night. Finding that his friendly advances had been
scorned, Cortés resolved to inflict a lesson that would be understood
by a people so deeply intent upon war and sacrifices. This was to cut
off the hands of the leading spies, and the thumbs of others, and to
send them back with the message that this would be the punishment
of spies, and that the Spaniards were prepared, night or day, to face
their enemies.[312]
Fearing the confusion and danger of a night attack, when the
artillery and other means would be less effective, Cortés resolved to
anticipate the enemy by a counter charge, wherein the cavalry might
render particular service. Learning that Xicotencatl was hidden with
ten thousand or twenty thousand men behind a hill not far off, Cortés
did not despatch the mutilated spies till after dusk, in order to let him
approach nearer to camp.[313] When his messengers returned to
Xicotencatl and displayed their bleeding stumps, the general was
troubled, and throughout his army there was consternation, and
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