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Solution manual for C++ Programming: From Problem
Analysis to Program Design, 6th Edition – D.S. Malik
Download full chapter at: https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-
for-c-programming-from-problem-analysis-to-program-design-6th-
edition-d-s-malik/

Chapter 1

1. a. false; b. false; c. true; d. false; e. false; f; false; g. false; h. true; i. true; j. false; k. true; l. false
3. Central processing unit (CPU), main memory (MM), and input/output devices.
5. An operating system monitors the overall activity of the computer and provides services. Some of
these services include memory management, input/output activities, and storage management.
7. In machine language the programs are written using the binary codes while in high-level language the
program are closer to the natural language. For execution, a high-level language program is translated
into the machine language while a machine language need not be translated into any other language.
9. Because the computer cannot directly execute instructions written in a high-level language, a compiler
is needed to translate a program written in high-level language into machine code.
11. Every computer directly understands its own machine language. Therefore, for the computer to execute
a program written in a high-level language, the high-level language program must be translated into the
computer’s machine language.
13. In linking an object program is combined with other programs in the library, used in the program, to
create the executable code.
15. To find the weighted average of the four test scores, first you need to know each test score and its
weight. Next, you multiply each test score with its weight, and then add these numbers to get the
average. Therefore,
1. Get testScore1, weightTestScore1
2. Get testScore2, weightTestScore2
3. Get testScore3, weightTestScore3
4. Get testScore4, weightTestScore4
5. weightedAverage = testScore1 * weightTestScore1 +
testScore2 * weightTestScore2 +
testScore3 * weightTestScore3 +
testScore4 * weightTestScore4;
17. To find the price per square inch, first we need to find the area of the pizza. Then we divide the price
of the pizza by the area of the pizza. Let radius denote the radius and area denote the area of the
circle, and price denote the price of pizza. Also, let pricePerSquareInch denote the price per
square inch.
a. Get radius
b. area = π * radius * radius
c. Get price

1
 d. pricePerSquareInch = price / area
19. To calculate the area of a triangle using the given formula, we need to know the lengths of the
sides―a, b, and c―of the triangle. Next, we calculate s using the formula:
s = (1/2)(a + b + c)
and then calculate the area using the formula:
area = sqrt(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c))
where sqrt denotes the square root.
The algorithm, therefore, is:
a. Get a, b, c
b. s = (1/2)(a + b + c)
c. area = sqrt(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c))
The information needed to calculate the area of the triangle is the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
21. Suppose that numOfPages denoes the number of pages to be faxed and billingAmount denotes
the total charges for the pages faxed. To calculate the total charges, you need to know the number of
pages faxed.
If numOfPages is less than or equal to ten, the billing amount is services charges plus
(numOfPages × 0.20); otherwise, billing amount is service charges plus 10 × 0.20 plus
(numOfPages - 10) × 0.10. That is,
You can now write the algorithm as follows:
a. Get numOfPages.
b. Calculate billing amount using the formula:
if (numOfPages is less than or equal to 10)
billingAmount = 3.00 + (numOfPages × 0.20);
otherwise
billingAmount = 3.00 + 10 × 0.20 + (numOfPages - 10) × 0.10;
23. Suppose averageTestScore denotes the average test score, highestScore denotes the highest
test score, testScore denotes a test score, sum denote the sum of all the test scores, and count
denotes the number of students in class, and studentName denotes the name of a student.
a. First you design an algorithm to find the average test score. To find the average test score, first
you need to count the number of students in the class and add the test score of each student. You
then divide the sum by count to find the average test score. The algorithm to find the average test
score is as follows:
i. Set sum and count to 0.
ii. Repeat the following for each student in class.
1. Get testScore
2. Increment count and update the value of sum by adding the current test score to sum.
iii. Use the following formula to find the average test score.
if (count is 0)
averageTestScore = 0;

2
 otherwise
averageTestScore = sum / count;
b. The following algorithm determines and prints the names of all the students whose test score is
below the average test score.
Repeat the following for each student in class:
i. Get studentName and testScore
ii.
if (testScore is less than averageTestScore)
print studentName
c. The following algorithm determines and highest test score
i. Get first student’s test score and call it highestTestScore.
ii. Repeat the following for each of the remaining student in class
1. Get testScore
2.
if (testScore is greater than highestTestScore)
highestTestScore = testScore;

d. To print the names of all the students whose test score is the same as the highest test score,
compare the test score of each student with the highest test score and if they are equal print the
name. The following algorithm accomplishes this
Repeat the following for each student in class:
i. Get studentName and testScore
ii.
if (testScore is equal to highestTestScore)
print studentName

You can use the solutions of the subproblems obtained in parts a to d to design the main algorithm as
follows:
1. Use the algorithm in part a to find the average test score.
2. Use the algorithm in part b to print the names of all the students whose score is below the average
test score.
3. Use the algorithm in part c to find the highest test score.
4. Use the algorithm in part d to print the names of all the students whose test score is the same as the
highest test score

3
 Chapter 2

1. a. false; b. false; c. false; d. true; e. true; f. false; g. true; h. true; i. false; j. true; k. false
3. b, d, e
5. The identifiers firstName and FirstName are not the same. C++ is case sensitive. The first letter
of firstName is lowercase f while the first character of FirstName is uppercase F. So these
identifiers are different
7. a. 3
b. Not possible. Both the operands of the operator % must be integers. Because the second operand,
w, is a floating-point value, the expression is invalid.
c. Not possible. Both the operands of the operator % must be integers. Because the first operand,
which is y + w, is a floating-point value, the expression is invalid .
d. 38.5
e. 1
f. 2
g. 2
h. 420.0
9. 7
11. a and c are valid
13. a. 32 * a + b
b. '8'
c. "Julie Nelson"
d. (b * b – 4 * a * c) / (2 * a)
e. (a + b) / c * (e * f) – g * h
f. (–b + (b * b – 4 * a * c)) / (2 * a)
15. x = 28
y = 35
z = 1
w = 22.00
t = 6.5
17. a. 0.50
b. 24.50
c. 37.6
d. 8.3
e. 10
f. 38.75
19. a and c are correct

4
21. a. int num1;
int num2;
b. cout << "Enter two numbers separated by spaces." << endl;
c. cin >> num1 >> num2;
d. cout << "num1 = " << num1 << "num2 = " << num2
<< "2 * num1 – num2 = " << 2 * num1 – num2 << endl;
23. A correct answer is:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

const char STAR = '*';

const int PRIME = 71;

int main()
{
int count, sum;
double x;

int newNum; //declare newNum

count = 1;
sum = count + PRIME;
x = 25.67; // x = 25.67;
newNum = count * 1 + 2; //newNum = count * ONE + 2;
sum = sum + count; //sum + count = sum;
x = x + sum * count; // x = x + sum * COUNT;
cout << " count = " << count << ", sum = " << sum
<< ", PRIME = " << PRIME << endl;
return 0;
}

25. An identifier must be declared before it can be used.

27. a. x *= 2;
b. x += y - 2;
c. sum += num;
d. z *= x + 2;
e. y /= x + 5;
29.
a b c
a = (b++) + 3; 9 7 und
c = 2 * a + (++b); 9 8 26
b = 2 * (++c) – (a++); 10 45 27

31. (The user input is shaded.)

5
 a = 25
Enter two integers: 20 15

The numbers you entered are 20 and 15

z = 45.5
Your grade is A
The value of a = 65
33.
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

const double X = 13.45;

const int Y = 34;
const char BLANK = ' ';

int main()
{
string firstName, lastName;
int num;
double salary;

cout << "Enter first name: ";

cin >> firstName;
cout << endl;

cout << "Enter last name: ";

cin >> lastName;
cout << endl;

cout << "Enter a positive integer less than 70: ";

cin >> num;
cout << endl;

salary = num * X;

cout << "Name: " << firstName << BLANK << lastName << endl;
cout << "Wages: $" << salary << endl;
cout << "X = " << X << endl;
cout << "X + Y = " << X + Y << endl;

return 0;
}

6
 Chapter 3

1. a. true; b. true; c. false; d. false; e. true; f. true

3. a. x = 37, y = 86, z = 0.56
b. x = 37, y = 32, z = 86.56
c. Input failure: z = 37.0, x = 86, trying to read the . (period) into y.
5. Input failure: Trying to read A into y, which is an int variable. x = 46, y = 18, and z =
'A'. The values of y and z are unchanged.
7. iomanip
9. cmath
11. To use the function putback, the program must include the header file iomanip. To use the function
peek, the program must include the header file iostream.
13. getline(cin, name);
15. a. name = " Lance Grant", age = 23
b. name = " ", age = 23
17.
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int num1, num2;
ifstream infile;
ofstream outfile;

infile.open("input.dat");
outfile.open("output.dat");

infile >> num1 >> num2;

outfile << "Sum = " << num1 + num2 << endl;

infile.close();
outfile.close();

return 0;
}

19. fstream
21. a. Same as before.
b. The file contains the output produced by the program.
c. The file contains the output produced by the program. The old contents are erased.
d. The program would prepare the file and store the output in the file.
23. a. outfile.open("travel.dat ");
b. outfile >> fixed >> showpoint >> setprecision(2);

7
c. outfile >> day >> " " >> distance >> " " >> speed >> endl;
d. travelTime = distance / speed;
outfile >> travelTime;
e. fstream and iomanip.

8
 Chapter 4
1. a. false; b. false; c. false; d. true; e. false; f. false; g. false; h. false; i. false; j. true
3. a. true; b. false; c. true; d. true; e. false
5. a. x = y: 0
b. x != z: 1
c. y == z – 3: 1
d. !(z > w): 0
e. x + y < z: 0
7. a. %%
b. 10 2 * 5
c. A
d. C--
e. Sam Tom
Tom Sam
f. -6
**
9. a. R&
b. 1 2 3 4
$$
c. Jack Accounting
John Business

11. The value of found is: 1

13. Omit the semicolon after else. The correct statement is:
if (score >= 60)
cout << "You pass." << endl;
else
cout << "You fail." << endl;
15. The correct code is:
if (0 < numOfItemsBought && numOfItemsBought < 5)
shippingCharges = 5.00 * numOfItemsBought;
else if (5 <= numOfItemsBought && numOfItemsBought < 10)
shippingCharges = 2.00 * numOfItemsBought;
else
shippingCharges = 0.0;

17. 3 1
19. if (sale > 20000)
bonus = 0.10
else if (sale > 10000 && sale <= 20000)
bonus = 0.05;
else
bonus = 0.0;

9
21. a. The output is: Discount = 10%. The semicolon at the end of the if statement terminates the if
statement. So the cout statement is not part of the if statement. The cout statement will execute
regardless of whether the expression in the if statement evaluates to true or false.
b. The output is: Discount = 10%. The semicolon at the end of the if statement terminates the if
statement. So the cout statement is not part of the if statement. The cout statement will execute
regardless of whether the expression in the if statement evaluates to true or false.

23. a. (x >= y) ? z = x – y : z = y – x;

b. (hours >= 40.0) ? wages = 40 * 7.50 + 1.5 * 7.5 * (hours – 40)

: wages = hours * 7.50;
c. (score >= 60) ? str = "Pass" : str = "Fail";
25. a. 40.00
b. 40.00
c. 55.00
27. a. 16 b. 3 c. 18 d. 23
29. a. 3 b. -20 c. 3 d. 5

31.
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

const int SECRET = 5;

int main()
{
int x, y, w, z;

z = 9;

if (z > 10)
{
x = 12;
y = 5;
w = x + y + SECRET;
}
else
{
x = 12;
y = 4;
w = x + y + SECRET;
}

cout << "w = " << w << endl;

return 0;
}

33.
switch (classStanding)
{
case 'f':
dues = 150.00;
break;
case 's':
if (gpa >= 3.75)
dues = 75.00;

10
 else
dues = 120.00;
break;
case 'j':
if (gpa >= 3.75)
dues = 50.00;
else
dues = 100.00;
break;
case 'n':
if (gpa >= 3.75)
dues = 25.00;
else
dues = 75.00;
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid class standing code." << endl;
}

11
 Chapter 5

1. false; b. true; c. false; d. true; e. true; f. true; g. true; h. false

3. 181.00
5. if ch > 'Z' or ch < 'A'
7. Sum = 94
9. Sum = 37
11. a. 29
b. 2 8
c. 8 13 21 34
d. The value of num1 + num2 becomes larger than the largest int value and the value of
temp overflows its memory space. Some of the values output by the program are: 4 7 11
18 29 47 76 123 199 322 521 843 1364 2207 3571 5778 9349 15127 24476
39603 64079 103682 167761 271443 439204 710647 1149851 1860498
3010349 4870847 7881196 12752043 20633239 33385282 54018521
87403803 141422324 228826127 370248451 599074578 969323029
1568397607
13. Replace the while loop statement with the following:
while (response == 'Y' || response == 'y')
Replace the cout statement:
cout << num1 << " + " << num2 << " = " << (num1 - num2)
<< endl;

with the following:

cout << num1 << " + " << num2 << " = " << (num1 + num2)
<< endl;
15. 4 3 2 1
17. 0 3 8 15 24
19. Loop control variable: j
The initialization statement: j = 1;
Loop condition: j <= 10;
Update statement: j++
The statement that updates the value of s: s = s + j * (j – 1);
21. -1 1 3 5 7 6
23. a. *
b. infinite loop
c. infinite loop
d. ****
e. ******
f. ***
25. The relationship between x and y is: 3y = x.
Output: x = 19683, y = 10

12
27.
0 - 24
25 - 49
50 - 74
75 - 99
100 - 124
125 - 149
150 - 174
175 - 200
29. a. both
b. do...while
c. while
d. while

31. In a pretest loop, the loop condition is evaluated before executing the body of the loop. In a posttest
loop, the loop condition is evaluated after executing the body of the loop. A posttest loop executes at
least once, while a pretest loop may not execute at all.
33. int num;
do
{
cout << "Enter a number less than 20 or greater than 75: ";
cin >> num;
}
while (20 <= num && num <= 75);

35. int i = 0, value = 0;

do
{
if (i % 2 == 0 && i <= 10)
value = value + i * i;
else if (i % 2 == 0 && i > 10)
value = value + i;
else
value = value - i;
i = i + 1;
}
while (i <= 20);

cout << "value = " << value << endl;

The output is: value = 200

37 cin >> number;

while (number != -1)
{
total = total + number;
cin >> number;
}
cout << endl;
cout << total << endl;

13
39. a.
number = 1;
while (number <= 10)
{
cout << setw(3) << number;
number++;
}

b.
number = 1;
do
{
cout << setw(3) << number;
number++;
}
while (number <= 10);

41. a. 29
b. 2 8
c. 8 13 21 34
d. 28 43 71 114
43 -1 0 3 8 15 24
45. 12 11 9 7 6 4 2 1

14
 Chapter 6
1. a. false; b. true; c. true; d. true; e. false; f. true; g. false; h. true; i. false; j. true; k. false; l. false;
m. false; n. true
3. a. 12 b. 23.45 c. 7.8 d. 23.04 e. 32.00 f. 7.0 g. 2.7
h. 6.0 i. 36.00 j. 19.00

5. (ii) and (iii)

7. a, b, c, d, e are valid. In f, the second argument in the function call is missing. In g and h, the function
call requires one more argument.
9. a. 2; int
b. 3; double
c. 4; char
d. 2; string
e. The function func1 requires 2 actual parameters. The type and the order of these
parameters is: int, double
f. cout << func1(3, 8.5) << endl;.
g. cout << join("John", "Project Manager") << endl;
h. cout << static_cast<char>(static_cast<int>
(three(4, 3, 'A', 17.6)) + 1) << endl;

11. bool isLowercaseLetter(char ch)

{
if (islower(ch))
return true;
else
return false;
}

13. a. (i) 45 (ii) 30

b. Let k = abs(n). The function computes (k – 1 ) * k * m / 2, where m and n are the arguments of the
function and k = abs(n).
15. a. 385
b. This function computes 1+4+9+16+25+36+49+64+81+100
17. double funcEx17(double x, double y, double z)
{
return x * pow(y, z);
}

19. a. In a void function, a return statement is used without any value such as return;
b. In a void function, a return statement is used to exit the function early.

21. a. A variable declared in the heading of a function definition is called a formal parameter. A variable
or expression used in a function call is called an actual parameter.
b. A value parameter receives a copy of the actual parameter’s data. A reference parameter receives
the address of the actual parameter.

15
 c. A variable declared within a function or block is called a local variable. A variable declared
outside of every function definition is called a global variable.
23. void funcThreeTimes(double x)
{
cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(2);
cout << 3 * x << endl;
}

25. void initialize(int& x, double& y, string& str)

{
x = 0;
y = 0;
str = "";
}

27. 5, 10, 15
20, 10, 15
25, 30, 15
45, 30, 60
29. #include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int secret(int, int);

void func(int x, int& y);

int main()
{
int num1, num2;

__1__ num1 = 6;

__2__ cout << "Enter a positive integer: ";

__3__ cin >> num2;
__4__ cout << endl;
__8__ cout << secret(num1, num2) << endl;
__9__ num2 = num2 – num1;
_10__ cout << num1 << " " << num2 << endl;
_15__ func(num2, num1);
_16__ cout << num1 << " " << num2 << endl;

_17__ return 0;
}

int secret(int a, int b)

{
int d;

__5__ d = a + b;
__6__ b = a * d;

__7__ return b;
}

void func (int x, int& y)

{
int val1, val2;

16
_11__ val1 = x + y;
_12__ val2 = x * y;
_13__ y = val1 + val2;
_14__ cout << val1 << " " << val2 << endl;
}

If the input is 10, the output is:

96
6 4
10 24
34 4

31. void traceMe(double& x, double y, double& z)

{
if (x != 0)
z = sqrt(y) / x;
else
{
cout << "Enter a nonzero number: ";
cin >> x;
cout << endl;
z = floor(pow(y, x));
}
}

33. 10 20
5 20

35. 11, 3
16, 2
19, 3
24, 2
37. a, b, c, and e are correct.

17
 Chapter 7
1. a. true; b. false; c. true; d. false; e. false; f. true; g. true; h. true; i. false; j. false; k. false

3. Only a and c are valid.

5.
courseType readIn()
{
string course;

cin >> course;

if (course == "Algebra")
class = ALGEBRA;
else if (course == "Beginning Spanish")
class = BEGINNING_SPANISH;
else if (course == "Astronomy")
class == ASTRONOMY;
else if (course == "General Chemistry")
class = GENERAL_CHEMISTRY;
else if (course == "Physics")
class = PHYSICS;
else if (course == "Logic")
class = LOGIC;
else
cout << "Invalid course" << endl;

return course;
}

7. Because there is no name for an anonymous type, you cannot pass an anonymous type as a parameter
to a function and a function cannot return an anonymous type value. Also, values used in one
anonymous type can be used in another anonymous type, but variables of those types are treated
differently.
9. The statement in Line 2 should be:
using namespace std; //Line 2
11. The statement in Line 2 should be:
using namespace std; //Line 2
13. Either include the statement:
using namespace aaa;
before the function main or refer to the identifiers x and y in main as aaa::x and aaa::y,
respectively.
15. a. Heelo Thlre
b. Giamond Dold
c. Ca+ J+va
17. Summer or Fall Trip to Hawaii
Trip to Hawaii in Summer or Fall
29
8
7
Fall Trip to Hawaii

18
Summer or Fall Trip to ******
C++ Programming
15
J+$ Programming

19
 Chapter 8
1. a. true; b. true; c. false; d. false; e. true; f. false; g. false; h. false; i. true; j. false; k. false; l. false

3. a. This declaration is correct.

b. The statement should be: int age[80];

c. This declaration is correct.
d. The statement should be: int list[100];
e. The statement should be: double salaries[50];
f. The const declaration should be: const double LENGTH = 30;
g. This declaration is correct.
5. 0 to 63

7. 2.00 3.00 6.00 11.00 18.00

27.00 12.00 22.00 11.00 18.00

9. 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 144 343

11.

int myList[10];

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

myList[i] = [i];

13. If array index is less than 0 or greater than arraySize – 1, we say that the array index is out-of

bounds. C++ does not check for array indices within bound.

15. a. double heights[10] = {5.2, 6.3, 5.8, 4.9, 5.2, 5.7, 6.7, 7.1, 5.10, 6.0};
or
double heights[] = {5.2, 6.3, 5.8, 4.9, 5.2, 5.7, 6.7, 7.1, 5.10, 6.0};
b. int weights[7] = {120, 125, 137, 140, 150, 180, 210};
or
int weights[] = {120, 125, 137, 140, 150, 180, 210};
c. char specialSymbols[] = {'$', '#', '%', '@', '&', '! ', '^'};
d. string seasons[4] = {"fall", "winter", "spring", "summer"};
or
string seasons[] = {"fall", "winter", "spring", "summer"};

17. list[0] = 6, list[1] = 10, list[2] = 14, list[3] = 18, list[4] = 22, list[5] = 0,
list[6] = 0.

19. 16 32 44 56 68 37 20

20
21. a. Correct.
b. Correct.
c. Incorrect. The size of score is 50, so the call should be tryMe(score, 50);
d. Correct.
e. Incorrect. The array gpa is of type double while the parameter x of tryMe is of type int. So
there will be mismatch data type error.

23. 1 25000.00 750.00

2 36500.00 1095.00
3 85000.00 2550.00
4 62500.00 1875.00
5 97000.00 2910.00

25. List elements: 11 16 21 26 30

27. 1 3.50 10.70 235.31

2 7.20 6.50 294.05
3 10.50 12.00 791.68
4 9.80 10.50 646.54
5 6.50 8.00 326.73

29. No.

31. List before the first iteration: 36, 55, 17, 35, 63, 85, 12, 48, 3, 66
List after the first iteration: 3, 55, 17, 35, 63, 85, 12, 48, 36, 66
List after the second iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 63, 85, 55, 48, 36, 66
List after the third iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 63, 85, 55, 48, 36, 66
List after the fourth iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 63, 85, 55, 48, 36, 66
List after the fifth iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 36, 85, 55, 48, 63, 66
List after the sixth iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 36, 48, 55, 85, 63, 66
List after the seventh iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 36, 48, 55, 85, 63, 66
List after the eighth iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 36, 48, 55, 63, 85, 66
List after the ninth iteration: 3, 12, 17, 35, 36, 48, 55, 63, 66, 85

33. a. Invalid; the assignment operator is not defined for C-strings.

b. Invalid; the relational operators are not defined for C-strings.
c. Invalid; the assignment operator is not defined for C-strings.
d. Valid
35. a. strcpy(str1, "Sunny Day");
b. length = strlen(str1);
c. strcpy(str2, name);
d. if (strcmp(str1, str2) <= 0)
cout << str1 << endl;
else
cout << str2 << endl;

37. int temp[3][4] = {{6, 8, 12, 9},

21
 {17, 5, 10, 6},
{4, 13, 16, 20}};
39. a. 30
b. 5
c. 6
d. row
e. column
41. a. beta is initialized to 0.

b.
First row of beta: 0 1 2
Second row of beta: 1 2 3
Third row of beta: 2 3 4
c.
First row of beta: 0 0 0
Second row of beta: 0 1 2
Third row of beta: 0 2 4
d.
First row of beta: 0 2 0
Second row of beta: 2 0 2
Third row of beta: 0 2 0

22
 Chapter 9

1. a. false; b. false; c. true; d. true; e. true; f. true; g. false

3. carType newCar;

newCar.manufacturer = "GMT";
newCar.model = " Cyclone";
newCar.modelType = "sedan";
newCar.color = "blue"
newCar.numOfDoors = 4;
newCar.cityMilesPerGallon = 28;
newCar.highwayMilesPerGallon = 32;
newCar.yearBuilt = 2006;
newCar.price = 25000.00;
5. fruitType fruit;
fruit.name = "banana";
fruit.color = "yellow";
fruit.fat = 1;
fruit.sugar = 15;
fruit.carbohydrate = 22;
7. student.name.first = "Linda";
student.name.last = "Brown";
student.gpa = 3.78;
student.course.name: "Calculus";
student.course.callNum = 23827;
student.course.credits = 4;
student.course.grade = 'A';
9. a. Invalid; the member name of newEmployee is a struct. Specify the member names to store
the value "John Smith". For example,
newEmployee.name.first = "John";
newEmployee.name.last = "Smith";
b. Invalid; the member name of newEmployee is a struct. There are no aggregate output
operations on a struct. A correct statement is:

cout << newEmployee.name.first << " "

<< newEmployee.name.last << endl;

c. Valid
d. Valid
e. Invalid; employees is an array. There are no aggregate assignment operations on arrays.
11. partsType inventory[100];

13. void getData(partsType& pType)

{
for (int j = 0; j < length; j++)
{
cin >> pType.partName;
cin >> pType.partNum;
cin >> pType.price;
cin >> pType.quantitiesInStock;
}
}

23
for (int j = 0; j < 100; j++)
getData(inventory[i]);

24
 Chapter 10

1. a. false; b. false; c. true; d. false; e. false;

3. The type of the function print is missing. The statement in Line 5 should be:
void print() const; //Line 5

5. Semicolon after public should be a colon, missing semicolon after }; and a constructor has no type.
The statements in Lines 3, 8, and 13 should be:
public: //Line 3

discover(string, int, int); //Line 8

}; //Line 13

7. a. void bagType::set(string s, double a, double b, double c, double d)

{
style = s;
l = a;
w = b;
h = c;
price = d;
}

b. void bagType::print() const

{
cout << "Bag Type: " << style << ", length = " << l
<< ", width = " << w << ", height = " << h
<< ", price = $ " << price << endl;
}
c. bagType::bagType()
{
style = "";
l = 0.0;
w = 0.0;
h = 0.0;
price = 0.0;
}
d. newBag.print();

e. bagType tempBag("backPack", 15, 8, 20, 49.99);

9. The functions print, updatePay, and getNumOfServiceYears are accessors; functions

setData and updatePay are mutators.

11. a. 14
b. 3
c. The class temporary has only one constructor. Because this is a constructor with
default parameters, it can be used to initialize an object without specifying any
parameters. For example, the following statement creates the object newObject and its
instance variables are initialized to "", 0, and 0, respectively.
temporary newObject;
13. The statement in Line 1 creates object1 and initializes the instance variables of this object to "", 0,
0, that is, object1.description = "";, object1.first = 0.0;, and

25
 object1.second = 0.0;. The statement in Line 2 creates object2 and initializes the instance
variables of this object as follows: object2.description = "rectangle";,
object2.first = 3.0;, and object2.second = 5.0;. The statement in Line 3 creates
object3 and initializes the instance variables of this object as follows: object3.description
= "circle";, object3.first = 6.5;, and object3.second = 0.0;. The statement in
Line 4 creates object4 and initializes the instance variables of this object as follows:
object4.description = "cylinder";, object4.first = 6.0;, and
object4.second = 3.5;.

15. There two built-in operations for class objects: Member access (.) and assignment (=).

17. a.
int testClass::sum()
{
return x + y;
}

void testClass::print() const

{
cout << "x = " << x << ", y = " << y << endl;
}

testClass::testClass()
{
x = 0;
y = 0;
}

testClass::testClass(int a, int b)
{
x = a;
y = b;
}

b. One possible solution. (We assume that the name of the header file containing the definition of the
class testClass is Exercise17Ch10.h.)
#include <iostream>
#include "Exercise17Ch10.h"

int main()
{
testClass one;
testClass two(4, 5);

one.print();
two.print();

return 0;
}

19. a. personType student("Buddy", "Arora");

b. student.print();
c. student.setName("Susan", "Gilbert");

26
21. A constructor is a member of a class and it executes automatically when a class object is

instantiated and a call to the constructor is specified in the object declaration. A constructor is

included in a class so that the objects are properly initialized when they are declared.

23. A destructor is a member of a class and if it is included in a class, it executes automatically when

a class object goes out of scope. Its main purpose is to deallocate the dynamic memory created

by an object.

25.

a. myClass::count = 0;
b. myClass.incrementCount();
c. myClass.printCount();
d.

int myClass::count = 0;

void myClass::setX(int a)
{
x = a;
}

void myClass::printX() const

{
cout << x;
}

void myClass::printCount()
{
cout << count;
}

void myClass::incrementCount()
{
count++;
}

myClass::myClass(int a)
{
x = a;
}
e. myClass myObject1(5);
f. myClass myObject2(7);
g.
The statements in Lines 1 and 2 are valid.
The statement in Line 3 should be: myClass::printCount();.

27
 The statement in Line 4 is invalid because the member function printX is not a static
member of the class, and so cannot be called by using the name of class.
The statement in Line 5 is invalid because count is a private static member variable of
the class.
h.
5
2
2
3
14
3
3

28
 Chapter 11

1. a. true; b. true; c. true

3. Some of the member variables that can be added to the class employeeType are:

department, salary, employeeCategory (such as supervisor and president), and

employeeID. Some of the member functions are: setInfo, setSalary, getSalary,

setDepartment; getDepartment, setCategory, getCategory, setID, and getID.

class employeeType: public personType

{
public:
void setInfo(string, string, string, double, string, string);
void setSalary(double);
void setDepartment(string);
void setCategory(string);
void setID(string);
double getSalary() const;
string getDepartment(string) const;
string getCategory()const;
string getID()const;

private:
string department;
double salary;
string employeeCategory;
string employeeID;
};

5. a. The base class is atom and the derived class is molecules.

b. This is a private inheritance.

7. Private members of the object newCylinder are xCoordinate, yCoordinate, radius, and

height.

9. Missing : in the first statement. The first statement should be:

class derivedFromTemp: public temp

Also missing ; after }. It should be

};

11. a. void print() const;

29
 b. void set(int, int, int);
void get(int&, int&, int&);

13. First a constructor of class one will execute, then a constructor of class two will execute, and

finally a constructor of class three will execute.

15. a. Invalid. z is an instance variable of the derived class, it cannot be accessed by the members of

the class smart.

b. Invalid. secret is a private member of the class smart. It cannot be accessed directly
outside of the class. Also z is a private member of the class superSmart. It cannot be
accessed directly outside of the class.

c. Valid
d. Invalid. smart is the name of a class, not an object of this class. It cannot be used to call its
member function print.
e. Invalid. superSmart is the name of a class. It cannot be used to access its members.

17. In a private inheritance, the public members of the base class are private members of the

derived class. They can be accessed by the member functions (and friend functions) of the

derived class. The protected members of the base class are private members of the derived

class. They can be accessed by the member functions (and friend functions) of the derived class.

The private members of the base class are hidden in the derived class. They cannot be directly

accessed in the derived class. They can be accessed by the member functions (and friend

functions) of the derived class through the public or protected members of the derived class.

19. In a public inheritance, the public members of the base class are public members of the

derived class. They can be directly accessed in the derived class. The protected members of

the base class are protected members of the derived class. They can be directly accessed by the

member functions (and friend functions) of the derived class. The private members of the

base class are hidden in the derived class. They cannot be directly accessed in the derived class.

They can be accessed by the member functions (and friend functions) of the derived class

through the public or protected members of the base class.

30
Other documents randomly have
different content
illustrations have been selected. He says: “When the small brown
honey-bee from High Burgundy is transported into Bresse—although
not very distant—it soon becomes larger and assumes a yellow
color; this happens even in the second generation.” It is also pointed
out that the roots of the beet, carrot, and radish are colorless in
their wild natural state, but when brought under cultivation they
become red, yellow, etc. Vilmorin has noted that the red, yellow, and
violet colors of carrots appear only some time after the wild forms
have been brought under cultivation. Moquin-Tandon has seen
“gentians which are blue in valleys become white on mountains.”
Other cases also are on record in which the colors of a plant are
dependent on external conditions.
The sizes of plants and animals are also often directly traceable to
certain external conditions; the change is generally connected with
the amount of food obtainable. “Generally speaking,” De Varigny
says, “insular animals are smaller than their continental congeners.
In the Canary Islands the oxen of one of the smallest islands are
smaller than those on the others, although all belong to the same
breed, and the horses are also smaller, and the indigenous
inhabitants are in the same case, although belonging to a tall race.
It would seem that in Malta elephants were very small,—fossil
elephants, of course,—and that during the Roman period the island
was noted for a dwarf breed of dogs, which was named after its
birthplace, according to Strabo. In Corsica, also, horses and oxen are
very small, and Cervus corsicanus, the indigenous deer, is quite
reduced in dimensions; ... and lastly, the small dimensions of the
Falkland horses—imported from Spain in 1764—are familiar to all.
The dwarf rabbits of Porto Santo described by Darwin may also be
cited as a case in point.”
These facts, interesting as they are, will, no doubt, have to be
more carefully examined before the evidence can have great value,
for it is not clear what factor or factors have produced the decrease
in size of these animals.
 The following cases show more clearly the immediate effect of the
environment: “Many animals, when transferred to warm climates,
lose their wool, or their hairy covering is much reduced. In some
parts of the warmer regions of the earth, sheep have no wool, but
merely hairs like those of dogs. Similarly, as Roulin notices, poultry
have, in Columbia, lost their feathers, and while the young are at
first covered with a black and delicate down, they lose it in great
part as they grow, and the adult fowls nearly realize Plato’s realistic
description of man—a biped without feathers. Conversely, many
animals when transferred from warm to cold climates acquire a
thicker covering; dogs and horses, for instance, becoming covered
with wool.”
A number of kinds of snails that were supposed to belong to
different species have been found, on further examination, to be
only varieties due to the environment. “Locard has discovered
through experiments that L. turgida and elophila are mere varieties
—due to environment—of the common Lymnæa stagnalis.” He says,
“These are not new species, but merely common aspects of a
common type, which is capable of modification and of adaptation
according to the nature of the media in which it has to live.” It has
also been shown by Bateson that similar changes occur in Cardium
edule, and other lamellibranchs are known to vary according to the
nature of the water in which they live.
In regard to plants, the influence of the environment has long
been known to produce an effect on the form, color, etc., of the
individuals. “The common dandelion (Taraxacum densleonis) has in
dry soil leaves which are much more irregular and incised, while they
are hardly dentate in marshy stations, where it is called Taraxacum
palustre.
“Individuals growing near the seashore differ markedly from those
growing far inland. Similarly, species such as some Ranunculi, which
can live under water as well as in air, exhibit marked differences
when considered in their different stations, as is well known to all.
These differences may be important enough to induce botanists to
believe in the existence of two different species when there is only
one.”
An interesting case is that of Daphnia rectirostris, a small
crustacean living sometimes in fresh water, at other times in water
containing salt and also in salt lakes. There are two forms,
corresponding to the conditions under which they live, and it is said
that the differences are of a kind that suffice to separate species
from each other. In another crustacean, Branchipus ferox, the form
differs in a number of points, according to whether it lives in salt or
in fresh water. Schmankewitsch says that, had he not found all
transitional forms, and observed the transformation in cultures, he
would have regarded the two forms as separate species. The oft-
quoted case of Artemia furnishes a very striking example of the
influence of the environment. Artemia salina lives in water whose
concentration varies between 5 and 12 degrees of saltness. When
the amount of salt is increased to 12 degrees, the animal shows
certain characteristics like those of Artemia milhausenii, which may
live in water having 24 to 25 degrees of saltness. The form A. salina
may be further completely changed into that of A. milhausenii by
increasing the amount of salt to the latter amount.
Among domesticated animals and plants—a few instances of
which have been already referred to—we find a large number of
cases in which a change in the environment produces definite
changes in the organism. Darwin has made a most valuable
collection of facts of this kind in his “Animals and Plants under
Domestication.” He believes that domesticated forms are much more
variable than wild ones, and that this is due, in part, to their being
protected from competition, and to their having been removed from
their natural conditions and even from their native country. “In
conformity with this, all our domesticated productions without
exception vary far more than natural species. The hive-bee, which
feeds itself, and follows in most respects its natural habits of life, is
the least variable of all domesticated animals.... Hardly a single plant
can be named, which has long been cultivated and propagated by
seed, that is not highly variable.” “Bud-variation ... shows us that
variability may be quite independent of seminal reproduction, and
likewise of reversion to long-lost ancestral characters. No one will
maintain that the sudden appearance of a moss-rose on a Provence
rose is a return to a former state, ... nor can the appearance of
nectarines on peach trees be accounted for on the principle of
reversion.” It is said that bud-variations are also much more frequent
on cultivated than on wild plants.
Darwin adds: “These general considerations alone render it
probable that variability of every kind is directly or indirectly caused
by changed conditions of life. Or to put the case under another point
of view, if it were possible to expose all the individuals of a species
during many generations to absolutely uniform conditions of life,
there would be no variability.”
In some cases it has been observed that, in passing from one part
of a continent to another, many or all of the forms of the same
group and even of different groups change in the same way. Allen’s
account of the variations in North American birds and mammals
furnishes a number of striking examples of this kind of change. He
finds that, as a rule, the birds and mammals of North America
increase in size from the south northward. This is true, not only for
the individuals of the same species, but generally the largest species
of each genus are in the north. There are some exceptions, however,
in which the increase in size is in the opposite direction. The
explanation of this is that the largest individuals are almost
invariably found in the region where the group to which the species
belongs receives its greatest numerical development. This Allen
interprets as the hypothetical “centre of distribution of the species,”
which is in most cases doubtless also its original centre of dispersal.
If the species has arisen in the north, then the northern forms are
the largest; but if it arose in the south, the reverse is the case. Thus,
most of the species of North America that live north of Mexico are
supposed to have had a northern origin, as shown by the
circumpolar distribution of some of them and by the relationship of
others to Old World species; and in these the largest individuals of
the species of a genus are northern. Conversely, in the exceptional
cases of increase in size toward the south, it can be shown that the
forms have probably had a southern origin.
The Canidæ (wolves and foxes) have their largest representatives,
the world over, in the north. “In North America the family is
represented by six species, the smallest of which (speaking
generally) are southern and the largest northern.” The three species
that have the widest ranges (the gray wolf, the common fox, and the
gray fox) show the most marked differences in size. The skull, for
instance, of “the common wolf is fully one-fifth larger in the northern
parts of British America and Alaska than it is in northern Mexico,
where it finds the southern limit of its habitat. Between the largest
northern skull and the largest southern skull there is a difference of
about thirty-five per cent of the mean size. Specimens from the
intermediate region show a gradual intergradation between the
extremes, although many of the examples from the upper Missouri
country are nearly as large as those from the extreme north.” The
common fox is about one-tenth larger, on the average, in Alaska
than it is in New England. The gray fox, whose habitat extends from
Pennsylvania southward to Yucatan, has an average length of skull
of about five inches in the north, and less than four in Central
America—about ten per cent difference.
The Felidæ, or cats, “reach their greatest development as respects
both the number and the size of the species in the intertropical
regions. This family has sent a single typical representative, the
panther (Felis concolor), north of Mexico, and this ranges only to
about the northern boundary of the United States. The other North
American representatives of the family are the lynxes, which in some
of their varieties range from Alaska to Mexico.” Although they vary
greatly in different localities in color and in length and texture of
pelage, they do not vary as to the size of their skulls. On the other
hand the panther (and the ocelots) greatly increases in size
southward, “or toward the metropolis of the family.”
Other carnivora that increase in size northward are the badger, the
marten, the fisher, the wolverine, and the ermine, which are all
northern types.
Deer are also larger in the north; in the Virginia deer the annually
deciduous antlers of immense size reach their greatest development
in the north. The northern race of flying squirrels is one-half larger
than the southern, “yet the two extremes are found to pass so
gradually one into the other, that it is hardly possible to define even
a southern and a northern geographical race.” The species ranges
from the arctic regions to Central America.
In birds also similar relations exist, but there is less often an
increase in size northward. In species whose breeding station covers
a wide range of latitude, the northern birds are not only smaller, but
have quite different colors, as is markedly the case in the common
quail, the meadow-lark, the purple grackle, the red-winged
blackbird, the flicker, the towhee bunting, the Carolina dove, and in
numerous other species. The same difference is also quite apparent
in the blue jay, the crow, in most of the woodpeckers, in the titmice,
numerous sparrows, and several warblers and thrushes. The
variation often amounts to from ten to fifteen per cent of the
average size of the species.
Allen also states that certain parts of the animal may vary
proportionately more than the general size, there being an apparent
tendency for peripheral parts to enlarge toward the warmer regions,
i.e. toward the south. “In mammals which have the external ears
largely developed—as in the wolves, foxes, some of the deer, and
especially the hares—the larger size of this organ in southern as
compared with northern individuals of the same species, is often
strikingly apparent.” It is even more apparent in species inhabiting
open plains. The ears of the gray rabbit of the plains of western
Arizona are twice the size of those of the Eastern states.
In birds the bill especially, but also the claws and tail, is larger in
the south. In passing from New England southward to Florida the bill
in slender-billed forms becomes larger, longer, more attenuated, and
more decurved; while in short-billed forms the southern individuals
have thicker and larger bills, although the birds themselves are
smaller.
The remarkable changes and gradations of color in birds in
different parts of North America are very instructive, and the
important results obtained by American ornithologists form an
interesting chapter in zoology. The evidence would convince the
most sceptical of the difficulty of distinguishing between Linnæan
species. It is not surprising to find in this connection a leading
ornithologist exclaiming, “if there really are such things as species.”
The differences here noted are mainly from east to west. We may
briefly review here a few striking cases selected from Coues’s “Key to
North American Birds.”
The flicker, or golden-winged woodpecker (Colaptes auratus), has
a wide distribution in eastern North America. It is replaced in
western North America (from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific) by
C. mexicanus. In the intermediate regions, Missouri and the Rocky
Mountain region, the characters of the two are blended in every
conceivable degree in different specimens. “Perhaps it is a hybrid,
and perhaps it is a transitional form, and doubtless there are no such
things as species in Nature.... In the west you will find specimens
auratus on one side of the body, mexicanus on the other.” There is a
third form, C. chrysoides, with the wings and tail as in auratus, and
the head as in mexicanus, that lives in the valley of the Colorado
River, Lower California, and southward.
In regard to the song-sparrow (Melospiza), Coues writes: “The
type of the genus is the familiar and beloved song-sparrow, a bird of
constant characters in the east, but in the west is split into
numerous geographical races, some of them looking so different
from typical fasciata that they have been considered as distinct
species, and even placed in other genera. This differentiation affects
not only their color, but the size, relative proportions of parts, and
particularly the shape of the bill; and it is sometimes so great, as in
the case of M. cinerea, that less dissimilar looking birds are
commonly assigned to different genera. Nevertheless the gradation
is complete, and affected by imperceptible degrees.... The several
degrees of likeness and unlikeness may be thrown into true relief
better by some such expressions as the following, than by formal
antithetical phrases: (1) The common eastern bird commonly
modified in the interior into the duller colored (2) fallax. This in the
Pacific watershed, more decidedly modified by deeper coloration,—
broader black streaks in (3) hermanni, with its diminutive local race
(4) samuelis, and more ruddy shades in (5) guttata northward,
increasing in intensity with increased size in (6) rafina. Then the
remarkable (7) cinerea, insulated much further apart than any of the
others. A former American school would probably have made four
‘good species,’ (1) fasciata, (2) samuelis, (3) rafina, (4) cinerea.”
Somewhat similar relations are found in three other genera of
finches. Thus Passerella is “imperfectly differentiated”; Junco is
represented by one eastern species, but in the west the stock splits
up into numerous forms, “all of which intergrade with each other
and with the eastern bird. Almost all late writers have taken a hand
at Junco, shuffling them about in the vain attempt to decide which
are ‘species’ and which ‘varieties.’ All are either or both, as we may
elect to consider them.” In the distribution of the genus Pipilo similar
relations are found. There is an eastern form much more distinct
from the western forms than these are from each other.
Finally may be mentioned the curious variations in screech-owls of
the genus Scops. This owl has two strikingly different plumages—a
mottled gray and a reddish brown, which, although very distinct
when fully developed, yet “are entirely independent of age, season,
or sex.” There is an eastern form, Scops asio, that extends west to
the Rocky Mountains. There is a northwestern form, S. kennicotti,
which in its red phase is quite different from S. asio, but in its gray
plumage is very similar. The California form, S. benderii, is not
known to have a red phase, and the gray phase is quite different
from that of S. asio, but like the last form. The Colorado form, S.
maxwellæ, has no red phase, “but on the contrary the whole
plumage is very pale, almost as if bleached, the difference evident in
the nestlings even.” The Texas form, S. maselli, has both phases,
and is very similar to S. asio. The Florida form is smaller and colored
like S. asio. The red phase is the frequent, if not the usual, one. The
flammulated form, S. fiammula, is “a very small species, with much
the general aspect of an ungrown S. asio.” This is the southwestern
form, easily distinguished on account of its small size and color from
the other forms.
These examples might be greatly increased, but they will suffice, I
think, to convince one of the difficulty of giving a sharp definition to
“species.” The facts speak strongly in favor of the transmutation
theory, and show us how a species may become separated under
different conditions into a number of new forms, which would be
counted as new different species, if the intermediate forms were
exterminated.
In discussing the nature of the changes that bring about
variability, Darwin remarks: “From a remote period to the present
day, under climates and circumstances as different as it is possible to
conceive, organic beings of all kinds, when domesticated or
cultivated, have varied. We see this with the many domestic races of
quadrupeds and birds belonging to different orders, with goldfish
and silkworms, with plants of many kinds, raised in various quarters
of the world. In the deserts of northern Africa the date-palm has
yielded thirty-eight varieties; in the fertile plains of India it is
notorious how many varieties of rice and of a host of other plants
exist; in a single Polynesian island, twenty-four varieties of the
breadfruit, the same number of the banana, and twenty-two
varieties of the arum, are cultivated by the natives. The mulberry
tree of India and Europe has yielded many varieties serving as food
for the silkworm; and in China sixty-three varieties of the bamboo
are used for various domestic purposes. These facts, and
innumerable others which could be added, indicate that a change of
almost any kind in the conditions of life suffices to cause variability—
different changes acting on different organisms.”
Darwin thinks that a change in climate alone is not one of the
potent causes of variability, because the native country of a plant,
where it has been longest cultivated, is where it has oftenest given
rise to the greatest number of varieties. He thinks it also doubtful
that a change in food is an important source of variability, since the
domestic pigeon has varied more than any other species of fowl, yet
the food has been always nearly the same. This is also true for cattle
and sheep, whose food is probably much less varied in kind than in
the wild species.
Another point of interest is raised by Darwin. He thinks, as do
others also, that the influence of a change in the conditions is
cumulative, in the sense that it may not appear until the species has
been subjected to it for several generations. Darwin states that
universal experience shows that when new plants are first
introduced into gardens they do not vary, but after several
generations they will begin to vary to a greater or less extent. In a
few cases, as in that of the dahlia, the zinnia, the Swan River daisy,
and the Scotch rose, it is known that the new variations only
appeared after a time. The following statement by Salter is then
quoted, “Every one knows that the chief difficulty is in breaking
through the original form and color of the species, and every one
will be on the lookout for any natural sport, either from seed or
branch; that being once obtained, however trifling the change may
be, the result depends on himself.” Jonghe is also quoted to the
effect that “there is another principle, namely, that the more a type
has entered into a state of variation, the greater is the tendency to
continue doing so, and the more it has varied from the original type,
the more is it disposed to vary still further.” Darwin also quotes with
approval the opinion of the most celebrated horticulturist of France,
Vilmorin, who maintained that “when any particular variation is
desired, the first step is to get the plant to vary in any manner
whatever, and to go on selecting the most variable individuals, even
though they vary in the wrong direction; for the fixed character of
the species being once broken, the desired variation will sooner or
later appear.”
Darwin also cites a few cases where animals have changed quite
quickly when brought under domestication. Turkeys raised from the
eggs of wild species lose their metallic tints, and become spotted
with white in the third generation. Wild ducks lose their true
plumage after a few generations. “The white collar around the neck
of the mallard becomes much broader and more irregular, and white
feathers appear in the duckling’s wings. They increase also in size of
body.” In these cases it appears that several generations were
necessary in order to bring about a marked change in the original
type, but the Australian dingoes, bred in the Zoological Gardens,
produced puppies which were in the first generation marked with
white and other colors.
The following cases from De Varigny are also very striking. The
dwarf trees from Japan, for the most part conifers, which may be a
hundred years old and not be more than three feet high, are in part
the result “of mechanical processes which prevent the spreading of
the branches, and in part of a starving process which consists in
cutting most roots and in keeping the plant in poor soil.”
As an example of the sudden appearance of a new variation the
following case is interesting. A variety of begonia is recorded as
having appeared quite suddenly at a number of places at the same
time. In another case a narcissus which had met with adverse
circumstances, and had then been supplied with a chemical manure
in some quantity, began to bear double flowers.
Amongst animals the following cases of the appearance of sudden
variations are pointed out by De Varigny. “In Paraguay, during the
last century (1770), a bull was born without horns, although his
ancestry was well provided with these appendages, and his progeny
was also hornless, although at first he was mated with horned cows.
If the horned and the hornless were met in fossil state, we would
certainly wonder at not finding specimens provided with semi-
degenerate horns, and representing the link between both, and if we
were told that the hornless variety may have arisen suddenly, we
should not believe it and we should be wrong. In South America
also, between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries the niata breed
of oxen sprang into life, and this breed of bulldog oxen has thriven
and become a new race. So in the San Paulo provinces of Brazil, a
new breed of oxen suddenly appeared which was provided with truly
enormous horns, the breed of franqueiros, as they are called. The
mauchamp breed of sheep owes its origin to a single lamb that was
born in 1828 from merino parents, but whose wool, instead of being
curly like that of its parents, remained quite smooth. This sudden
variation is often met with, and in France has been noticed in
different herds.”
The ancon race of sheep originated in 1791 from a ram born in
Massachusetts having short crooked legs and a long back. From this
one ram by crossing, at first with common sheep, the ancon race
has been produced. “When crossed with other breeds the offspring,
with rare exception, instead of being intermediate in character,
perfectly resemble either parent; even one of twins has resembled
one parent and the second the other.”
Two especially remarkable cases remain to be described. These
are the Porto Santo rabbit and the japanned peacock. Darwin has
given a full account of both of these cases. “The rabbits which have
become feral on the island of Porto Santo, near Madeira, deserve a
fuller account. In 1418 or 1419 J. Gonzales Zarco happened to have
a female rabbit on board which had produced young during the
voyage, and he turned them all out on the island. These animals
soon increased so rapidly that they became a nuisance, and actually
caused the abandonment of the settlement. Thirty-seven years
subsequently, Cada Mosto describes them as innumerable; nor is this
surprising, as the island was not inhabited by any beast of prey, or
by any terrestrial mammal. We do not know the character of the
mother rabbit; but it was probably the common domestic kind. The
Spanish peninsula, whence Zarco sailed, is known to have abounded
with the common wild species at the most remote historical period;
and as these rabbits were taken on board for food, it is improbable
that they should have been of any peculiar breed. That the breed
was well domesticated is shown by the doe having littered during
the voyage. Mr. Wollaston, at my request, brought two of these feral
rabbits in spirits of wine; and, subsequently, Mr. W. Haywood sent
home three more specimens in brine and two alive. These seven
specimens, though caught at different periods, closely resemble
each other. They were full-grown, as shown, by the state of their
bones. Although the conditions of life in Porto Santo are evidently
highly favorable to rabbits, as proven by their extraordinarily rapid
increase, yet they differ conspicuously in their small size from the
wild English rabbit.... In color the Porto Santo rabbit differs
considerably from the common rabbit; the upper surface is redder,
and is rarely interspersed with any black or black-tipped hairs. The
throat and certain parts of the under surface, instead of being pure
white, are generally gray or leaden color. But the most remarkable
difference is in the ears and tail. I have examined many fresh
English rabbits, and the large collection of skins in the British
Museum from various countries, and all have the upper surface of
the tail and the tips of the ears clothed with blackish gray fur; and
this is given in most works as one of the specific characters of the
rabbit. Now in the seven Porto Santo rabbits the upper surface of
the tail was reddish brown, and the tips of the ears had no trace of
the black edging. But here we meet with a singular circumstance: in
June, 1861, I examined two of these rabbits recently sent to the
Zoological Gardens and their tails and ears were colored as just
described; but when one of their dead bodies was sent to me in
February, 1863, the ears were plainly edged, and the upper surface
of the tail was covered with blackish gray fur, and the whole body
was much less red; so that under the English climate this individual
rabbit had recovered the proper color of its fur in rather less than
four years.”
Another striking case of sudden variation is found in the peacock.
It is all the more remarkable because this bird has hardly varied at
all under domestication, and is almost exactly like the wild species
living in India to-day. Darwin states: “There is one strange fact with
respect to the peacock, namely, the occasional appearance in
England of the ‘japanned’ or ‘black-shouldered’ kind. This form has
lately been named, on the high authority of Mr. Slater, as a distinct
species, viz. Pavo nigripennis, which he believes will hereafter be
found wild in some country, but not in India, where it is certainly
unknown. The males of these japanned birds differ conspicuously
from the common peacock in the color of their secondary wing-
feathers, scapulars, wing-coverts, and thighs, and are, I think, more
beautiful; they are rather smaller than the common sort, and are
always beaten by them in their battles, as I hear from the Hon. A. S.
G. Canning. The females are much paler-colored than those of the
common kind. Both sexes, as Mr. Canning informs me, are white
when they leave the egg, and they differ from the young of the
white variety only in having a peculiar pinkish tinge on their wings.
These japanned birds, though appearing suddenly in flocks of the
common kind, propagate their kind quite truly.”
In two cases, in which these birds had appeared quite suddenly in
flocks of the ordinary kind, it is recorded that “though a smaller and
weaker bird, it increased to the extinction of the previously existing
breed.” Here we have certainly a remarkable case of a new species
suddenly appearing and replacing the ordinary form, although the
birds are smaller, and are beaten in their battles.
Darwin has given an admirably clear statement of his opinion as to
the causes of variability in the opening paragraph of his chapter
dealing with this topic in his “Animals and Plants.” Some authors, he
says, “look at variability as a necessary contingent on reproduction,
and as much an original law as growth or inheritance. Others have
of late encouraged, perhaps unintentionally, this view by speaking of
inheritance and variability as equal and antagonistic principles. Pallas
maintained, and he has had some followers, that variability depends
exclusively on the crossing of primordially distinct forms. Other
authors attribute variability to an excess of food, and with animals,
to an excess relatively to the amount of exercise taken, or again, to
the effects of a more genial climate. That these causes are all
effective is highly probable. But we must, I think, take a broader
view, and conclude that organic beings, when subjected during
several generations to any change whatever in their condition, tend
to vary; the kind of variation which ensues depending in most cases
in a far higher degree on the nature of the constitution of the being,
than on the nature of the changed conditions.”
Most naturalists will agree, in all probability, with this conclusion of
Darwin’s. The examples cited in the preceding pages have shown
that there are several ways in which the organisms may respond to
the environment. In some cases it appears to affect all the
individuals in the same way; in other cases it appears to cause them
to fluctuate in many directions; and in still other cases, without any
recognizable change in the external conditions, new forms may
suddenly appear, often of a perfectly definite type, that depart
widely from the parent form.
For the theory of evolution it is a point of the first importance to
determine which of these modes of variation has supplied the basis
for evolution. Moreover, we are here especially concerned with the
question of how adaptive variations arise. Without attempting to
decide for the present between these different kinds of variability, let
us examine certain cases in which an immediate and adaptive
response to the environment has been described as taking place.
 Responsive Changes in the Organism that adapt it to the
New Environment
There is some experimental evidence showing that sometimes
organisms respond directly and adaptively to certain changes in the
environment. Few as the facts are, they require very careful
consideration in our present examination. The most striking,
perhaps, is the acclimatization to different temperatures. It has been
found that while few active organisms can withstand a temperature
over 45 degrees C., and that for very many 40 degrees is a fatal
point, yet, on the other hand, there are organisms that live in certain
hot springs where the temperature is very high. Thus, to give a few
examples, there are some of the lower plants, nostocs and
protococcus forms, that live in the geysers of California at a
temperature of 93 degrees C., or nearly that of boiling water.
Leptothrix is found in the Carlsbad springs, that have a temperature
of 44 to 54 degrees. Oscillaria have been found in the Yellowstone
Park in water between 54 and 68 degrees, and in the hot springs in
the Philippines at 71 degrees, and on Ischia at 85 degrees, and in
Iceland at 98 degrees.
It is probable from recent observations of Setchel that most of the
temperatures are too high, since he finds that the water at the edge
of hot springs is many degrees lower than that in the middle parts.
The snail, Physa acuta, has been found in France living at a
temperature of 35 to 36 degrees; another snail, Paludina, at Abano,
Padua, at 50 degrees. Rotifers have been found at Carlsbad at 45 to
54 degrees; Anguillidæ at Ischia at 81 degrees; Cypris balnearia, a
crustacean at Hammam-Meckhoutin, at 81 degrees; frogs at the
baths of “Pise” at 38 degrees.
Now, there can be little doubt that these forms have had
ancestors that were like the other members of the group, and would
have been killed had they been put at once into water of these high
temperatures, therefore it seems highly probable that these forms
have become specially adapted to live in these warm waters. It is,
therefore, interesting to find that it has been possible to acclimatize
animals experimentally to a temperature much above that which
would be fatal to them if subjected directly to it. Dutrochet (in 1817)
found that if the plant, nitella, was put into water at 27 degrees, the
currents in the protoplasm were stopped, but soon began again. If
put now into water at 34 degrees they again stopped moving, but in
a quarter of an hour began once more. If then put into water at 40
degrees the currents again slowed down, but began again later.
Dallinger (in 1880) made a most remarkable series of experiments
on flagellate protozoans. He kept them in a warm oven, beginning at
first at a temperature of 16.6 degrees C. “He employed the first four
months in raising the temperature 5.5 degrees. This, however, was
not necessary, since the rise to 21 degrees can be made rapidly, but
for success in higher temperatures it is best to proceed slowly from
the beginning. When the temperature had been raised to 23
degrees, the organisms began dying, but soon ceased, and after two
months the temperature was raised half a degree more, and
eventually to 25.5 degrees. Here the organisms began to succumb
again, and it was necessary repeatedly to lower the temperature
slightly, and then to advance it to 25.5 degrees, until, after several
weeks, unfavorable appearances ceased. For eight months the
temperature could not be raised from this stationary point a quarter
of a degree without unfavorable appearances. During several years,
proceeding by slow stages, Dallinger succeeded in raising the
organisms up to a temperature of 70 degrees C., at which the
experiment was ended by an accident.”[27]
27. Quoted from Davenport’s “Experimental Morphology.”
Davenport and Castle carried out a series of experiments on the
egg of the toad, in which they tried to acclimatize the eggs to a
temperature higher than normal. Recently laid eggs were used; one
lot kept at a temperature of 15 degrees C., the other at 24-25
degrees C. Both lots developed normally. At the end of four weeks
the temperature point at which the tadpoles were killed was
determined. Those reared at a temperature of 15 degrees C. died at
41 degrees C., or below; those reared at 24-25 degrees C. sustained
a temperature 10 degrees higher; no tadpole dying in this set under
43 degrees C. “This increased capacity for resistance was not
produced by the dying off of the less resistant individuals, for no
death occurred in these experiments during the gradual elevation of
the temperatures in the cultures.” The increased resistance was due,
therefore, to a change in the protoplasm of the individuals. It was
also determined that the acquired resistance was only very gradually
lost (after seventeen days’ sojourn in cooler water). The explanation
of this result may be due, in part, to the protoplasm containing less
water at higher temperatures, for it is known that while the white of
egg (albumen) coagulates at 56 degrees C. in aqueous solution; with
only 18 per cent of water it coagulates between 80 degrees and 90
degrees C.; and with 6 per cent, at 145 degrees C.; and without
water between 100 degrees and 170 degrees C.
It has long been known that organisms in the dry condition resist
a much higher temperature. The damp uredospore is killed at 58.5
degrees to 60 degrees C.; but dry spores withstand 128 degrees C.
It is also known that organisms may become acclimatized to cold
through loss of water, but we lack exact experimental data to show
to what extent this can be carried.
There are also some experiments that go to show that animals
may become attuned to certain amounts of light, but the facts in this
connection will be described in another chapter.
Some important results have been obtained by accustoming
organisms to solutions containing various amounts of salts. A
number of cases of this sort are given by De Varigny. It has been
found that littoral marine animals that live where the water may
become diluted by the rain, or by rivers, survive better when put into
fresh water than do animals living farther from the shore. Thus the
oyster, the mussel, and the snail, Patella, withstand immersion in
fresh water better than other animals that live farther out at sea.
The reverse is also true; fresh-water forms, such as Lymnæa, Physa,
Paludina, and others may be slowly acclimatized to water containing
more salt. The forms mentioned above could be brought by degrees
into water containing 4 per cent of salt, which would have killed the
animals if they had been brought suddenly into it. Similar results
have been obtained for amœba.
It has been shown that certain rotifers and tardigrades, and also
some unicellular animals, that live in pools and ponds that are liable
to become dry, withstand desiccation, while other members of the
same groups, living in the sea, do not possess this power of
resistance. Cases of this sort are usually explained as cases of
adaptation, but it has not been shown experimentally that resistance
to drying can be acquired by a process of acclimatization to this
condition. The case is also in some respects different from the
preceding, since intermediate conditions are less likely to be met
with, or to be of sufficiently long duration for the animal to become
acclimatized to them. It seems more probable, in such cases, that
these forms have been able to live in such precarious conditions
from the beginning because they could resist the effects of drying,
not that they have slowly acquired this power. Finally, there must be
discussed the question of the acclimatization to poisons, to which an
individual may be rendered partially immune. The point of special
importance in this connection is that the animal may be said to
respond adaptively to a large number of substances, which it has
never met before in its individual history, or to which its ancestors
have never been subjected. It may become slowly adapted to many
different kinds of injurious substances. These cases are amongst the
most important adaptive individual responses with which we are
familiar, and the point cannot be too much emphasized that
organisms have this latent capacity without ever having had an
opportunity to acquire it through experience.
The preceding groups of phenomena, included under the general
heading of individual acclimatization, have one striking thing in
common, namely, that a physiological adaptation is brought about
without a corresponding change in form, although we must suppose
that the structure has been altered in certain respects at least. The
form of the individual remains the same as before, but so far as its
powers of resistance are concerned it is a very different being.
In regard to the perpetuation of the advantages gained by means
of this power of adaptation, it is clear in those cases in which the
young are nourished during their embryonic life by the mother, that,
in this way, the young may be rendered immune to a certain extent,
and there are instances of this sort recorded, especially in the case
of some bacterial diseases. Whether this power can also be
transmitted through the egg, in those instances in which the egg
itself is set free and development takes place outside the body, has
not been shown. In any case, the effect appears not to be a
permanent one and will wear off when the particular poison no
longer acts. It is improbable, therefore, that any permanent
contribution to the race could be gained in this way. Adaptations of
this sort, while of the highest importance to the individual, can have
produced little direct effect on the evolution of new forms, although
it may have been often of paramount importance to the individuals
to be able to adapt themselves, or rather to become able to resist
the effect of injurious substances. The important fact in this
connection is the wonderful latent power possessed by all animals.
So many, and of such different kinds, are the substances to which
they may become immune, that it is inconceivable that this property
of the organism could ever have been acquired through experience,
no matter how probable it may be made to appear that this might
have occurred in certain cases of fatal bacterial diseases. And if not,
in so many other cases, why invent a special explanation for the few
cases?
We may defer the general discussion of the rôle that external
factors have played in the adaptation of organisms, until we have
examined some of the theories which attribute changes to internal
factors. The idea that something innate in the living substance itself
has served as the basis for evolution has given rise to a number of
different hypotheses. That of the botanist Nägeli is one of the most
elaborately worked out theories of this sort that has been proposed,
and may be examined by way of illustration.
 Nägeli’s Perfecting Principle
Nägeli used the term completing principle
(“Vervollkommungsprincip”) to express a tendency toward perfection
and specialization. Short-sighted writers, he says, have pretended to
see in the use of this principle something mystical, but on the
contrary it is intended that the term shall be employed in a purely
physical sense. It represents the law of inertia in the organic realm.
Once set in motion, the developmental process cannot stand still,
but must advance in its own direction. Perfection, or completion,
means nothing else than the advance to complicated structure, “but
since persons are likely to attach more meaning to the word
perfection than is intended, it would perhaps be better to replace it
with the less objectionable word progression.”
Nägeli says that Darwin, having in view only the condition of
adaptation, designates that as more complete which gives its
possessor an advantage in the battle for existence. Nägeli claims
that this is not the only criterion that applies to organisms, and it
leaves out the most important part of the phenomenon. There are
two kinds of completeness which we should keep distinctly apart: (1)
the completeness of organization characterized by the complication
of the structure and the most far-reaching specialization of the
parts; (2) the completeness of the adaptation, present at each stage
in the organization, which consists in the most advantageous
development of the organism (under existing conditions) that is
possible with a given complication of structure and a given division
of functions.
The first of these conceptions Nägeli always calls “completeness”
(Vollkommenheit), for want of a simpler and better expression; the
second he calls adaptation. By way of illustrating the difference
between the two, the following examples may be given. The
unicellular plants and the moulds are excellently adapted each to its
conditions of life, but they are much less complete in structure than
an apple tree, or a grape vine. The rotifers and the leeches are well
adapted to their station, but in completeness of structure they are
much simpler than the vertebrates.
If we consider only organization and division of labor as the work
of the completing principle, and leave for the moment adaptation
out of account, we may form the following picture of the rise of the
organic world. From the inorganic world there arose the simplest
organic being thinkable, being little more than a drop of substance.
If this underwent any change at all, it would have been necessarily
in the direction of greater complication of structure; and this would
constitute the first step in the upward direction. In this way Nägeli
imagines the process once begun would continue. When the
movement has reached a certain point, it must continue in the same
direction. The organic kingdom consists, therefore, of many treelike
branches, which have had a common starting-point. Not only does
he suppose that organisms were once spontaneously generated, and
began their first upward course of development, but the process has
been repeated over and over again, and each time new series have
been started on the upward course. The organic kingdom is made
up, therefore, of all degrees of organization, and all these have had
their origins in the series of past forms that arose and began their
upward course at different times in the past. Those that are the
highest forms at the present time represent the oldest series that
successfully developed; the lowest forms living at the present time
are the last that have appeared on the scene of action.
Organisms, as has been said, are distinguished from one another,
not only in that one is simpler and another more complicated, but
also in that those standing at the same stage of organization are
unequally differentiated in their functions and in their structure,
which is connected primarily with certain external relations which
Nägeli calls adaptations.
Adaptation appears at each stage of the organization, which stage
is, for a given environment, the most advantageous expression of
the main type that was itself produced by internal causes. For this
condition of adaptation, a sufficient cause is demanded, and this is,
as Nägeli tries to show later, the result of the inherited response to
the environment. In many cases this cause will continue to act until
complete adaptation is gained; in other cases, the external
conditions give a direction only, and the organism itself continues
the movement to its more perfect condition.
The difference between the conception of the organic kingdom as
the outcome of mechanical causes on the one hand, or of
competition and extermination on the other hand, can be best
brought out, Nägeli thinks, by the following comparison of the two
respective methods of action. There might have been no
competition, and no consequent extermination in the plant kingdom,
if from the beginning the surface of the earth had continually grown
larger in proportion as living things increased in numbers, and if
animals had not appeared to destroy the plants. Under these
conditions each germ could then have found room and food, and
have unfolded itself without hinderance. If now, as is assumed to be
the case on the Darwinian theory, individual variations had been in
all directions, the developmental movement could not have gone
beyond its own beginnings, and the first-formed plants would have
remained swinging now on one side and now on another of the point
first reached. The whole plant kingdom would have remained in its
entirety at its first stage of evolution, that is, it would never have
advanced beyond the stage of a naked drop of plasma with or
without a membrane. But, according to the further Darwinian
conception, competition, leading to extermination, is capable of
bringing such a condition to a higher stage of development, since it
is assumed that those individuals which vary in a beneficial direction
would have an advantage over those that have not taken such a
step, or have made a step backward.
If, on the other hand, under the above-mentioned conditions of
unrestricted development, without competition, variations were
determined by “mechanical principles,” then, according to Nägeli’s
view, all plant forms that now exist would still have evolved, and
would be found living at the present time, but along with all those
that now exist there would be still other forms in countless numbers.
These would represent those forms which have been suppressed. On
Nägeli’s view competition and suppression do not produce new
forms, but only weed out the intermediate forms. He says without
competition the plant kingdom would be like the Milky Way; in
consequence of competition the plant kingdom is like the firmament
studded with bright stars.
The plant kingdom may also be compared to a branched tree, the
ends of whose branches represent living species. This tree has an
inordinate power of growth, and if left to itself it would produce an
impenetrable tangle of interwoven branches. The gardener prevents
this crowding by cutting away some of the parts, and thus gives to
the tree distinct branches and twigs. The tree would be the same
without the watchful trimming of the gardener, but without definite
form.
Nägeli states: “From my earlier researches I believe that the
external influences are small in comparison to the internal ones. I
shall speak here only of the influences of climate and of food, which
are generally described as the causes of change, without however
any one’s having really determined whether or not a definite result
can be brought about by these factors. Later I shall speak of a
special class of external influences which, according to my view,
bring forth beyond a doubt adaptive changes.”
The external influence of climate and of food act only as transitory
factors. A rich food supply produces fat, lack of food leads to
leanness, a warm summer makes a plant more aromatic, and its fruit
sweeter; a cold year means less odor and sour fruit. Of two similar
seeds the one sown in rich soil will produce a plant with many
branches and abundance of flowers; the other, planted in sandy soil,
will produce a plant without branches, with few flowers, and with
small leaves. The seeds from these two plants will behave in exactly
the same way; they have inherited none of the differences of their
parents. Influences of this sort, even if extending over many
generations, have no permanent effect. Alpine plants that have lived
since the ice age under the same conditions, and have the
characters of true high-mountain plants, lose these characters
completely during the first summer, if transplanted to the plains.
Moreover, it makes no difference whether the seed or the whole
plant itself be transferred. In place of the dwarfed, unbranched
growth, and the reduced number of organs, the plant when
transferred to the plains shoots up in height, branches strongly, and
produces numerous leaves and flowers. The plants retain their new
characters as long as they live in the plain without any other new
variation being observed in them.
Other characteristics also, which arise from different kinds of
external influences due to different localities, such as dampness and
shade, a swampy region, or different geological substrata, last only
so long as the external conditions last.
These transient peculiarities make up the characters of local
varieties. That they have no permanency is intelligible, since they
exhibit no new characters, but the change consists mainly in the
over- or under-development of those peculiarities that are
dependent on external influences. The effect of these influences may
be compared to an elastic rod, which, however much it may be
distorted by external circumstances, returns again to its original form
as soon as released.
Besides these temporary changes, due to external influences,
there are many cases known in which the same plant lives under
very diverse conditions and yet remains exactly the same. For
example, the species of Rhododendron ferragineum lives on
archæan mountains and especially where the soil is poor in calcium.
Another species, Rhododendron hirsutum is found especially on soil
rich in calcium. The difference in the two species has been supposed
to depend on differences in the soil, and if so, we would imagine
that, if transplanted for a long time, the one should change in the
direction of the other. Yet it is known that the rusty rhododendron
may be found in all sorts of localities, even on dry, sunny, calcareous
rocks of the Apennines and of the Jura, and despite its residence in
these localities, since the glacial epoch, no change whatever has
taken place.
Single varieties of the large and variable genus of Hieracium have
lived since the glacial period in the high regions of the Alps,
Carpathians, and in the far north, and also in the plains of different
geological formations, but these varieties have remained exactly the
same, although on all sides there are transitional forms leading from
these to other varieties.
Some parasitic species also furnish excellent illustrations of the
same principle. Besides the several species of Orobanchia and of the
parasitic moulds, the mistletoe deserves special mention. It lives on
both birch and apple trees and on both presents exactly the same
appearance; and even if it is true that mistletoe growing on conifers
presents certain small deviations in its character, it is still doubtful
whether, if transferred to the birch or apple tree, it would not lose
these differences, thus indicating that they are not permanent.
It is a fact of general observation that, on the one hand, the same
variety occurs in different localities and under different surroundings,
and, on the other hand, that slightly different varieties live together
in the same place and therefore under the same external conditions.
It is evident, then, that food conditions have neither originated the
differences nor kept them up. The rarer cases in which in different
localities different varieties exist show nothing, because competition
and suppression keep certain varieties from developing where it
would be possible otherwise for them to exist.
Nägeli says his conclusion may be tested from another point of
view. If food conditions, as is generally supposed, have a definite,
i.e. a permanent, effect on the organism, then all organisms living
under the same conditions should show the same characters.
Indeed, it has been claimed in some instances that this is actually
the case. Thus it is stated that dry localities cause plants to become
hairy, and that absence of hairiness is met with in shady localities.
This may apply to certain species, but in other cases exactly the
reverse is true, and even the same species behaves differently in
different regions, as in Hieracium. And so it is with all characteristics
which are ascribed to external influences. As soon as it is supposed
a discovery has been made in this direction, we may rest assured
that in other cases the reverse will be found to hold. We have had,
in respect to the influence of the outer world on organisms, the
same experience as with the rules for the weather,—when we come
to examine the facts critically there are found to be as many
exceptions as confirmations of the rule.
If climatic influence has a definite effect, the entire flora of a
special locality ought to have the same peculiarities, but this stands
in contradiction to all the results of experience. The character of the
vegetation is not determined by the environment of the plants but
by their prehistoric origin, and as the result of competition. Nägeli
concludes his discussion with the statement that all of our
experience goes to show that the effects of external influences
(climate and food) appear at once, and their results last only as long
as the influences themselves last, and are then lost, leaving nothing
permanent behind. This is true even when the external influences
have lasted for a long time,—since the glacial epoch, for instance.
We find, he claims, nothing that supports the view that such
influences are inherited.
If we next examine the question of changes from internal causes,
Nägeli claims that here also observation and research fail to show
the origin of a new species, or even of a new variety from external
causes. In the organic world little change has taken place, he
believes, since the glacial epoch. Many varieties have even remained
the same throughout the whole intervening time; and while it cannot
be doubted that new varieties have also been formed, yet the cause
of their origin cannot be empirically demonstrated. The permanent,
hereditary characters, of whose origin we know something from
experience, belong to the individual changes which have appeared
under cultivation in the formation of domestic races. These are for
the most part the result of crossing. So far as we have any definite
information as to the origin of the changes, they are the result of
inner, and never of external, causes. We recognize that this must be
the case, since under the same external conditions individuals
behave differently—in the same flower-bud some seeds give rise to
plants like the parent, others to altered ones. The strawberry with a
single leaflet, instead of three, arose in the last century in a single
individual amongst many other ordinary plants. From the ten seeds
of a pear Van Mons obtained as many different kinds of pears. The
most conclusive proof of the action of inner causes is most clearly
seen when the branches of the same plant differ. In Geneva a horse-
chestnut bore a branch with “filled” flowers, and from this branch,
by means of cuttings, this variation has been carried over all Europe.
In the Botanic Garden at Munich there is a beech with small divided
leaves; but one of its branches produces the common broad
undivided leaves. Many such examples have been recorded which
can only be explained by assuming that a cell, or a group of cells,
like those from which the other branches arose, have become
changed in some unknown way as the result of inner causes. The
properties that are permanent and inherited are contained in the
idioplasm, which the parent transmits to its offspring. A cause that
permanently transforms the organism must also transform the
idioplasm. How powerless, in comparison to internal causes, the
external causes are is shown most conclusively in grafting. The graft,
although it receives its nourishment through the stock, which may
be another species, remains itself unchanged.
Nägeli makes the following interesting comparison between the
development of the individual from an egg, and the evolution, or
development, of the phylum. No one will doubt that the egg during
the entire time of its process of transformation is guided by internal
factors. Each successive stage follows with mechanical necessity
from the preceding. If an animal can develop from inner causes from
a drop of plasma, why should not the entire evolutionary process
have also been the outcome of developmental inner causes? He
admits that there is a difference in the two cases in that the plasma
that forms the egg has come from another animal, and contains all
the properties of the individual in a primordial condition. In the other
case we must suppose that the original drop of plasma did not
contain at first the primordium of definite structures, but only the
ability to form such. Logically the difference is unimportant. The
main point is that in the primordium of the germ a special peculiarity
of the substance is present which by forming new substances grows,
and changes as it grows, and the one change of necessity excites
the next until finally a highly organized being is the result.
Nägeli discusses a question in this connection, which, he says, has
been unnecessarily confused in the descent theory. Since we are
entirely in the dark as to how much time has been required for the
formation of phyla, so also are we ignorant as to how long it may
have taken for each step in advance. We may err equally in ascribing
too much and too little time to the process. It is, moreover, not
necessary that for every step the same amount of time should have
been required. On the contrary, the probability is that recognizable
changes may at times follow each other rapidly, and then for a time
come to a standstill,—just as in the development of the individual
there are periods of more rapid and others of less rapid change.
A more difficult problem than that relating to the sort of changes
the external influences bring about in the organism, is the question
as to how they effect the organism, or how they act on it
mechanically. This, as is well known, was answered by Darwin, who
regards all organization as a problem of adaptation: only those
chance variations surviving which are capable of existence, the
others being destroyed. On this theory external influences have only
a negative or a passive action, namely, in setting aside the
unadapted individuals. Nägeli, on the other hand, looks upon some
kinds of external conditions as directly giving rise to the adaptive
characters of the organism. This is accomplished, he supposes, in
the following ways: two kinds of influence are recognized; the direct
action, which, as in inorganic nature, comes to an end when the
external influences come to an end, as when cold diminishes the
chemical actions in the plant; and the indirect action, generally
known as a stimulus, which starts a series of molecular motions,
invisible to us, but which we recognize only in their effects. Very
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