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Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
Profit measurement and the recognition Prepayments and accruals 183
of revenues and expenses 102 Revenues due and prepaid 184
Recognition of revenues 102 Depreciation 185
Recognition of expenses 106 Bad and doubtful debts 187
Profit, cash and accruals accounting—a review 110 Inventory 189
Profit measurement and the calculation Manufacturing and trading accounts 191
of depreciation 111 Adjusted trial balance and worksheet 195
Calculating depreciation 112 The chart of accounts 199
Selecting a depreciation method 118
Impairment and depreciation 119 Summary 204
Depreciation and the replacement of fixed assets 119 Discussion questions 204
Depreciation and judgement 119 Application exercises 205
Case study 214
Profit measurement and the valuation
Solutions to activities 215
of inventory 120
What is inventory? 120
What is the cost of inventory? 120 CHAPTER 5
What is the basis for transferring the inventory
cost to cost of sales? 121 Accounting systems and internal
The net realisable value of inventory 125 control 227
Profit measurement and the problem
of bad and doubtful debts 127 What is internal control? 228
The traditional approach 127 Internal control in practice 230
The impairment of assets approach 129 Internal control and e-commerce 232
A first-principles approach 131 Why doesn’t internal control always work? 233
Uses and usefulness of the income statement 137 Illustration of a functional area of a business
and its internal control 234
Summary 143 The ledger and subsidiary records 238
Discussion questions 144 Divisions of the ledger 239
Application exercises 145
Subsidiary records—a traditional manual system 239
Case study 156
Solutions to activities 157 The sales and purchases journals 240
The cash book and cash journals 243
The journal 247
CHAPTER 4 Control accounts and reconciliations 249
Control accounts 249
Recording transactions—
Reconciliation statements 250
the journal and ledger accounts 162 Computerised accounting systems 255
The recording process—an overview 163 Cloud computing 256
Double-entry bookkeeping 167
Summary 265
Ledger—detailed method of recording 168 Discussion questions 265
The trial balance 177 Application exercises 266
Closing off the accounts 179 Case study 275
Period-end adjustments 183 Solutions to activities 275
CONTENTS vii
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The need for accounting rules 331
CHAPTER 6 The role of accounting standards in
Introduction to limited companies 280 company accounting 331
International accounting standards 332
The main features of companies 281 The conceptual framework 334
Legal nature 281 The role of the Australian Securities Exchange
Unlimited (perpetual) life 281 (ASX) in company accounting 337
Limited liability 282 Corporate governance 338
Legal safeguards 282 Presentation of published financial statements 344
Public and proprietary (private) companies 283 Statement of financial position 344
Transferring share ownership—the role of the Statement of comprehensive income 345
stock exchange 284 Statement of changes in equity 350
Separation of ownership and management 284 Statement of cash flows 352
Extensive regulation 285 Notes 352
Advantages and disadvantages of the company General points 352
entity structure 288 Segmental financial reports 353
Equity and borrowings in a company context 289 Segmental reporting rules 354
Equity/capital (owners’ claim) of limited companies 289 Segmental disclosure 354
Reserves 292 Segmental reporting problems 356
Bonus shares 293 Creative accounting 358
Raising share capital 294 Creative accounting methods 358
Borrowings 298 Checking for creative accounting 361
Restrictions on the rights of shareholders Creative accounting and economic growth 361
to make drawings or reductions of capital 299
The main financial statements 303 Summary 363
The income statement 304 Discussion questions 363
Application exercises 365
The statement of financial position 305
Case study 370
Dividends 305
Solutions to activities 372
Accounting for groups of companies 307
Summary 312
Discussion questions 312 CHAPTER 8
Application exercises 313 Measuring and reporting
Case study 321
Solutions to activities 323
cash flows 376
The importance of cash and cash flow 378
CHAPTER 7 Differences between the four external financial reports 381
Regulatory framework The statement of cash flows 382
for companies 326 Preparation of the statement of cash
flows—a simple example 386
The directors’ duty to account—the role of Deducing cash flows from operating activities 388
company law (Corporations Act) 327 Deducing cash flows from investing activities 390
Auditors 328 Deducing cash flows from financing activities 391
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Reconciling profit for the year
with cash from operating activities 396 CHAPTER 10
Some complexities in statement preparation 400 Analysis and interpretation of
The investing section 401
financial statements 472
The financing section 402
What does the statement of cash flows tell us? 404 Financial ratios 473
Summary 408 Financial ratio classification 473
Discussion questions 408 The need for comparison 474
Application exercises 409 The key steps in financial ratio analysis 475
Case study 424 The ratios calculated 475
Solutions to activities 425 A brief overview 478
Profitability ratios 479
CHAPTER 9 Return on ordinary shareholders’ funds (ROSF)
(also known as return on equity (ROE)) 479
Corporate social responsibility Return on capital employed (ROCE) 480
and sustainability accounting 430 Operating profit margin 481
Gross profit margin 481
Social issues in accounting 431 Efficiency ratios 483
General background 431 Average inventories turnover period 483
Stakeholder concept 431 Average settlement period for accounts
What is social responsibility? 433 receivable (debtors) 484
Corporate social responsibility (CSR)— Average settlement period for accounts
what does it mean? 436 payable (creditors) 485
Accounting for corporate social responsibilities 440 Sales revenue to capital employed 486
Triple bottom line reporting 442 Sales revenue per employee 486
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) 444 Alternative formats 486
General background 444 The relationship between profitability and efficiency 487
Background and development of the GRI Guidelines 444 Liquidity 489
Current position—the GRI Standards 446 Current ratio 489
Integrated reporting 455 Acid test ratio 490
The balanced scorecard approach 457 Cash flows from operations ratio 490
The financial perspective 457 Financial gearing (leverage) ratios 491
The business process perspective 458 Gearing ratio 494
The customer perspective 458 Interest cover ratio (times interest earned) 494
The learning and growth perspective 458 An aside on personal debt 496
Overall conclusion 461 Investment ratios 497
Dividends per share ratio 497
Summary 462
Dividend payout ratio 498
References 462
Discussion questions 463 Dividend yield ratio 498
Application exercises 464 Earnings per share ratio 499
Case study 467 Operating cash flow per share 500
Solutions to activities 470 Price/earnings ratio 500
CONTENTS ix
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Issues relating to financial analysis 502
Financial ratios and the problem of overtrading 502 CHAPTER 12
Trend analysis 503 Full costing 582
Index or percentage analysis 506
Ratios and prediction models 507 The nature of full costing 583
Limitations of ratio analysis 511 Deriving full costs in a single or multi-product
or service operation 584
Summary 516 Single-product businesses 584
References 517
Multi-product operations 585
Discussion questions 517
Application exercises 518 Segmenting the overheads 594
Case study 529 Dealing with overheads on a departmental
Solutions to activities 529 (cost centre) basis 594
Batch costing 601
The forward-looking nature of full costing 602
CHAPTER 11
Activity-based costing (ABC) 603
Cost–volume–profit analysis Costing and pricing: the traditional way 603
and relevant costing 534 Costing and pricing: the new environment 603
An alternative approach to full costing 604
The behaviour of costs 535 ABC contrasted with the traditional approach 605
Fixed costs 535 Attributing overheads 606
Variable costs 536 Benefits of ABC 607
Semi-fixed (semi-variable) costs 537 Criticisms of ABC 610
Break-even analysis 540 Uses of full (absorption) cost information 611
Contribution 543 Full cost (cost-plus) pricing 612
Profit–volume charts 545 Criticisms of full costing 613
Margin of safety and operating gearing 546
Summary 618
Weaknesses of break-even analysis 548
References 619
Use of spreadsheets 551
Discussion questions 619
Expected costs rather than historic costs 554 Application exercises 620
More complex cost and revenue behaviour patterns 555 Case study 628
Relevant cost, outlay cost and Solutions to activities 629
opportunity cost 556
Marginal analysis/relevant costing 559
Accepting/rejecting special contracts 560 CHAPTER 13
The most efficient use of scarce resources 560 Planning and budgeting 634
Make or buy decisions 561
Closing or continuing a section or department 562 Planning and control 635
Summary 567 Corporate objectives, long-term plans
Discussion questions 567 and budgets—their relationship 635
Application exercises 569 Exercising control 636
Case study 576 The role of projected financial statements 637
Solutions to activities 577 Likely information needed for forecast statements 638
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Projected financial statements 640
Alternative form of statement of cash flows CHAPTER 14
for forecasting 642 Capital investment decisions 705
Evaluation of projected statements 643
Sensitivity analysis 645 Features of investment decisions and associated
Projections using spreadsheets 645 appraisal methods 706
Importance of forecasting 646 The nature of investment decisions 706
Budgets and forecasts 649 Methods of investment appraisal 707
Time horizons of plans and budgets 649 Accounting rate of return (ARR) 709
Limiting factors 650 ARR and ROCE 709
The interrelationship of various budgets 650 Problems with ARR 710
The budget-setting process 651 Payback period (PP) 712
Incremental and zero-based budgeting 652 Problems with PP 713
The uses of budgets 653 Net present value (NPV) 714
Non-financial measures in budgeting 655 Interest lost 715
The extent to which budgets are prepared 655 Inflation 715
Preparing the cash budget 656 Risk 715
Preparing other budgets 659 Actions of a logical investor 716
Using budgets for control 662 Using discount (present value) tables 718
Comparing the actual performance with the budget 662 The discount rate and the cost of capital 719
Flexing the budget 663 Why NPV is superior to ARR and PP 720
Variance analysis—more detail 665 Discounted payback 720
Standard quantities and costs 668 Internal rate of return (IRR) 721
Reasons for adverse variances 668 Problems with IRR—a comparison between NPV and IRR 725
Investigating variances 669 Some practical points 728
Necessary conditions for effective budgetary control 671 The basis of the cash flow calculations 728
Limitations of the traditional More practical points 732
approach to control 672 Investment appraisal in practice 734
General limitations concerning budgeting systems 672 Methods used 734
Behavioural aspects of budgetary control 672 Investment appraisal and planning systems 735
Beyond Budgeting 674 Risk and uncertainty 738
Overall review 677
Summary 739
Summary 678 References 740
References 679 Discussion questions 741
Discussion questions 679 Application exercises 742
Application exercises 681 Case study 751
Case study 694 Solutions to activities 753
Solutions to activities 695 Appendix 14.1 757
Glossary 759
Index 767
CONTENTS xi
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ABOUT THE AUSTRALIAN AUTHOR
Emeritus Professor David Harvey
After qualifying as an accountant in the United Kingdom, David began lecturing in
1971 at Portsmouth Polytechnic (now Portsmouth University) with a subsequent move
to Plymouth Polytechnic (now the University of Plymouth) in 1977. During his time
in the United Kingdom he developed a keen interest in curriculum development and
teaching methods and was involved with the writing of several books with an open
learning style, many of these in collaboration with Peter Atrill and Eddie McLaney.
During this time he also completed a Masters degree in Managerial Financial Controls
and a PhD in the areas of investment and financing decisions. This research work
covered both traditional investment appraisal and corporate strategy.
In 1991 he moved to Australia to take up the position of Professor of Accounting
and Head of the Centre for Accounting and Finance at the University of New England
(Northern Rivers), which subsequently became Southern Cross University. In 1992
he became the Dean of the Faculty of Business and Computing, a position he held
until 1996, before reverting to his Professorship. In 2000 he took up the position of
the Dean of the Faculty of Commerce at the University of Southern Queensland. In
2001 the Faculty of Commerce was merged with the Faculty of Business and David
became Dean of the enlarged Faculty of Business. David has had extensive experience
in developing and teaching programs internationally. His most recent position was as
Pro Vice-Chancellor (International Quality), a position he held from 2004 until his
retirement in 2005.
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
PREFACE
This new textbook is primarily targeted at undergraduate market, was not satisfying all market needs. As a result,
and postgraduate students of business-oriented programs Accounting for Business was developed. This book builds
who want a fairly comprehensive introduction to accounting. on the eighth edition of a second British book by Peter Atrill
The book aims to provide engaging and relevant and Eddie McLaney, namely, Accounting and Finance: An
content, something which we regard as critical to success Introduction, and uses a considerable part of it.
for today’s learners. Quite a lot of the coverage of Accounting for Business
This first-edition textbook is the result of considerable is common with the non-specialist book. However, it
review activity with user groups. The end product is a expands the content of most chapters, in order to provide
book which was designed for courses that require learners a more comprehensive underpinning for all business
to be both preparers and users of financial statements. students, and specifically for those who want to go on
Courses of this nature require a balanced approach that to an accounting major. Also, there has been a significant
is relevant to both students majoring in accounting and demand for content relating to the recording system, so
students of business generally. This book therefore aims two chapters have been added, covering journals and
to provide a comprehensive first course in accounting ledger accounts, and internal control and accounting
which will support students who wish to go on to an systems in practice. In order to make room for the
accounting major, and also those who plan to do other additional material, two chapters on finance, which are
majors, or are studying general business. in the non-specialist book, have been omitted from the
A critical part of this is use of a first-principles new textbook. The style of both books is very similar.
approach to accounting, from which we can then move on It is worth noting that the two British books which
to the actual recording process. This avoids creating the underpin this book, namely Accounting and Finance for Non-
misconception that accounting is a mechanical process; Specialists and Accounting and Finance: An Introduction,
rather it enables us to focus more on the importance of are in their tenth and eighth editions respectively. These
critical thinking and decision making. The inclusion of books reflect many years of development in the UK, and
two chapters on what is essentially record keeping aims share content where appropriate. In Accounting for Business,
to provide students with a deeper understanding of how we have tried to ensure that the content reflects Australian
financial information is collected and communicated, needs and conditions, while also adding some new features.
while also identifying its limitations. We have been working together on our Australian non-
The emphasis of the book is clearly decision making. specialist book for many years and this is now in its seventh
It uses a problem-solving approach and focuses on real- edition. Collaboration of this type has helped with the
world business situations. A key objective throughout is development of an international perspective on a range of
to assist in the development of generic skills, including issues which should provide benefit to students.
communication, teamwork, critical thinking, problem-
based learning, ethics, self-management, planning and
organisation. The book provides a range of activities which Features
should help in the development of these generic qualities. ▶ Interspersed throughout each chapter are numerous
activities, with at least one for every learning objective.
These are relatively short ‘quick-fire’ questions of a
Background type a lecturer might pose to students during a lecture
This book has its origins in Accounting: An Introduction, or tutorial, and are intended to serve two purposes: to
which has been through six editions, and which has been give readers the opportunity to check that they have
regularly reviewed and improved. This book will in future understood the preceding section, and to encourage
be published as Accounting for Non-Specialists. However, them to think beyond the immediate topic and make
after considerable market research, it was agreed that the linkages to topics either previously covered or covered
sixth edition, while more clearly targeting the non-specialist in the next section. An answer to each activity is
PREFACE xiii
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
provided at the end of the chapter, to which readers points, which should facilitate discussion on issues
should refer only after they have attempted the that have occurred in business relatively recently.
activity.
▶ Each chapter has an ‘Accounting and You’ section,
▶ At the end of each section, which covers a specific which aims to relate the content of the chapter to
learning objective, there are several concept check the individual student reader. All too often students
questions. These are short multiple-choice questions feel that the content is big-business oriented and
which aim to provide you with a quick check of your has nothing really to do with them. This section
understanding of the learning objective/section. The illustrates that what they are learning has real
answers are at the end of the chapter. relevance to their everyday lives. Each of these also
has a series of classroom discussion points for the
▶ Towards the end of each chapter, but also at an class to ponder.
appropriate point in some chapters, there is a self-
assessment question or questions. These are much
more demanding and comprehensive than the Coverage and structure
activities, in terms of both the breadth and the depth Although the topics included are, to some extent, relatively
of the material they cover. As with the activities, it conventional, the coverage and treatment of material is
is important to make a thorough attempt at each designed to meet the needs of business students. While
question before referring to the solution. Solutions to the emphasis is primarily on underlying concepts, and
these questions are available online. the application and interpretation of information for
decision making, this book also includes sections on data
▶ Discussion questions occur at the end of each
collection and recording, as well as the preparation of
chapter. These are relatively short, typically require a
statements and reports.
descriptive or analytical answer, and are intended to
One major difference between this book and many others
enable readers to assess their recollection and critical
relates to its early structure. As business and accounting
evaluation of the main principles in each chapter. They
become more complicated it becomes more difficult to
might be used as the basis for tutorial discussion.
cover these issues in a reasonably straightforward way. So,
▶ Application exercises are also positioned at the end in this book we introduce (in Chapters 2 and 3) two of the
of most chapters and these have been categorised major accounting statements in the context of relatively
as easy, intermediate or challenging. These are simple business organisations, mainly sole proprietorships
usually of a numerical type, and are designed to and partnerships or very simple companies. We use the
enable readers to further apply and consolidate their balance-sheet approach to enable us to build up a balance
understanding of topics. A single case study can sheet from a set of basic transactions, and then extend this
also be found at the end of each chapter. Some of approach by explaining the income statement as part of
these are simply more complicated problems, but in the equity section of the balance sheet. This is all done
the main they are questions based on current issues. using a first-principles approach.
Their aim is to get students to think in a broader The approach used in Chapters 2 and 3 enables us
manner than usual, and to develop a wider approach to cover the basic accounting statements without adding
to dealing with issues that are real and current. the complications of a complex corporate regulatory
framework. Once the underlying principles and nature
▶ This new book continues to include what we have of the statement of financial position (the balance sheet)
called ‘Real World’ examples (typically three or four and the statement of financial performance (the income
per chapter), which aim to provide a link between statement) have been understood, we can then complicate
theory and current practice. Following each Real it by adding (Chapters 6 and 7) companies and their
World example is a set of classroom discussion regulatory framework.
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
In Chapters 4 and 5, we show how the two main are covered comprehensively, for relatively simple
statements are built up in practice, using a system of organisations. Extra material, compared with the non-
ledger accounts and books of original entry (or, as is specialist book, includes the unit-of-production method
more likely, by a computerised accounting system using of depreciation and more on the perpetual inventory
the same basic principles). system.
We have ordered the chapters and their component Chapter 4 provides the student with an introduction
topics to reflect what we consider to be a logical sequence. to double-entry book keeping, including the link with
For this reason, we advise readers to work through the the first-principles approach, ledger accounts, use of trial
text in the order presented, particularly since we have balance, the closing-down process and a series of period-
been careful to ensure that earlier chapters do not refer to end adjustments. It also introduces the adjusted trial
concepts or terms that are not covered until a later chapter. balance and worksheet, before concluding with a section
Chapters 1–10 can be said to be broadly financial- on the nature and importance of the chart of accounts.
accounting oriented, while Chapters 11–14 focus on what Chapter 5 discusses internal control and the various
are clearly management accounting areas. Having said ways in which accounting transactions are recorded in
this, much of the financial accounting material effectively books of original entry, and then outlines the major
underpins the later chapters and students should not get elements of computerised accounting systems. Students
too hung up on which area is which. For example, the should have a thorough grounding in the basic recording
financial accounting framework links very closely with process as a result. Real-world examples in this chapter
the planning section in Chapter 13. aim to prepare the student for a variety of ways in which
Chapter 1 provides a general introduction to the the basic principles are applied in practice.
scope, purpose and interrelationships of the text’s Chapters 6 and 7 concentrate on limited companies.
core coverage—financial accounting and management Chapter 6 focuses on the main features associated
accounting—together with a brief overview of the with limited companies. Many users will have dealings
main financial statements. It also examines user groups with groups of companies so the requirements of
and their needs; introduces the main types of business group accounts are outlined. Chapter 7 explains the
organisation, together with the way in which a business importance of company law, accounting standards, the
is typically organised and managed and identifies ways stock exchange and the importance of good corporate
in which business and accounting have been changing governance. Corporate governance remains an ongoing
over time. This chapter includes more on stakeholder issue for many businesses. The chapter then identifies
theory, ethics and ethical behaviour in business, and the the main requirements relating to the published annual
Academic Standards Statement for Accounting, than does report. It contains far more information on accounting
the non-specialist book. standards than does the non-specialist book. It also
Chapter 2 explains the nature and purpose of the introduces sections on segment reporting and creative
statement of financial position. This is done in the accounting.
context of relatively simple organisations, so as to not Chapter 8 focuses on the statement of cash flows
unnecessarily complicate things. The method in which and the importance of cash to any business. The chapter
the statement is built up and its typical format are both also completes the coverage of the main external reports
covered, followed by the main factors that influence the prepared.
content and values in the statement. Finally, the main Chapter 9 introduces the areas of corporate social
uses and limitations of the statement are examined. responsibility together with social and environmental
Chapter 3 explains the nature and purpose of a accounting and also explains the current state of
statement of financial performance, usually referred to as development of sustainability reporting and integrated
an income statement. The way in which the statement reporting. Further work on these areas is likely to be
is built up and the way in which it is typically presented needed over the foreseeable future as the world faces
PREFACE xv
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continued issues including climate change, a range of other Chapter 13 includes a section on planning and
environmental issues, peak oil, world poverty, child-labour forecasting using the basic financial statements. This
abuse, and human rights and responsibilities generally. includes use of spreadsheets and sensitivity analysis. This
Chapter 10 deals with the analysis and interpretation is seen as an additional feature of planning and budgeting
of the main financial statements. There is also more detail over and above that used in the non-specialist book. The
on ratios and prediction models than is included in the remainder of the chapter focuses on short-term planning
non-specialist book. and control and deals with various aspects of budgeting.
Our formal coverage of management accounting begins The chapter includes a section on Beyond Budgeting.
in Chapter 11 with a discussion of the interrelationships Chapter 14 deals with capital budgeting, the decision
between costs, volume and profit in decision making. to invest in medium- and long-term assets, and considers
Extra material, compared with the non-specialist book, how businesses appraise such projects. There is material
includes more on semi-variable costs, and the use of on mutually exclusive projects and capital rationing, and
spreadsheets to develop profit profiles and associated more on practical aspects of identifying and dealing with
charts. cash flows, and the link with strategic planning.
Chapter 12 covers full costing and activity-based
costing. Extra material, over and above that found in the Peter Atrill
non-specialist book, includes more on the apportionment Eddie McLaney
process for overheads and cost-plus pricing. David Harvey
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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTOR
Maria Tyler: Chapter 5 contributor
Dr Maria Tyler is a certified practising accountant (CPA) and an accounting and finance lecturer (currently with
CQUniversity’s School of Business & Law). She has more than 13 years’ tertiary teaching experience at undergraduate
and postgraduate levels, and is experienced in curriculum design, development and implementation. Dr Tyler gained
her PhD in Accounting from CQUniversity in Mackay, Queensland, and also holds a Bachelor of Business/Bachelor
of Information Systems, Bachelor of Business with First Class Honours, MBA, Graduate Certificate in Management,
Graduate Diploma in Management, and a Diploma in Financial Services (Conveyancing).
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are indebted to the accounting education community for the time and expertise
invested as proposal reviewers, digital reviewers, manuscript reviewers and focus-group
participants. Their invaluable insights have greatly improved the clarity, consistency
and focus of this textbook.
Special thanks from the authors and publisher to Angela Tan-Kantor for carrying out
the technical editing for this edition.
COPYRIGHT
ASX material reproduced in this book is © ASX Corporate Governance Council
Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia Ltd, ACN 002 786 290, Australian
Council of Superannuation Investors, Australian Financial Markets Association
Limited ACN 119 827 904, Australian Institute of Company Directors ACN 008 484
197, Australian Institute of Superannuation Trustees ACN 123 284 275, Australasian
Investor Relations Association Limited ACN 095 554 153, Australian Shareholders’
Association Limited ACN 000 625 669, ASX Limited ABN 98 008 624 691 trading
as Australian Securities Exchange, Business Council of Australia ACN 008 483 216,
Chartered Accountants Australia and New Zealand, CPA Australia Ltd ACN 008 392
452, Financial Services Institute of Australasia ACN 066 027 389, Group of 100 Inc,
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The Institute of Actuaries of Australia ACN 000 423 656, ABN 50 084 642 571,
The Institute of Internal Auditors – Australia ACN 001 797 557, Financial Services
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615 950, Law Council of Australia Limited ACN 005 260 622, National Institute
of Accountants ACN 004 130 643, Property Council of Australia Limited ACN
008 474 422, Stockbrokers Association of Australia ACN 089 767 706. All rights
reserved 2017.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xix
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FOR STUDENTS: HOW DO I USE THIS BOOK?
CHAPTER 2 MEASURING AND REPORTING FINANCIAL POSITION 47
CHAPTER 1
◀ Learning objectives NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE STATEMENT
OF FINANCIAL POSITION
The purpose of the statement of financial position is to set out the financial position of a business
LO1
INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING
at a particular point in time. It is also referred to as a ‘balance sheet’. Both terms have been used Explain the nature
These are listed at the beginning of each chapter in recent years. The current recommendation is that the term ‘statement of financial position’ is and purpose of
the statement of
to be used. This statement represents a summary of information provided in the accounts, and is
financial position
effectively a listing of the balances in all of the detailed accounts—this is where the term ‘balance (balance sheet) and
sheet’ comes from. The statement of financial position sets out the assets of the business on the one its component parts
LEARNING OBJECTIVES and explain the key concepts that you should hand, and the claims against it on the other. Before looking at the statement in more detail, we need
to be clear what these terms mean.
When you have completed your study of this chapter, you should be able to:
Assets
LO1 Explain the nature and role of accounting
LO2 List the main groups that use the accounting reports of a business entity, and
summarise the different uses that can be made of accounting information
understand after studying the chapter. They An asset, for accounting purposes, is essentially a business resource that has certain characteristics.
The main characteristics of an asset are:
asset
A resource held by a
business which has certain
• A probable future economic benefit. This simply means that the item is expected to have characteristics.
People need economic information to help them make decisions and judgements about businesses.
Whether we are talking about a business manager making decisions about the most appropriate level
To help you understand key accounting financial position. Figure 2.1 summarises the above discussion in the form of a decision chart.
We can see that these conditions will strictly limit the kind of items that may be referred to as
‘assets’ in the statement of financial position. Certainly not all resources exploited by a business
of production, a bank manager responding to a request from the business for a bank loan or trade
easy reference.
M02_ATRI6570_01_SE_C02.indd 47 31/08/17 8:36 PM
CHAPTER 9 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY ACCOUNTING 435 76 ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS
terms, to its shareholders the choice of a more expensive production process that will yield lower
pollution levels but also lower profits? If a competitor goes down the lower-cost, higher-pollution
Concept check 3
The stakeholder concept recognises a number of parties with a legitimate
interest or stake in business. These stakeholder groups include:
series of class discussion points.
A Owners/shareholders and managers
B Employees and customers
C Government, lenders and suppliers
D Investment analysts
E All of the above.
As we have seen in earlier chapters, organisations that are more complicated than simple clubs
379
have to produce statements that reflect movements in wealth and the net increase (profit) or
decrease (loss) for the period concerned. For appropriations, the implications of tax planning need to be recognised. Preference dividends
The statement of cash flows is a fairly late addition to the annual published financial statements.
At one time, companies were only required to publish an income statement and a statement of
financial position. It seems the prevailing view was that all the financial information needed by
These are designed to test your comprehension of the should be easy. Ordinary dividends seldom reduce in practice, so any assumptions or estimates
about these are likely to be seriously constrained.
Real World 13.1 indicates just how BHP described the approximate impact of the principal
users would be contained within these two statements. This view may have been based partly on factors that affected earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) over a period: this is not based on
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2018 — 9781488616570 — Atrill/Accounting for Business Students 1e
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
piano determinato a priori, ma procede a tentoni, per mille imprevisti
casi ed atti, fino a terminare, nei secoli V. e VI., con l’inaugurazione
di una vera e propria scuola di Stato.
Ma se la pratica è conseguente, le teoriche espresse dalle due età
sono l’una diametralmente opposta all’altra. Si voglia codesta
teorica, per il primo periodo della storia romana ritrovare tutta intera,
e in modo assoluto, nelle parole de La repubblica di Cicerone, là
dove si afferma che nelle buone tradizioni nazionali romane non
trovava posto alcun sistema di educazione pubblica ed uniforme per
tutti i fanciulli di nascita libera; [820] o si vogliano le parole di
Cicerone, come è forse più probabile, [821] interpretare con
discrezione e cautela maggiori del consueto, l’impero può in ogni
modo contrapporre ad esse una molto diversa teorica. Che, se
Costanzo II, in un documento ufficiale dirà, che il primo merito di un
governo e di un principe è quello ch’egli si conquista verso la
pubblica istruzione, [822] Simmaco, uno dei più grandi personaggi del
secolo IV. ribadirà, rivolgendosi al primo magistrato romano, che «la
prova della floridezza di uno Stato si desume dallo stanziamento di
cospicue retribuzioni ai pubblici docenti» [823].
Ci troviamo dunque, come si vede, in aere e dinnanzi a
concepimenti assai diversi. Per l’impero romano, lo Stato ideale è
quello che largisce a sue spese la pubblica istruzione; per la
repubblica, ogni paese civile poteva serenamente prescindere da
siffatte preoccupazioni.
Per quali vie s’era compiuta tanta rivoluzione? La risposta non riesce
difficile a chi con noi ha seguito, passo passo, lo svolgersi
dell’amministrazione scolastica dello Stato romano.
Questa parte della sua attività si esplica sotto tre forme: creazione di
scuole pubbliche ed ufficiali; regolamenti sull’istruzione municipale;
vigilanza sull’istruzione privata.
Quanto alle scuole di Stato, duplice fu la via, che noi abbiamo vista
seguire dal governo romano. Da un canto, esso istituisce delle
cattedre di discipline, preferibilmente attinenti all’insegnamento
superiore. Ciò avvenne dapprima nella capitale del mondo, nella
città regia per eccellenza, in Roma; poscia, nelle città più notevoli
per il loro passato, letterario e scientifico, e perciò più degne delle
cure imperiali, quale, ad esempio, Atene.
Tale istituzione non importava di necessità che lo Stato si arrogasse
il diritto della nomina del docente. In genere — almeno nel rito
esteriore — essa era lasciata al Consiglio municipale, cioè al senato
del luogo; importava bensì che lo Stato si addossasse l’onere dello
stipendio del docente. Ma insieme con questo procedimento l’impero
amò seguirne un altro. Esso preferì talvolta avocare a se stesso
determinati insegnamenti, designando una città come loro sede
officiale, imponendovi, più o meno rigorosamente, i suoi programmi,
facendone la depositaria responsabile, spesso liberandola da ogni
concorrenza. Fu il caso della facoltà giuridica di Berito con
Giustiniano e coi suoi predecessori, sin forse da Diocleziano. [824]
Questa volta siamo dinnanzi ad un’investitura morale, non già ad
una creazione ex novo di cattedre, e lo Stato rimane estraneo sia
alla nomina dei docenti, sia alla retribuzione dell’opera loro.
Fra l’una e l’altra forma di scuola di Stato, fra le due età, in cui
ciascuna viene incarnata, noi assistiamo al primo sorgere, su
modello appositamente scelto di una completa Università, che
raccoglie nel suo seno l’insegnamento delle varie discipline, ritenute
fondamentali e necessarie. È questa l’ora della fondazione
dell’Ateneo Costantinopolitano, e sarà anche questo il momento, in
cui l’autorità del potere centrale, così solennemente affermatasi,
libererà l’Università ufficiale da tutte le altre forme di insegnamento,
che fino allora le erano fiorite accanto, e ne darà a quella l’assoluto
monopolio. Ancora un altro secolo, infatti, e ciò che Teodosio II.,
integrando l’opera di Costantino I., aveva disposto per la sola
Costantinopoli, sarà da Giustiniano ripetuto per altre scuole o
cattedre dell’impero — private, municipali, imperiali — e
dell’organismo dell’istruzione dello Stato, saranno, pur
disciplinandole scrupolosamente, mantenute solo quelle parti, che il
governo riterrà opportuno mantenere.
Ma tanta operosità non riguarda tutte le forme dell’antico
insegnamento; l’istruzione elementare rimane ancora estranea a
ogni iniziativa dello Stato, e le cattedre, che questo curò e raccolse,
quali sedi di insegnamenti ufficiali, corrisposero invece alle sole
contemplate dal nostro insegnamento superiore e dal nostro
insegnamento medio di secondo grado.
Le discipline fondamentali — qua e là ce ne poterono essere anche
delle altre — oggetto del primo, furono la eloquenza greca e latina,
la filosofia, più tardi, la giurisprudenza; le discipline, oggetto
dell’insegnamento secondario superiore: la lingua e la letteratura
latina. E se, come taluno ha asserito, la denominazione di Università
non si attaglia perfettamente agli istituti d’istruzione pubblica, sorti in
Roma, in Atene, in Costantinopoli e nelle altre città, che quegli
insegnamenti raccolsero in un corpo unico, l’eccezione ha valore
sopra tutto, in quanto dei programmi di codeste scuole facevano
parte anche quelle discipline, che oggi costituiscono il nostro
insegnamento secondario superiore.
Ma la cura e la sorveglianza del governo centrale sulle scuole di
Stato non si limita a largire uno stipendio ai docenti, a raccogliere
questi ultimi in un istituto unico, a pareggiare, a quelle di fondazione
imperiale, alcune scuole, che tali non erano state, a coordinarne
l’opera, sia pure entro gli incerti confini, che abbiamo segnati.
Vedemmo, dall’esempio di Roma e di Costantinopoli, come lo Stato
fornisse i locali; ma esso curava ancora la disciplina degli studiosi, sì
che l’autorità, che oggi viene divisa fra il rettore dell’istituto, il corpo
accademico e l’autorità politica, veniva dal governo centrale
assegnata solo a quest’ultima. Era questa la conseguenza
necessaria dell’acefalia della scuola, ove, se c’erano degli
insegnanti, non c’era un ufficio direttivo. E noi vediamo che, sotto
Valentiniano I., nella mancanza dell’organo necessario per la
disciplina, le scuole venivano governate dal prefetto della città, in
Roma e — si può presumere — anche in Costantinopoli, e dalle altre
autorità provinciali più immediate, nelle quattro prefetture
dell’impero, come, più tardi, insieme con queste, dalle supreme
autorità ecclesiastiche del luogo. [825] Un dirigente d’istituto di
nomina imperiale non esiste, [826] e il collegio dei professori o non è
investito di alcun potere, o ne ha uno assolutamente subordinato, e
solo sussidiario, a quello dell’autorità civile e religiosa.
Ma tale delegazione all’autorità politica dei poteri disciplinari, che
non è un male, come potrebbe temersi, giacchè quella si limitava
esclusivamente a sorvegliare la parte più esteriore, e meno intima,
della condotta degli studenti, dipende anche dalla concezione
dell’insegnamento, che lo Stato romano ereditò — e mantenne
fedelmente — dalla repubblica. Per esso, fu l’insegnamento
un’attività liberissima tra le libere; per esso, l’insegnante dovea farsi
valere con la sua capacità; lo scolaro apprendere per il bisogno
intellettuale o professionale, che lo sospingeva [827]. Il fallo scolastico
non è quindi contemplato; esistono solo dei reati comuni, e di
reprimerli è, naturalmente, incaricata l’autorità civile o giudiziaria.
Questo è il fondo teorico della pratica seguita dall’impero romano in
fatto di disciplina scolastica. Va da sè che esso era troppo bello, per
tradursi senza alterazioni nella realtà; e, infatti, provvedimenti
speciali di questo o di quell’imperatore ne ombrarono la classica
purezza. Ma essi non riuscirono mai a intaccare vitalmente il
sistema, che rivivrà più tardi, attraverso i più celebri istituti
d’istruzione pubblica del Medioevo.
II.
III.
Ma chi voglia frugare in fondo ai criteri, che ispirarono lo Stato
romano nei riguardi dell’istruzione; chi voglia intenderne
compiutamente il principio animatore non può sottrarsi ad un’assai
significativa constatazione, che s’impone al confronto delle cure e
della sorveglianza, che lo Stato antico ebbe, ed esercitò, con quelle,
avute ed esercitate, dagli Stati moderni.
Noi ci occupiamo della scuola e crediamo di operare al suo effettivo
incremento, sovvenendola, o correggendola, nei suoi elementi
oggettivi e impersonali; l’impero romano si occupò sovra tutto
dell’elemento soggettivo, del maestro e dello scolaro, e fu
elevandone la condizione, materiale e morale, ch’esso credette
giovare alla scuola e agli studii. Perciò noi ritroviamo, fino dai primi
tempi dell’impero, quella copia di immunità dai pubblici carichi e di
altri privilegi, di cui ad ogni passo sono onorati gl’insegnanti —
persino, qualche volta, gli eterni dimenticati, i maestri elementari.
Perciò noi li vediamo, nelle costituzioni imperiali del IV. secolo,
parificati, in onorificenze, ai più grandi dignitari dello Stato. Perciò il
loro ufficio, riguardato dapprima con disdegno e con diffidenza, tocca
rimunerazioni elevatissime, come, ad esempio quella assegnata ad
Eumenio in Gallia. Perciò, poco a poco, i maestri divengono gli
ispiratori della politica imperiale, e si dànno dei lunghi periodi, come
sotto Marco Aurelio, sotto Alessandro Severo, sotto Giuliano, in cui
essi possono ben dirsi i principi dello stato, dopo l’unico principe
effettivo. Perciò, dal II. secolo ai primi anni del IV., si suscita, e
fiorisce, quell’ampia distesa di istituzioni alimentari, che costituiranno
il terreno fecondatore della istruzione pubblica in questa età, nella
quale, allorchè non infieriranno eventi contrari, la coltura pubblica
raggiungerà il massimo della sua diffusione. Perciò, sin dal III.
secolo, noi vedremo assegnati dei privilegi e delle borse di studio ai
giovani studenti di questa o di quella disciplina, o di tutte le discipline
insieme. Conforme a tali criterii, conforme cioè al criterio che il bene
della scuola non si raggiunge con riforme di programmi e di
ordinamenti scolastici, ma con il merito e l’eccellenza dei maestri,
con il benessere degli scolari, l’insegnamento rimane libero da ogni
imposizione ufficiale. Il controllo dello Stato, o che lo Stato richiede
dai Comuni, si limita alla verifica della capacità, della diligenza e
della dignità della vita degl’insegnanti. Tutto il resto, programmi,
orarii, metodi, tutto, nello Stato antico, è di esclusiva spettanza del
maestro. E come l’insegnante, esente da ogni imposizione, è
responsabile solo degli effetti dell’opera sua, così manca ogni
responsabilità collettiva ed ogni forma di accordo didattico fra i vari
docenti di un unico istituto. Le scuole dell’antichità, che non
conferivano diplomi o attestati, che non conoscevano l’umiliante
soggezione degli esami, non avevano neanche bisogno di imporre e
di promuovere con artifici la diligenza dei maestri e l’efficacia del loro
insegnamento. La scuola allora poteva bene avere un’anima, e fu
vero peccato che, per la mancanza di questa intima virtù, che non
infondono nè la scienza, nè l’ufficio, ma l’indole personale dei
maestri e la vita storica circostante; per questa deficienza spirituale,
che tanto faceva fremere Giuliano, i docenti abbiano, da così grande
libertà, ritratto una copia sempre minore di vantaggi effettivi.
Venne l’ora, in cui tutto questo ebbe termine, o si volle almeno che
avesse termine. Quando, in una grigia giornata invernale,
Giustiniano fissò schematicamente i programmi delle poche scuole
riconosciute di giurisprudenza, inaugurò quell’obbligo, di cui
grandissimi, sono, insieme con i pregi, i difetti, e che impera tuttavia
nelle scuole pubbliche dei paesi latini e degli altri che hanno avuto la
malinconia di imitarli, l’obbligo — dico — di una scuola, la cui
essenza più intima e più gelosa si sia voluta ufficialmente plasmare.
IV.
V.
VI.
VIII.
Dietro il Senato e l’imperatore, che rappresentano i due poteri
dirigenti, noi ne aspetteremmo ancora altri, quali esecutori della loro
rispettiva volontà, nel campo della pubblica istruzione. Se non che, a
reggere il nuovo organismo amministrativo, che si era venuto
formando, lo Stato non sentì vivo il bisogno di destinarvi un apposito
congegno burocratico.
I nuovi uffici, creatisi a corte in quell’età dell’impero romano, in cui
l’autorità assoluta del principe cominciò a farsi valere anche nelle
forme esteriori, differiscono dai nostri, in quanto riguardano, non un
genere di lavoro determinato, ma la forma comune di lavori diversi,
non assolutamente separati nè distintamente assegnati. È questo il
motivo, per cui noi non troviamo, in questo tempo, un nucleo di
amministrazione centrale, che degnamente risponda al nuovo
servizio e, meno ancora, delle apposite amministrazioni provinciali
per la pubblica istruzione.
L’unico ufficio infatti, che, nella vecchia capitale dell’impero, ci
apparisca fornito di tali caratteri, è quello dell’a studiis, ma, se
l’oscurità, che avvolge le sue funzioni direttive scolastiche, è prova
della sua scarsa importanza, almeno al confronto delle nostre
aspettative, è altresì degno di rilievo il fatto che l’a studiis non
incombeva soltanto sulle cose della pubblica istruzione, nè la durata
della sua carica oltrepassò il regno di Costantino [851]. Nel momento
cioè, del maggiore sviluppo della politica scolastica dell’impero,
l’unico ufficio, che direttamente la riguardava, dispare [852] o si
confonde con altri di specie diversa, [853] e la direzione suprema
delle cose della pubblica coltura rimane alla mercè dei mutevoli
suggerimenti e dell’opera di questo o di quel ministro, qualunque
carica essi rivestano, sì che, allorquando Giustiniano sopprimerà
buona parte delle scuole dell’impero, noi apprenderemo con
meraviglia che consigliere di quel gravissimo provvedimento era
stato soltanto il prefetto di Costantinopoli [854].
In modo analogo, fuori della Corte ci troviamo dinanzi a una serie di
attribuzioni scolastiche, assegnate a questo o a quel magistrato
civile, non dinanzi a una vera e propria amministrazione scolastica.
Le persone, incaricate della cura e della trattazione degli affari,
relativi all’istruzione pubblica, furono i praefecti urbi, coi loro
dipendenti nelle due città regie, esecutori tanto della volontà
dell’imperatore come di quella del senato [855], i governatori, col
personale loro dipendente, nelle provincie, o, più tardi, nelle
prefetture; talora, anche, in qualche sede speciale, per l’ultima età
dell’impero, le autorità ecclesiastiche [856].
Questi sono i naturali destinatari, delle numerose costituzioni
imperiali, relative ai professori, agli studenti e alle cose dell’istruzione
pubblica in genere. Ma una distinzione di attribuzioni tra il praefectus
urbi e le autorità provinciali o il prefetto del pretorio non esiste. Ciò
che determina la differenza delle loro funzioni è solo il diverso
àmbito territoriale, su cui si esplicano le rispettive competenze
amministrative. Il praefectus urbi si incarica della sorveglianza
disciplinare sui maestri, di Roma e di Costantinopoli, cui ha facoltà di
infliggere pene determinate; [857] si incarica della manutenzione degli
edifici scolastici di proprietà dello Stato; dell’assegnazione a ciascun
docente di un determinato locale nell’università cittadina; [858], e,
forse, dopo Giustiniano, del regolare svolgimento dei loro
programmi. Consiglia l’imperatore nei suoi provvedimenti
scolastici; [859] sorveglia il pagamento degli stipendi; [860] cura che i
maestri siano informati delle onorificenze [861] e delle immunità
concesse, o ridotte, o negate; esegue e garantisce l’applicazione
delle leggi relative, sia per parte dello Stato che dei municipi; invigila
sulla condotta degli studenti, dentro e fuori la scuola, per il che mette
in opera l’attività del dipendente ufficio censuale. Infine, come
governatore di ciascuna delle due metropoli, che sono anche i centri
maggiori della pubblica istruzione, provvede talora di pubblici docenti
le città di provincia, che ne abbisognano [862], e, almeno fin dal IV.
secolo, raccoglie nelle proprie mani l’amministrazione generale delle
biblioteche di ciascuna delle due città [863].
Analogamente, i governatori provinciali o i prefetti del pretorio,
ciascuno nel proprio àmbito territoriale, sorvegliano l’apertura e la
chiusura delle scuole pubbliche e private ed i maestri che le
dirigono; [864] ne impongono di nuove, o ne regolano il mantenimento
insieme con la nomina, lo stipendio dei docenti [865] e, dopo
Giustiniano, forse anche l’insegnamento. Al pari del praefectus urbi,
informano i docenti delle immunità concesse, o ridotte, o negate, e
ne eseguono e garantiscono, l’applicazione, non solo per parte dello
Stato, ma anche per parte dei municipi; rimpatriano i docenti, che
aspirano a torto a determinate immunità, cercando così di sottrarsi ai
loro obblighi sociali [866]; curano che i municipi osservino gli altri
privilegi, dall’imperatore stabiliti pei maestri, sia di arti liberali che di
altre discipline, e infliggono ai violatori le penalità comminate; [867]
bandiscono e corrispondono borse di studio agli studiosi; sorvegliano
la disciplina, e la condotta extrascolastica, degli scolari, rilasciano
loro il permesso di recarsi altrove a studiare [868]. Nè questo è tutto.
Le notizie pervenuteci sulle scuole ateniesi, che sono le più
abbondanti, ci dànno qualche altro particolare prezioso. I governatori
provinciali nominano, o fanno nominare dai Consigli municipali, le
Commissioni di concorso, le presiedono, decidono sulle loro
proposte, sui reclami dei candidati, convocano i professori e gli
studenti a gare solenni, premiano i vincitori, propongono quesiti,
sentenziano nelle contese, sospendono, destituiscono, reintegrano,
richiamano al dovere i maestri, che disertano la cattedra, inducono le
città a determinate scelte, inviano all’imperatore rapporti sullo stato
delle scuole; sono in una parola, fin dal IV. secolo, i veri e propri
curatori dell’andamento delle scuole, almeno delle principali,
collocate entro la loro giurisdizione [869].
IX.
X.