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Joos Korstanje

Machine Learning on Geographical Data

Using Python
Introduction into Geodata with Applications and
Use Cases
Joos Korstanje
VIELS MAISONS, France

ISBN 978-1-4842-8286-1 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-8287-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8287-8

© Joos Korstanje 2022

Apress Standard

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress

Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Introduction
Spatial data has long been an ignored data type in general data science
and statistics courses. Yet at the same time, there is a field of spatial
analysis which is strongly developed. Due to differences in tools and
approaches, the two fields have long developed in separate
environments.
With the popularity of data in many business environments, the
importance of treating spatial data is also increasing. The goal of the
current book is to bridge the gap between data science and spatial
analysis by covering tools of both worlds and showing how to use tools
from both to answer use cases.
The book starts with a general introduction to geographical data,
including data storage formats, data types, common tools and libraries
in Python, and the like. Strong attention is paid to the specificities of
spatial data, including coordinate systems and more.
The second part of the book covers a number of methods of the field
of spatial analysis. All of this is done in Python. Even though Python is
not the most common tool in spatial analysis, the ecosystem has taken
large steps in user-friendliness and has great interoperability with
machine learning libraries. Python with its rich ecosystem of libraries
will be an important tool for spatial analysis in the near future.
The third part of the book covers multiple machine learning use
cases on spatial data. In this part of the book, you see that tools from
spatial analysis are combined with tools from machine learning and
data science to realize more advanced use cases than would be possible
in many spatial analysis tools. Specific considerations are needed for
applying machine learning to spatial data, due to the specific nature of
coordinates and other specific data formats of spatial data.

Source Code
All source code used in the book can be downloaded from
github.com/apress/machine-learning-geographic-
data-python.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(https://github.com/Apress). For more detailed information, please
visit http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Table of Contents
Part I: General Introduction
Chapter 1:​Introduction to Geodata
Reading Guide for This Book
Geodata Definitions
Cartesian Coordinates
Polar Coordinates and Degrees
The Difference with Reality
Geographic Information Systems and Common Tools
What Are Geographic Information Systems
Standard Formats of Geodata
Shapefile
Google KML File
GeoJSON
TIFF/​JPEG/​PNG
CSV/​TXT/​Excel
Overview of Python Tools for Geodata
Key Takeaways
Chapter 2:​Coordinate Systems and Projections
Coordinate Systems
Geographic Coordinate Systems
Projected Coordinate Systems
Local Coordinate Systems
Which Coordinate System to Choose
Playing Around with Some Maps
Example:​Working with Own Data
 Key Takeaways
Chapter 3:​Geodata Data Types
Vector vs.​Raster Data
Dealing with Attributes in Vector and Raster
Points
Definition of a Point
Importing an Example Point Dataset in Python
Some Basic Operations with Points
Lines
Definition of a Line
An Example Line Dataset in Python
Polygons
Definition of a Polygon
An Example Polygon Dataset in Python
Some Simple Operations with Polygons
Rasters/​Grids
Definition of a Grid or Raster
Importing a Raster Dataset in Python
Key Takeaways
Chapter 4:​Creating Maps
Mapping Using Geopandas and Matplotlib
Getting a Dataset into Python
Making a Basic Plot
Plot Title
Plot Legend
Mapping a Point Dataset with Geopandas and Matplotlib
 Concluding on Mapping with Geopandas and Matplotlib
Making a Map with Cartopy
Concluding on Mapping with Cartopy
Making a Map with Plotly
Concluding on Mapping with Plotly
Making a Map with Folium
Concluding on Mapping with Folium
Key Takeaways
Part II: GIS Operations
Chapter 5:​Clipping and Intersecting
What Is Clipping?​
A Schematic Example of Clipping
What Happens in Practice When Clipping?​
Clipping in Python
What Is Intersecting?​
What Happens in Practice When Intersecting?​
Conceptual Examples of Intersecting Geodata
Intersecting in Python
Difference Between Clipping and Intersecting
Key Takeaways
Chapter 6:​Buffers
What Are Buffers?​
A Schematic Example of Buffering
What Happens in Practice When Buffering?​
Creating Buffers in Python
Creating Buffers Around Points in Python
 Creating Buffers Around Lines in Python
Creating Buffers Around Polygons in Python
Combining Buffers and Set Operations
Key Takeaways
Chapter 7:​Merge and Dissolve
The Merge Operation
What Is a Merge?​
A Schematic Example of Merging
Merging in Python
Row-Wise Merging in Python
Attribute Join in Python
Spatial Join in Python
The Dissolve Operation
What Is the Dissolve Operation?​
Schematic Overview of the Dissolve Operation
The Dissolve Operation in Python
Key Takeaways
Chapter 8:​Erase
The Erase Operation
Schematic Overview of Spatially Erasing Points
Schematic Overview of Spatially Erasing Lines
Schematic Overview of Spatially Erasing Polygons
Erase vs.​Other Operations
Erase vs.​Deleting a Feature
Erase vs.​Clip
Erase vs.​Overlay
 Erasing in Python
Erasing Portugal from Iberia to Obtain Spain
Erasing Points in Portugal from the Dataset
Cutting Lines to Be Only in Spain
Key Takeaways
Part III: Machine Learning and Mathematics
Chapter 9:​Interpolation
What Is Interpolation?​
Different Types of Interpolation
Linear Interpolation
Polynomial Interpolation
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation
From One-Dimensional to Spatial Interpolation
Spatial Interpolation in Python
Linear Interpolation Using Scipy Interp2d
Kriging
Linear Ordinary Kriging
Gaussian Ordinary Kriging
Exponential Ordinary Kriging
Conclusion on Interpolation Methods
Key Takeaways
Chapter 10:​Classification
Quick Intro to Machine Learning
Quick Intro to Classification
Spatial Classification Use Case
Feature Engineering with Additional Data
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 Importing and Inspecting the Data
Spatial Operations for Feature Engineering
Reorganizing and Standardizing the Data
Modeling
Model Benchmarking
Key Takeaways
Chapter 11:​Regression
Introduction to Regression
Spatial Regression Use Case
Importing and Preparing Data
Iteration 1 of Data Exploration
Iteration 1 of the Model
Iteration 2 of Data Exploration
Iteration 2 of the Model
Iteration 3 of the Model
Iteration 4 of the Model
Interpretation of Iteration 4 Model
Key Takeaways
Chapter 12:​Clustering
Introduction to Unsupervised Modeling
Introduction to Clustering
Different Clustering Models
Spatial Clustering Use Case
Importing and Inspecting the Data
Cluster Model for One Person
Tuning the Clustering Model
 Applying the Model to All Data
Key Takeaways
Chapter 13:​Conclusion
What You Should Remember from This Book
Recap of Chapter 1 – Introduction to Geodata
Recap of Chapter 2 – Coordinate Systems and Projections
Recap of Chapter 3 – Geodata Data Types
Recap of Chapter 4 – Creating Maps
Recap of Chapter 5 – Clipping and Intersecting
Recap of Chapter 6 – Buffers
Recap of Chapter 7 – Merge and Dissolve
Recap of Chapter 8 – Erase
Recap of Chapter 9 – Interpolation
Recap of Chapter 10 – Classification
Recap of Chapter 11 – Regression
Recap of Chapter 12 – Clustering
Further Learning Path
Going into Specialized GIS
Specializing in Machine Learning
Remote Sensing and Image Treatment
Other Specialties
Key Takeaways
Index
About the Author
Joos Korstanje
is a data scientist, with over five years of
industry experience in developing
machine learning tools. He has a double
MSc in Applied Data Science and in
Environmental Science and has extensive
experience working with geodata use
cases. He has worked at a number of
large companies in the Netherlands and
France, developing machine learning for
a variety of tools. His experience in
writing and teaching has motivated him
to write this book on machine learning
for geodata with Python.
About the Technical Reviewer
Xiaochi Liu
is a PhD researcher and data scientist at
Macquarie University, specializing in
machine learning, explainable artificial
intelligence, spatial analysis, and their
novel application in environmental and
public health. He is a programming
enthusiast using Python and R to
conduct end-to-end data analysis. His
current research applies cutting-edge AI
technologies to untangle the causal
nexus between trace metal
contamination and human health to
develop evidence-based intervention
strategies for mitigating environmental exposure.
Part I
General Introduction
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2022
J. Korstanje, Machine Learning on Geographical Data Using Python
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8287-8_1

1. Introduction to Geodata
Joos Korstanje1
(1) VIELS MAISONS, France

Mapmaking and analysis of the geographical environment around us have

been present in nature and human society for a long time. Human maps
are well known to all of us: they are a great way to share information
about our environment with others.
Yet communicating geographical instructions is not invented only by
the human species. Bees, for example, are well known to communicate on
food sources with their fellow hive mates. Bees do not make maps, but,
just like us, they use a clearly defined communication system.
As geodata is the topic of this book, I find it interesting to share this
out-of-the-box geodata system used by honeybees. Geodata in the bee
world has two components: distance and direction.
Honeybee distance metrics
– The round dance: A food source is present less than 50 meters from the
hive.
– The sickle dance: Food sources are present between 50 and 150 meters
from the hive.
– The waggle (a.k.a. wag-tail) dance: Food sources are over 150 meters
from the hive. In addition, the duration of the waggle dance is an
indicator of how far over 150 meters the source is located.
Honeybee direction metrics
– Although more complicated, the angle of the dance is known to be an
indicator of the angle relative to the sun that bees must follow to get to
their food source.
 – As the sun changes location throughout the day, bees will update each
other by adapting their communication dances accordingly.
The human counterpart of geographical communication works a bit
better, as we have compasses that point to the magnetic north. Those of
you who are familiar with compass use, for example, on boats, may know
that even using a compass is not a perfect solution.
The magnetic north changes much less than the position of the sun.
What is interesting though is that the magnetic north and the true north
are not located at the same exact place. The true north is a fixed location
on the globe (the so-called North Pole), but compasses are based on
magnetism and therefore point to the magnetic north: a location that
moves a little bit every year.
If you are navigating a ship with a compass, you will constantly need
to do calculations that convert your magnetic direction measurements
into true direction measurements by adding magnetic variation, which is
a value that changes depending on where you are on earth.

Reading Guide for This Book

As you will understand from these two examples, working with geodata is
a challenge. While identifying locations of points by coordinates may
appear simple, the devil really is in the details.
The goal of this book is to go over all those details while working on
example code projects in Python. This should give you the fundamental
knowledge needed to start working in the interesting domain of geodata
while avoiding mistakes. You will then discover numerous ways to
represent geodata and learn to work with tools that make working with
geodata easier.
After laying the basis, the book will become more and more advanced
by focusing on machine learning techniques for the geodata domain. As
you may expect, the specificities of the use of geodata make that a lot of
standards techniques are not applicable at all, or in other cases, they may
need specific adaptations and configurations.

Geodata Definitions
To get started, I want to cover the basics of coordinate systems in the
simplest mathematic situation: the Euclidean space. Although the world
does not respect the hypothesis made by Euclidean geometry, it is a great
entry into the deeper understanding of coordinate systems.
A two-dimensional Euclidean space is often depicted as shown in
Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1 A two-dimensional Euclidean space. Image by author

Cartesian Coordinates
To locate points in the Euclidean space, we can use the Cartesian
coordinate system. This coordinate system specifies each point uniquely
by a pair of numerical coordinates. For example, look at the coordinate
system in Figure 1-2, in which two points are located: a square and a
triangle.
The square is located at x = 2 and y = 1 (horizontal axis). The triangle
is located at x = -2 and y = -1.
Figure 1-2 Two points in a coordinate system. Image by author
The point where the x and y axes meet is called the Origin, and
distances are measured from there. Cartesian coordinates are among the
most well-known coordinate system and work easily and intuitively in the
Euclidean space.

Polar Coordinates and Degrees

A commonly used alternative to Cartesian coordinates is the polar
coordinate system. In the polar system, one starts by defining one point as
the pole. From this pole starts the polar axis. The graphic in Figure 1-3
shows the idea.
Figure 1-3 The polar system. Image by author
In this schematic drawing, the star is designated as the pole, and the
thick black line to the right is chosen as the polar axis. This system is
quite different from the Cartesian system but still allows us to identify the
exact same points: just in a different way.
The points are identified by two components: an angle with respect to
the polar axis and a distance. The square that used to be referred to as
Cartesian coordinate (2,1) can be referred to by an angle from the polar
axis and a distance.
This is shown in Figure 1-4.
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Other documents randomly have
different content
seeming to act to modify the form and number of the flakes
detached.
It is indispensable to employ glass objects of adequate thickness,
since, in covering mousseline glass with a layer of glue, the
mechanical action that it has to support during desiccation is so
powerful that it will break with an explosion. Glue, therefore, must
not be allowed to dry in glass vessels, since they would be corroded
and broken in a short time.
Indelible Labels On Bottles.—To affix indelible labels on bottles an
etching liquid is employed which is produced as follows:
Liquid I, in one bottle.—Dissolve 36 parts of sodium fluoride in 500
parts of distilled water and add 7 parts of potassium sulphate.
Liquid II, in another bottle.—Dissolve zinc chloride, 14 parts, in
500 parts of distilled water, and add 65 parts of concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
For use mix equal parts together and add a little dissolved India
ink to render the writing more visible.
The mixing cannot, however, be conducted in a vessel. It is best
to use a cube of paraffine which has been hollowed out.
Etching On Marble Or Ivory (see also Ivory).—Cover the objects
with a coat of wax dissolved in 90 per cent alcohol, then trace the
desired designs by removing the wax with a sharp tool and distribute
on the tracing the following mixture: Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; acetic
acid, 1 part. Repeat this operation several times, until the desired
depth is attained. Then take off the varnish with alcohol. The etching
may be embellished, filling up the hollows with any colored varnish,
by wiping the surface with a piece of linen fixed on a stick, to rub
the varnish into the cavities after it has been applied with a brush.
The hollows may be gilded or silvered by substituting “mixtion” for
the varnish and applying on this mixtion a leaf of gold or silver, cut in
pieces a little larger than the design to be covered; press down the
gold by means of a soft brush so as to cause it to penetrate to the
bottom; let dry and remove the protruding edges.
Etching On Steel.—The print should be heavily inked and powdered
with dragon’s blood several times. After each powdering heat slightly
and additional powder will stick, forming a heavy coating in 2 or 3
operations. Before proceeding to heat up, the plate should receive a
light etching in a weak solution of the acid described later on. The
purpose of this preliminary etching is to clean up the print, so that
the lines will not tend to thicken, as would be the case otherwise.
Next a good strong heating should be given. On top the dragon’s
blood plumbago may be used in addition. For etching use nitric acid
mixed with an even amount of acetic acid. Some operators use
vinegar, based on the same theory. When commencing the etching,
start with a weak solution and increase as soon as the plate is deep
enough to allow another powdering. If the operator is familiar with
lithography, and understands rolling up the print with a lithoroller,
the etching of steel is not harder than etching on zinc.
Liquids For Etching Steel.—

I.— Iodine 2 parts

Potassium iodide 5 parts
Water 40 parts
II.— Nitric acid 60 parts
Water 120 parts
Alcohol 200 parts
Copper nitrate 8 parts
III.— Glacial acetic acid 4 parts
Nitric acid 1 part
Alcohol 1 part
IV.—Mix 1 ounce sulphate of copper, 1/4 ounce alum, 1/2
teaspoonful of salt (reduced to powder), with 1 gill of vinegar and 20
drops of nitric acid. This fluid can be used either for etching deeply
or for frosting, according to the time it is allowed to act. The parts of
the work which are not to be etched should be protected with
beeswax or some similar substance.
V.—Nitric acid, 60 parts; water, 120 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and
copper nitrate, 8 parts. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle. To use the
fluid, cover the surface to be marked with a thin even coat of wax
and mark the lines with a machinist’s scriber. Wrap clean cotton
waste around the end of the scriber or a stick, and dip in the fluid,
applying it to the marked surface. In a few minutes the wax may be
scraped off, when fine lines will appear where the scriber marked the
wax. The drippings from a lighted wax candle can be used for the
{328} coating, and this may be evenly spread with a knife heated in
the candle flame.
VI.—For Hardened Steel.—Heat an iron or an old pillar-file with a
smooth side, and with it spread a thin, even coat of beeswax over
the brightened surface to be etched. With a sharp lead pencil (which
is preferable to a scriber) write or mark as wanted through the wax
so as to be sure to strike the steel surface. Then daub on with a
stick etching acid made as follows: Nitric acid, 3 parts; muriatic acid,
1 part. If a lead pencil has been used the acid will begin to bubble
immediately. Two or three minutes of the bubbling or foaming will be
sufficient for marking; then soak up the acid with a small piece of
blotting paper and remove the beeswax with a piece of cotton waste
wet with benzine, and if the piece be small enough dip it into a
saturated solution of sal soda, or if the piece be large swab over it
with a piece of waste. This neutralizes the remaining acid and
prevents rusting, which oil will not do.
If it is desired to coat the piece with beeswax without heating it,
dissolve pure beeswax in benzine until of the consistency of thick
cream and pour on to the steel, and even spread it by rocking or
blowing, and lay aside for it to harden; then use the lead pencil, etc.,
as before. This method will take longer. Keep work from near the fire
or an open flame.
EUCALYPTUS BONBONS FOR COLDS AND COUGHS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
EXPECTORANTS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.

EXPLOSIVES
Explosives may be divided into two great classes—mechanical
mixtures and chemical compounds. In the former the combustible
substances are intimately mixed with some oxygen supplying
material, as in the case of gunpowder, where carbon and sulphur are
intimately mixed with potassium nitrate; while gun cotton and nitro-
glycerine are examples of the latter class, where each molecule of
the substance contains the necessary oxygen for the oxidation of the
carbon and hydrogen present, the oxygen being in feeble
combination with nitrogen. Many explosives are, however,
mechanical mixtures of compounds which are themselves explosive,
e. g., cordite, which is mainly composed of gun cotton and nitro-
glycerine.
The most common and familiar of explosives is undoubtedly
gunpowder. The mixture first adopted appears to have consisted of
equal parts of the three ingredients—sulphur, charcoal, and niter;
but some time later the proportions, even now taken for all ordinary
purposes, were introduced, namely:
Potassium nitrate 75 parts
Charcoal 15 parts
Sulphur 10 parts
100 parts
Since gunpowder is a mechanical mixture, it is clear that the first
aim of the maker must be to obtain perfect incorporation, and,
necessarily, in order to obtain this, the materials must be in a very
finely divided state. Moreover, in order that uniformity of effect may
be obtained, purity of the original substances, the percentage of
moisture present, and the density of the finished powder are of
importance.
 The weighed quantities of the ingredients are first mixed in gun
metal or copper drums, having blades in the interior capable of
working in the opposite direction to that in which the drum itself is
traveling. After passing through a sieve, the mixture (green charge)
is passed on to the incorporating mills, where it is thoroughly ground
under heavy metal rollers, a small quantity of water being added to
prevent dust and facilitating incorporation, and during this process
the risk of explosion is greater possibly than at any other stage in
the manufacture. There are usually 6 mills working in the same
building, with partitions between. Over the bed of each mill is a
horizontal board, the “flash board,” which is connected with a tank of
water overhead, the arrangement being such that the upsetting of
one tank discharges the contents of the other tanks onto the
corresponding mill beds below, so that in the event of an accident
the charge is drowned in each case. The “mill cake” is now broken
down between rollers, the “meal” produced being placed in strong
oak boxes and subjected to hydraulic pressure, thus increasing its
density and hardness, at the same time bringing the ingredients into
more intimate contact. After once more breaking down the material
(press cake), the powder only requires special treatment to adapt it
for the various purposes for which it is intended.
The products of the combustion of powder and its manner of
burning are {329} largely influenced by the pressure, a property well
illustrated by the failure of a red-hot platinum wire to ignite a mass
of powder in a vacuum, only a few grains actually in contact with the
platinum undergoing combustion.
Nitro-glycerine is a substance of a similar chemical nature to gun
cotton, the principles of its formation and purification being very
similar, only in this case the materials and product are liquids,
thereby rendering the operations of manufacture and washing much
less difficult. The glycerine is sprayed into the acid mixture by
compressed-air injectors, care being taken that the temperature
during nitration does not rise above 86° F. The nitro-glycerine
formed readily separates from the mixed acids, and being insoluble
in cold water, the washing is comparatively simple.
Nitro-glycerine is an oily liquid readily soluble in most organic
solvents, but becomes solid at 3° or 4° above the freezing point of
water, and in this condition is less sensitive. It detonates when
heated to 500° F., or by a sudden blow, yielding carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen, and water. Being a fluid under ordinary conditions,
its uses as an explosive were limited, and Alfred Nobel conceived the
idea of mixing it with other substances which would act as
absorbents, first using charcoal and afterwards an infusorial earth,
“kieselguhr,” and obtaining what he termed “dynamite.” Nobel found
that “collodion cotton”—soluble gun cotton—could be converted by
treatment with nitro-glycerine into a jellylike mass which was more
trustworthy in action than the components alone, and from its
nature the substance was christened “blasting gelatin.”
Nobel took out a patent for a smokeless powder for use in guns, in
which these ingredients were adopted with or without the use of
retarding agents. The powders of this class are ballistite and filite,
the former being in sheets, the latter in threads. Originally camphor
was introduced, but its use has been abandoned, a small quantity of
aniline taking its place.
Sir Frederick Abel and Prof. Dewar patented in 1889 the use of
trinitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine, for although, as is well known,
this form of nitro-cellulose is not soluble in nitro-glycerine, yet by
dissolving the bodies in a mutual solvent, perfect incorporation can
be attained. Acetone is the solvent used in the preparation of
“cordite,” and for all ammunition except blank charges a certain
proportion of vaseline is also added. The combustion of the powder
without vaseline gives products so free from solid or liquid
substances that excessive friction of the projectile in the gun causes
rapid wearing of the rifling, and it is chiefly to overcome this that the
vaseline is introduced, for on explosion a thin film of solid matter is
deposited in the gun, and acts as a lubricant.
 The proportion of the ingredients are:
Nitro-glycerine 58 parts
Gun-cotton 37 parts
Vaseline 5 parts
Gun cotton to be used for cordite is prepared as previously
described, but the alkali is omitted, and the mass is not submitted to
great pressure, to avoid making it so dense that ready absorption of
nitro-glycerine would not take place. The nitro-glycerine is poured
over the dried gun cotton and first well mixed by hand, afterwards in
a kneading machine with the requisite quantity of acetone for 3 1/2
hours. A water jacket is provided, since, on mixing, the temperature
rises. The vaseline is now added, and the kneading continued for a
similar period. The cordite paste is first subjected to a preliminary
pressing, and is finally forced through a hole of the proper size in a
plate either by hand or by hydraulic pressure. The smaller sizes are
wound on drums, while the larger cordite is cut off in suitable
lengths, the drums and cut material being dried at 100° F., thus
driving off the remainder of the acetone.
Cordite varies from yellow to dark brown in color, according to its
thickness. When ignited it burns with a strong flame, which may be
extinguished by a vigorous puff of air. Macnab and Ristori give the
yield of permanent gases from English cordite as 647 cubic
centimeters, containing a much higher per cent of carbon monoxide
than the gases evolved from the old form of powder. Sir Andrew
Noble failed in attempts to detonate the substance, and a rifle bullet
fired into the mass only caused it to burn quietly.
Dynamite.—Dynamite is ordinarily made up of 75 per cent nitro-
glycerine, 25 per cent infusorial earth; dualine contains 80 per cent
nitro-glycerine, 20 per cent nitro-cellulose; rend-rock has 40 per cent
nitro-glycerine, 40 per cent nitrate of potash, 13 per cent cellulose, 7
per cent paraffine; giant powder, 36 per cent nitro-glycerine, 48 per
cent nitrate of potash, 8 per cent sulphur, 8 per cent rosin or
charcoal.
Smokeless Powder.—The base of smokeless powders is nitrated
cellulose, {330} which has been treated in one of various ways to
make it burn slower than gun cotton, and also to render it less
sensitive to heat and shocks. As a rule, these powders are not only
less inflammable than gun cotton, but require stronger detonators.
As metallic salts cause smoke, they are not used in these powders.
The smokeless powders now in use may be divided into three
groups: (1) Those consisting of mixtures of nitro-glycerine and
nitrated cellulose, which have been converted into a hard, hornlike
mass, either with or without the aid of a solvent. To this group
belongs ballistite, containing 50 per cent of nitro-glycerine, 49 per
cent of nitrated cellulose, and 1 per cent of diphenylamin; also
cordite (see further on), Lenord’s powder, and amberite. This last
contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine and 56 parts of nitrated cellulose.
(2) Those consisting mainly of nitrated cellulose of any kind, which
has been rendered hard and horny by treatment with some solvent
which is afterwards evaporated. These are prepared by treating
nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine, which dissolves the
collodion, and when evaporated leaves a hard film of collodion on
the surface of each grain. Sometimes a little camphor is added to
the solvent, and, remaining in the powder, greatly retards its
combustion. (3) Those consisting of nitro-derivatives of the aromatic
hydrocarbons, either with or without the admixture of nitrated
cellulose; to this group belong Dupont’s powder, consisting of
nitrated cellulose dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, consisting of
cellulose hexanitrate (freed from collodion by extraction with methyl
alcohol), made into a paste with nitro-benzine, and hardened by
treatment with steam until the excess of nitro-benzine is removed;
and plastomeite, consisting of dinitrotoluene and nitrated wood pulp.
 Cordite is the specific name of a smokeless powder which has
been adopted by the English government as a military explosive. It
contains nitro-glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 37 parts; and
petrolatum, 5 parts. The nitro-glycerine and gun cotton are first
mixed, 19.2 parts of acetone added, and the pasty mass kneaded for
several hours. The petrolatum is then added and the mixture again
kneaded. The paste is then forced through fine openings to form
threads, which are dried at about 105° F. until the acetone
evaporates. The threads, which resemble brown twine, are then cut
into short lengths for use.
Another process for the manufacture of smokeless powder is as
follows: Straw, preferably oat-straw, is treated in the usual way with
a mixture of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, and then
washed in water to free it from these, then boiled with water, and
again with a solution of potassium carbonate. It is next subjected,
for 2 to 6 hours, to the action of a solution composed of 1,000 parts
of water, 12.5 parts of potassium nitrate, 3.5 parts of potassium
chlorate, 12.5 parts of zinc sulphate, and 12.5 parts of potassium
permanganate. The excess of solution is pressed out, and the mass
is then pulverized, granulated, and finally dried.
The warning as to the danger of experimenting with the
manufacture of ordinary gunpowder applies with renewed force
when nitro-glycerine is the subject of the experiment.
Berge’s Blasting Powder.—This is composed of chlorate of
potash, 1 part; chromate of potash, 0.1 part; sugar, 0.45 parts;
yellow wax, 0.09 parts. The proportions indicated may vary within
certain limits, according to the force desired. For the preparation, the
chlorate and the chromate of potash, as well as the sugar, are
ground separately and very finely, and sifted so that the grains of
the different substances may have the same size. At first any two of
the substances are mixed as thoroughly as possible, then the third is
added. The yellow wax, cut in small pieces, is finally added, and all
the substances are worked together to produce a homogeneous
product. The sugar may be replaced with charcoal or any other
combustible body. For commercial needs, the compound may be
colored with any inert matter, also pulverized.
Safety In Explosives.—Ammoniacal salts have been used in the
manufacture of explosives to render them proof against firedamp,
but not with the full success desired. Ammonium chloride has been
utilized, but inconveniences are met with, and the vapor is quite
disagreeable. In coöperation with equivalent quantities of soda and
potash, its action is regarded as favorable. Tests employing benzine
vapor and coal dust were made, and the comparative security
calculated to be as given below.
I.—Donarite, composed as follows: 80 per cent of nitrate of
ammonia, 12 of trinitrotoluol, 4 of flour, 3.8 of nitro-glycerine, and
0.2 per cent of cotton collodion. Security: Donarite alone, 87 parts;
95 per cent of donarite and 5 per {331} cent of ammonium chloride,
125 parts; 90 per cent of donarite and 10 per cent of ammonium
chloride, 250 parts; 86 per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of
ammonium chloride, with 8.5 per cent of nitrate of soda, 425 parts.
The force of the explosion is decreased about 8 per cent, while the
security is quintupled.
II.—Roburite, with the following composition: 72.5 per cent nitrate
of ammonia; 12 binitro-benzol; 10 nitrate of potash; 5 sulphate of
ammonia; 0.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Security: Roburite
only, 325 parts; ammonium chloride, taking the place of sulphate of
ammonia, 400 parts. Here an intensification of the explosive force is
simultaneously produced.
III.—Ammon carbonite I, composed thus: 4 per cent nitro-
glycerine; 75.5 nitrate of ammonia; 9.5 nitrate of potash; 9.5 coal
dust; 10.5 flour. Security: Ammon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per
cent A. C. I. and 5 per cent ammonium chloride, 400 parts; 92 per
cent A. C. I. and 8 per cent ammonium chloride, 500 parts. The
addition of 5 per cent ammonium chloride diminishes the explosive
force only 3 per cent.
IV.—An explosive of nitro-glycerine base composed thus: 30 per
cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 52.6 nitrate of
ammonia; 13 nitrate of potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch. Security of
this mixture, 150 parts.
V.—Thirty per cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion;
47.3 nitrate of ammonia; 11.6 nitrate of potash; 3.1 starch; 7 per
cent ammonium chloride. This mixture has a security of 350 parts.
Inflammable Explosive With Chlorate Of Potash.—Take as
an agent promoting combustion, potassium chlorate; as a
combustible agent, an oxidized, nitrated, or natural rosin. If, to such
a mixture, another body is added in order to render it soft and
plastic, such as oil, nitro-benzine, glucose, glycerine, the benefit of
the discovery is lost, for the mixture is rendered combustible with
nitro-benzine, fecula, sulphur, etc., and inexplosive with glycerine,
glucose, and the oil.
Of all the chlorates and perchlorates, potassium chlorate (KClO3)
responds the best to what is desired. As to the rosins, they may be
varied, or even mixed. To obtain the oxidation or nitration of the
rosins, they are heated with nitric acid, more or less concentrated,
and with or without the addition of sulphuric acid. An oxidation,
sufficient and without danger, can be secured by a simple and
practical means. This is boiling them for several hours in water
containing nitric acid, which is renewed from time to time in
correspondence with its decomposition. The rosins recommended by
M. Turpin are of the terebinthine group, having for average formula
C20H30O2. Colophony is the type.
The products, thus nitrated, are washed with boiling water, and,
on occasion, by a solution slightly alkaline, with a final washing with
pure water, and dried at a temperature of 230° F. or in the open air.
 The mixing of the constituents of this explosive is preferably cold.
For this purpose they are used in the state of fine powder, and when
mixed in the tub, 2 1/2 to 5 per cent of a volatile dissolvent is added,
as alcohol, carbon sulphide, ether, or benzine. As soon as thoroughly
mingled, the mass is put either in an ordinary grainer, or in a
cylinder of wire cloth revolving horizontally on its axis, with glass
gobilles forming a screen, by the aid of which the graining is rapidly
accomplished. Thus a powder more or less finely granulated is
produced free from dust.
The proportions preferably employed are:
1. Potassium chlorate 85 parts
Natural rosin 15 parts
2. Potassium chlorate 80 parts
Nitrated rosin 20 parts
For employment in firedamp mines, there is added to these
compounds from 20 to 40 per cent of one of the following
substances: Ammonium oxalate, ammonium carbonate, oxalic acid,
sodium bicarbonate, calcium fluoride, or other substance of the
nature to lower sufficiently the temperature of the explosive flame.
Gun Cotton.—For the production of a high-grade gun cotton, it is
important that the cotton used should approach as near as possible
pure cellulose. The waste from cotton mills, thoroughly purified, is
usually employed. After careful chemical examination has been made
to ascertain its freedom from grease and other impurities, the cotton
waste is picked over by hand to remove such impurities as wood,
cardboard, string, etc. The cotton is then passed through the
“teasing machine,” which opens out all knots and lumps, thereby
reducing it to a state more suitable for the acid treatment and
exposing to view any foreign substances which may have escaped
notice in the previous picking. The cotton is then dried. When {332}
perfectly dry, it is removed to air-tight iron cases, in which it is
allowed to cool. The iron cases are taken to the dipping houses, and
the cotton waste weighed into small portions, which are then
transferred as rapidly as possible to the mixed acids, allowed to
remain a few minutes, then removed to the grating and the excess
of acid squeezed out. The cotton now containing about ten times its
weight of acid is placed in an earthenware pot and transferred to the
steeping pits, where it is allowed to remain for 24 hours, a low
temperature being maintained by a stream of cold water.
The cotton is now wholly converted into nitro-cellulose. The
superfluous acid is next removed by a centrifugal extractor, after
which the gun cotton is taken out of the machine and immediately
immersed in a large volume of water, and thoroughly washed until it
shows no acid reaction. The moisture is then run out and the gun
cotton is conveyed by tramway to the boiling vats, where it
undergoes several boilings by means of steam. When the “heat test”
shows that a sufficient degree of stability has been obtained, the
gun cotton is removed to a beating engine, and reduced to a very
fine state of division. When this process is completed the pulp is run
by gravity along wooden shoots, provided with “grit traps” and
electromagnets, which catch any traces of sand, iron, etc., into large
“poachers,” in which the gun cotton is continuously agitated,
together with a large quantity of water. In this way it is thoroughly
washed and a blend made of a large quantity of gun cotton.
Soluble Gun Cotton.—Soluble gun cotton is made on the same
lines, except that greater attention has to be paid to the physical
condition of the cotton used, and to the temperature and strength of
acid mixture, etc.
The term “soluble” usually implies that the gun cotton is dissolved
by a mixture of ethyl-ether and ethyl-alcohol, 2 parts of the former
to 1 of the latter being the proportions which yield the best solvent
action. The classification of nitro-celluloses according to their
solubility in ether-alcohol is misleading, except when the nitrogen
contents are also quoted.
 The number of solvents for gun cotton which have at various
times been proposed is very large. Among the more important may
be mentioned the following: Alcohols (used chiefly in conjunction
with other solvents), methyl, ethyl, propyl, and amyl, methyl-amyl
ether, acetic ether, di-ethyl-ketone, methyl-ethyl ketone, amyl nitrate
and acetate, nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, glacial acetic
acid, camphor dissolved in alcohol, etc.
Some of the above may be called selective solvents, i. e., they
dissolve one particular variety of gun cotton better than others, so
that solubility in any given solvent must not be used to indicate
solubility in another. No nitro-cotton is entirely soluble in any solvent.
The solution, after standing some time, always deposits a small
amount of insoluble matter. Therefore, in making collodion solutions,
care should be taken to place the containing bottles in a place free
from vibration and shock. After standing a few weeks the clear
supernatant liquid may be decanted off. On a larger scale collodion
solutions are filtered under pressure through layers of tightly packed
cotton wool. The state of division is important. When the end in view
is the production of a strong film or thread, it is advisable to use
unpulped or only slightly pulped nitro-cellulose. In this condition it
also dissolves more easily than the finely pulped material.
Fulminates:
Fulminating Antimony.—Tartar emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack
or charcoal powder, 3 parts. Triturate together, put into a crucible
that it will three-fourths fill (previously rubbed inside with charcoal
powder). Cover it with a layer of dry charcoal powder, and lute on
the cover. After 3 hours’ exposure to a strong heat in a reverberatory
furnace, and 6 or 7 hours’ cooling, cautiously transfer the solid
contents of the crucible, as quickly as possible, without breaking, to
a wide-mouthed stoppered phial, where, after some time, it will
spontaneously crumble to a powder. When the above process is
properly conducted, the resulting powder contains potassium, and
fulminates violently on contact with water. A piece the size of a pea
introduced into a mass of gunpowder explodes it on being thrown
into water, or on its being moistened in any other manner.
Fulminating Bismuth.—Take bismuth, 120 parts; carbureted cream
of tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part.
Fulminating Copper.—Digest copper (in powder of filings) with
fulminate of mercury or of silver, and a little water. {333} It forms
soluble green crystals that explode with a green flame.
Fulminating Mercury.—Take mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (specific
gravity, 1.4), 1,000 parts (or 740 parts, by measure). Dissolve by a
gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired the temperature of
130° F., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol
(specific gravity, .830), 830 parts (or 1,000 parts, by measure). As
soon as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be
evolved, filter through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry
by steam (not hotter than 212° F.) or hot water. The fulminate is
then to be packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and these stored in a
tight box or corked bottle. Product 130 per cent of the weight of
mercury employed.
Fulminating Powder.—I.—Niter, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry),
2 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine
powder, before mixing them. A little of this compound (20 to 30
grains), slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first fuses and
becomes brown, and then explodes with a deafening report.
II.—Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. When triturated,
with strong pressure, in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it
produces a series of loud reports. It also fulminates by percussion.
III.—Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts;
sulphur, 1 part. A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud
report when struck with a hammer.
EXPOSURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING: See Photography.
EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.
EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

EYE LOTIONS:
 “Black Eye” Lotion.—“Black eyes” or other temporary
discolorations of the skin may be disguised by the application of pink
grease paint, or collodion colored by means of a little carmine. As
lotions the following have been recommended:
I.— Ammonium chloride 1 part
Alcohol 1 part
Water 10 parts
Diluted acetic acid may be substituted for half of the water, and
the alcohol may be replaced by tincture of arnica, with advantage.
II.— Potassium nitrate 15 grains
Ammonium chloride 30 grains
Aromatic vinegar 4 drachms
Water to make 8 ounces.
III.—The following is to be applied with camel’s-hair pencil every
1, 2, or 3 hours. Be careful not to get it in the eyes, as it smarts. It
will remove the black discoloration overnight:
Oxalic acid 15 grains
Distilled water 1 ounce
Foreign Matter In The Eye.—If a piece of iron or other foreign
matter in the eye irritates it, and there is no way of removing it until
morning, take a raw Irish potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on
the eye. It will ease the eye so one can sleep, and sometimes draws
the piece out.
Drops Of Lime In The Eye.—If lime has dropped in the eye, the
pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best
remedy, as the causticity of the lime is Arrested thereby. Poppy-seed
oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure linseed oil ought to render the
same service, as it is also used in the household. Subsequently, the
eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will
harden any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity
entirely.
FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and also Household Formulas.
FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing.
FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics.

FATS
Bear Fat.—Fresh bears’ fat is white and very similar to lard in
appearance. The flank fat is softer and more transparent than the
kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears’ fat differs
from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower specific
gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine value.
Bleaching Bone Fat.—Bone fat, which is principally obtained
from horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an
extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be
bleached by the air or chemicals, the former method only giving
good results {334} when the fat has been recovered by means of
steam. It consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and
exposing it to the air for several days, the mass being turned over at
intervals with a shovel. When sufficiently bleached in this manner,
the fat is boiled with half its own weight of water, which done, about
3 or 4 per cent of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again.
This treatment, which takes 2 or 3 weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it
of the consistency of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow.
Light seems to play no part in the operation, the change being
effected solely by the oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment has
the advantage of being more rapid, sufficient decoloration being
produced in a few hours. The fat, which should be free from gelatin,
phosphate of lime, and water, is placed in an iron pan along with an
equal weight of brine of 14° to 15° Bé. strength, with which it is
boiled for 3 hours and left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is
drawn off into a wooden vessel, where it is treated by degrees with
a mixture of 2 parts of potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of
boiling water, and 8 parts of hydrochloric acid (density 22° Bé.), this
quantity being sufficient for 400 parts of fat. Decoloration proceeds
gradually, and when complete the fat is washed with hot water.
Bleaching Tallows And Fats.—Instead of exposing to the sun,
which is always attended with danger of rendering fats rancid, it is
better to liquefy these at a gentle heat, and then add 1/5 in weight
of a mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter
should be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has
the advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured.
Freshly burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more
satisfactory decolorizer than kaolin, but it is more expensive to start
with, and not so easy to regenerate.
Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a
temperature of 250° or 260° F.) is also said to render it whiter and
harder.
Coloring Matter In Fats.—A simple method for the detection of
the addition of coloring matter to fats is here described. Ten parts,
by measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel
and dissolved in 10 parts, by measure, of petroleum ether. The
solution is then treated with 15 parts, by measure, of glacial acetic
acid and the whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring
matter is known by the red or yellow coloration which appears in the
lower layer of acetic acid after the contents of the funnel have been
allowed to settle. If only a slight addition of coloring matter is
suspected, the acetic acid solution is run off into a porcelain basin
and the latter heated on a water bath, when the coloration will be
seen more readily. This test is intended for butter and margarine,
but is also suitable for tallow, lard, etc.
Fatty Acid Fermentation Process.—The production of fatty
acids from fats and oils by fermentation is growing in importance.
These particulars, which are the actual results from recent
experiments on a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven
hundred and fifty pounds of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallons
of water and 3 1/2 pounds of acetic acid; this mixture is heated to a
temperature of 85° F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds, decorticated and
ground, are mixed thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and 4 1/2
gallons of the oil, and this mixture is stirred into the oil and water;
the whole mass is then kept mixed for 12 hours by blowing air
through, after which it is allowed to stand for another 12 hours,
being given a gentle stir by hand at the end of every hour. After 24
hours the mass is heated to a temperature of 180° F., which stops
the fermentation and at the same time allows the fatty acids to
separate more freely. To assist in this effect there is added 1 gallon
of sulphuric acid (1 in 3) solution.
After 2 hours’ standing, the mass will have separated into three
layers—fatty acids on the top, glycerine water below, and a middle,
undefined layer. The glycerine water is run away, and the whole
mass left to stand for 2 hours. The middle portion is run off from the
separated fatty acids into another vessel, where it is mixed with 10
gallons of hot water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to stand for 16
hours or more. The watery layer at the bottom, which contains some
glycerine, is then run off, while the residue is mixed with a further
quantity of 10 gallons of water, and again allowed to stand. The
water which separates out, also the layer of fatty acids that forms on
the top, are run off and mixed with the portions previously obtained.
The various glycerine waters are treated to recover the glycerine,
while the fatty acids are made marketable in any convenient way.
{335}

Preservation Of Fats.—To produce fats and oils containing both

iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from going rancid,
and consequently can be utilized to more advantage for the usual
purposes, such as the manufacture of soaps, candles, etc., following
is the Loebell method:
The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not
merely held in solution by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical
combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically
with the oil or fat, and from their reactions the preserving properties
are derived.
The process consists of heating, for example, 6 parts of oil with 1
part of sulphur to a temperature varying between 300° and 400° F.,
then, when at about 195° F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to
the mixture, which is constantly agitated until cool to prevent lumps
forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency
of butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination.
Purifying Oils And Fats.—In purifying fatty oils and fats for
edible purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids,
which is done by the aid of solutions of alkalies and alkaline earths.
The subsequent precipitation of the resulting soapy emulsions,
especially when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to
temperatures sometimes as high as the boiling point of water.
Furthermore, the amount of alkalies taken is always greater than is
chemically necessary, the consequence being that some of the
organic substances present are attacked, and malodorous products
are formed, a condition necessitating the employment of animal
charcoal, etc., as deodorizer.
To prevent the formation of these untoward products, which must
injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fresenius proposes to
accelerate the dispersion of the said emulsions by subjecting the
mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1 1/2 atmospheres and a
corresponding temperature of about 220° F., for a short time, the
formation of decomposition products, and any injurious influence on
the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition
of fresh charcoal, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in
certain cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or
fuller’s earth. When this process is applied to cottonseed oil, 100
parts of the oil are mixed with 1/10 part of fresh, pure charcoal, and
1
/2 part of pure fuller’s earth. The mixture is next neutralized with
lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour
under pressure, and at a temperature of 220° F. Under these
conditions the emulsion soon separates, and when this is
accomplished the whole is left to cool down in a closed vessel.
FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.

FEATHER BLEACHING AND COLORING:

See also Dyes.
Bleaching And Coloring Feathers.—Feathers, in their natural
state, are not adapted to undergo the processes of dyeing and
bleaching; they must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. This
is usually done by washing them in moderately warm soap and
water, and rinsing in warm and cold water; or the oil may be
chemically removed by the use of benzine. To remove it entirely, the
feathers must be left in the cleansing fluid from a half hour to an
hour, when they may be subjected to the process of bleaching.
Bleaching Plumes.—Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by
the use of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture.
In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an
average ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at
a time. The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of
hydrogen peroxide, with enough ammonia added to make it neutral;
in other words when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and
red will take a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are
entirely immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if
desired. The trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark
place. From time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding
more hydrogen peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if
necessary should be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in
distilled water or rain water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while
drying.
To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must
be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of
advantage to rub the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist
with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun.
Methods Of Dyeing Feathers.—I.—A boiling hot neutral
solution, the feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suitable
dyes for this method are chrysoidin, {336} A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B
C; phosphin extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red, O, G B; leather
brown, O; morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine,
cerise, G R; grenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite
green, crystal brilliant green, methylene green, methylene gray, coal
black II.
II.—A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline,
R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B;
cotton blue, No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent
blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; azo
yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R
R, fast red O, Bordeaux, G B R.
III.—An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O,
rosolan O B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, eosine A G, erythrosine.
By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can
be dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried
in a rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is
done by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white
feathers a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or
colored ones a little sugar.
IV.—The spray method. The solution of the dye to be used is put
into an atomizer, and the spray directed to that part of the feather
which it is desired to color. By using different colors the most
marvelous effects and most delicate transitions from one color to
another are obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the
rubber bulb, pump, or bellows; the result is the same.
FELT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
FERMENTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See Fats.
FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.
FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.

FERTILIZERS
(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)
Plant Fertilizers.—Plants are as sensitive to excessively minute
quantities of nutrient substances, such as salts of potassium, in the
soil, as they are to minute quantities of poisonous substances.
Poisons are said to be infinitely more sensitive reagents for the
presence of certain metallic salts than the most delicate chemical,
the statement having been made that a trace of copper which might
be obtained by distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and
yellow lupin, the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found
salts of silver, mercury, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to
plants. With copper sulphate the limit of sensitiveness is placed at 1
in 700,000,000. Devaux asserts that both phanerogams and
cryptogams are poisoned by solutions of salts of lead or copper
diluted to the extent of 1 in 10,000,000, or less.
As a result of a series of experiments, Schloesing stated that the
nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary
preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for
some plants, as for example buckwheat, the preferable form of the
food material is that of a nitrate, others, for instance, tropeolum,
thrive even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an
ammoniacal form.
 Artificial Fertilizers For Pot Plants.—Experiments on
vegetation have shown that a plant will thrive when the lacking
substances are supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the following
combinations:
I.—Calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate,
magnesium phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride).
II.—Calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate,
magnesium phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate) (sodium silicate).
It is well known that in nature nitrates are formed wherever
decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances takes place in the
air, the ammonia formed by the decomposition being oxidized to
nitric acid. These conditions for the formation of nitrates are present
in nearly every cornfield, and they are also the cause of the
presence of nitrates in water that has its source near stables, etc. In
Peruvian guano nitrogen is present partly in the form of potassium
nitrate, partly as ammonium phosphate and sulphate. As a nitrate it
acts more rapidly than in the form of ammonia, but in the latter case
the effect is more lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano combined
with ammonia, potash, and chiefly with lime, the last being slower
and more lasting in action than the others. {337}
Nearly all artificial fertilizers conform, more or less, to one of the
following general formulas:
I.—Artificial Flower Fertilizer.—
1 2 3
Ammonium nitrate 0.40 1.60 40.0 parts
Ammonium phosphate 0.20 0.80 20.0 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.25 1.00 25.0 parts
Ammonium chloride 0.05 0.20 5.0 parts
Calcium sulphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts
Ferrous sulphate 0.04 0.16 4.0 parts
1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
 Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it
2 or 3 times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water
with this quantity 10 or 12 pots of medium size.
II.—Compost for Indoor Plants.—
1 2 3
Ammonium sulphate 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts
Sodium chloride 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts
Magnesium sulphate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts
Magnesium phosphate 0.04 0.20 4.0 parts
Sodium phosphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts
1.00 4.00 100.0 parts
One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers
watered up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water,
and water with this solution daily:
III.—Plant Food Solution.—
1 2
Potassium chloride 0.16 or 12.5 parts
Calcium nitrate 0.71 or 58.0 parts
Magnesium sulphate 0.125 or 12.0 parts
Potassium phosphate 0.133 or 15.0 parts
Iron phosphate, recently
0.032 or 2.5 parts
precipitated
1.160 or 100.0 parts
This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with
water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capacity; for smaller or
larger pots in proportion. After using the amount indicated, the
watering is continued with water alone.
IV.—Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers.—
 Potassium nitrate 100.0 parts
Ammonium phosphate 100.0 parts
Phosphoric acid 2.5 parts
Simple syrup 1,000 parts
Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water
alternately with this and with water alone. For cactaceæ,
crassulaceæ, and similar plants, which do not assimilate organic
matter directly, use distilled water instead of syrup.
Chlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is
added to the soil, which causes them to assume their natural green
color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sulphate.
V.— Sodium phosphate 4 ounces
Sodium nitrate 4 ounces
Ammonium sulphate 2 ounces
Sugar 1 ounce
Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.
VI.— Ammonium phosphate 30 parts
Sodium nitrate 25 parts
Potassium nitrate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 20 parts
Water 100,000 parts
One application of this a week is enough for the slower growing
plants, and 2 for the more rapid growing herbaceous ones.
VII.— Calcium phosphate 4 ounces
Potassium nitrate 1 ounce
Potassium phosphate 1 ounce
Magnesium sulphate 1 ounce
Iron (ferric) phosphate 100 grains
VIII.—Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the
house, should be treated to an occasional dose of the following:
 Ammonium chloride 2 parts
Sodium phosphate 4 parts
Sodium nitrate 3 parts
Water 80 parts
Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and
use as in ordinary watering.
IX.— Sugar 1 part
Potassium nitrate 2 parts
Ammonium sulphate 4 parts
X.— Ferric phosphate 1 part
Magnesium sulphate 2 parts
Potassium phosphate 2 parts
Potassium nitrate 2 parts
Calcium acid phosphate 8 parts
About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a
gallon of water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.
For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is
recommended: {338}
XI.— Potassium nitrate 30 parts
Potassium phosphate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
The following five are especially recommended for indoor use:
XII.— Sodium chloride 10 parts
Potassium nitrate 5 parts
Magnesium sulphate 5 parts
Magnesia 1 part
Sodium phosphate 2 parts
Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a quart of water
and water the plants with the solution.
 XIII.— Ammonium nitrate 40 parts
Potassium nitrate 90 parts
Ammonium phosphate 50 parts
Two grams is sufficient for a medium-sized flower pot.
XIV.— Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Sodium chloride 10 parts
Potassium nitrate 5 parts
Magnesium sulphate 5 parts
Magnesium carbonate 1 part
Sodium phosphate 20 parts
One teaspoonful to 1 quart of water.
XV.— Ammonium nitrate 40 parts
Ammonium phosphate 20 parts
Potassium nitrate 0.25 parts
Ammonium chloride 5 parts
Calcium sulphate 6 parts
Ferrous sulphate 4 parts
Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and water the plants with the
solution.
XVI.— Potassium nitrate 20 parts
Potassium phosphate 25 parts
Ammonium sulphate 10 parts
Ammonium nitrate 35 parts
This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired,
dispense with the ammonium nitrate.
XVII.—Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5
parts; magnesia, 1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in
bottles. Dissolve a teaspoonful in 1 3/4 pints of hot water, and water
the flower pots with it each day.
XVIII.—Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts;
potash niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts; magnesium
phosphate, 4 parts; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in
1,000 parts water, and apply 3 times per day.
XIX.—Calcium nitrate, 71 parts; potassium chlorate, 15 parts;
magnesium sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium phosphate, 13.3 parts;
freshly precipitated ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in
1,000 of this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the plants.
After using a certain quantity, pour on only water.
XX.—Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts;
potassium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium sulphate, 200 parts,
are mixed together. To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2 parts of
the mixture, and water the potted plants once a week with this
solution.
XXI.—Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium
chlorate, 20 parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; sodium silicate, 14
parts; ferrous sulphate, 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mixture in
1,000 parts water.
Preparing Bone For Fertilizer.—Bone, in its various forms, is
the only one of the insoluble phosphates that is now used directly
upon the soil, or without other change than is accomplished by
mechanical action or grinding. The terms used to indicate the
character of the bone have reference rather to their mechanical form
than to the relative availability of the phosphoric acid contained in
them. The terms raw bone, fine bone, boiled and steamed bone,
etc., are used to indicate methods of preparation, and inasmuch as
bone is a material which is useful largely in proportion to its rate of
decay, its fineness has an important bearing upon availability, since
the finer the bone the more surface is exposed to the action of those
forces which cause decay or solution, and the quicker will the
constituents become available. In the process of boiling or steaming,
not only is the bone made finer but its physical character in other
respects is also changed, the particles, whether fine or coarse, being
made soft and crumbly rather than dense or hard; hence it is more
likely to act quickly than if the same degree of fineness be obtained
by simple grinding. The phosphoric acid in fine steamed bone may
all become available in 1 or 2 years, while the coarser fatty raw bone
sometimes resists final decay for 3 or 4 years or even longer. {339}
Bone contains considerable nitrogen, a fact which should be
remembered in its use, particularly if used in comparison with other
phosphatic materials which do not contain this element. Pure raw
bone contains on an average 22 per cent of phosphoric acid and 4
per cent of nitrogen. By steaming or boiling, a portion of the organic
substance containing nitrogen is extracted, which has the effect of
proportionately increasing the phosphoric acid in the product; hence
a steamed bone may contain as high as 28 per cent of phosphoric
acid and as low as 1 per cent of nitrogen. Steamed bone is usually,
therefore, much richer in phosphoric acid and has less nitrogen than
the raw bone.
Brewers’ Yeast And Fertilizers.—A mixture is made of about 2
parts of yeast with 1 part of sodium chloride and 5 parts of calcium
sulphate, by weight, for use as a manure. Pure or impure yeast, or
yeast previously treated for the extraction of a portion of its
constituents, may be used, and the gypsum may be replaced by
other earthy substances of a similar non-corrosive nature.
Authorities seem to agree that lime is necessary to the plant, and
if it be wholly lacking in the soil, even though an abundance of all
the other essential elements is present, it cannot develop normally.
Many soils are well provided with lime by nature and it is seldom or
never necessary for those who cultivate them to resort to liming. It
would be just as irrational to apply lime where it is not needed as to
omit it where it is required, and hence arises the necessity of
ascertaining the needs of particular soils in this respect.
The method usually resorted to for ascertaining the amount of
lime in soils is to treat them with some strong mineral acid, such as
hydrochloric acid, and determine the amount of lime which is thus
dissolved. The fact that beets of all kinds make a ready response to
liming on soils which are deficient in lime may be utilized as the
basis of testing.
FEVER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
FIG SQUARES: See Confectionery.

FILES
Composition Files.—These files, which are frequently used by
watchmakers and other metal workers for grinding and polishing,
and the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts
copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms
and treated upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and
therefore worked with difficulty with the file.
To Keep Files Clean (see also Cleaning Preparations and
Methods).—The uneven working of a file is usually due to the fact
that filings clog the teeth of the file. To obviate this evil, scratch
brush the files before use, and then grease them with olive oil. A file
prepared in this manner lasts for a longer time, does not become so
quickly filled with filings and can be conveniently cleaned with an
ordinary rough brush.
Recutting Old Files.—Old files may be rendered useful again by
the following process: Boil them in a potash bath, brush them with a
hard brush and wipe off. Plunge for half a minute into nitric acid,
and pass over a cloth stretched tightly on a flat piece of wood. The
effect will be that the acid remains in the grooves, and will take
away the steel without attacking the top, which has been wiped dry.
The operation may be repeated according to the depth to be
obtained. Before using the files thus treated they should be rinsed in
water and dried.
FILE METAL: See Alloys.
FILLERS FOR LETTERS: See Lettering.
FILLERS FOR WOOD: See Wood.

FILTERS FOR WATER.

A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and
cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical
impurities with rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of
sponge between two perforated metallic plates, united by a central
screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge
being compressed as required. Water, under gentle pressure, flows
with such rapidity through the pores of compressed sponge, that it is
said that a few square feet of this substance will perfectly filter
several millions of gallons of water daily.
The sponges are cleaned thoroughly, rolled together as much as
possible, and placed in the escape pipe of a percolator in such a
manner that the larger portion of the sponge is in the pipe while the
smaller portion, spreading by itself, protrudes over the pipe toward
the interior {340} of the percolator, thus forming a flat filter covering
it. After a thorough moistening of the sponge it is said to admit of a
very quick and clear filtration of large quantities of tinctures, juices,
etc.
For filtering water on a small scale, and for domestic use,
“alcarrazas,” diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone
and layers of sand and charcoal, etc., are commonly employed as
filtering.
A cheap, useful form of portable filter is the following, given in the
proceedings of the British Association: “Take any common vessel,
perforated below, such as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with
coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these
a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay
perforated with small holes should be put, and on this again a
stratum of 3 or 4 inches thick of well-burnt, pounded animal
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