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Basic Computation and Principles of Computer
Programming An Introduction to Computing WBUT
2015 4th Edition E. Balagurusamy Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): E. Balagurusamy
ISBN(s): 9789339219161, 9339219163
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 5.65 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Basic Computation and
Principles of Computer
Programming
An Introduction to Computing
Fourth Edition
WBUT–2015
 About the Author
E Balagurusamy, former Vice Chancellor, Anna University, Chennai, and Member,
Union Public Service Commission, New Delhi, is currently the Chairman of EBG
Foundation, Coimbatore. He is a teacher, trainer, and consultant in the fields of
Information Technology and Management. He holds an ME (Honors) in Electrical
Engineering and PhD in Systems Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee. His areas of interest include Object-Oriented Software Engineering,
E-Governance, Technology Management, Business Process Re-engineering, and Total
Quality Management.
A prolific writer, Dr Balagurusamy has authored a large number of research papers and several
books. His best-selling books, among others, include
∑ Fundamentals of Computers
∑ Computing Fundamentals and C Programming
∑ Programming in ANSI C, 6e
∑ Programming in Java, 4e
∑ Programming in BASIC, 3e
∑ Programming in C#, 3e
∑ Numerical Methods
∑ Reliability Engineering
A recipient of numerous honors and awards, Dr Balagurusamy has been listed in the Directory of
Who’s Who of Intellectuals and in the Directory of Distinguished Leaders in Education.
Basic Computation and Principles
of Computer Programming
An Introduction to Computing
Fourth Edition
WBUT–2015

E Balagurusamy
Chairman
EBG Foundation
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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 Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xiii

1. Fundamentals of Computers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of Computers 2
1.3 Generations of Computers 5
1.4 Classification of Computers 8
1.5 Basic Anatomy of a Computer System 10
1.6 Input Devices 10
1.7 Processor 13
1.8 Output Devices 14
1.9 Memory Management 16
1.10 Overview of Operating System 17
Review Questions 23

2. Computing Concepts 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Binary Number System 25
2.3 Decimal Number System 28
2.4 Octal Number System 29
2.5 Hexadecimal Number System 30
2.6 Conversion from Any Base Number System to Any Other Base Number 31
2.7 Binary Codes 32
2.8 Binary Arithmetic Operations 33
2.9 Logic Gates 37
2.10 Programming Languages 41
2.11 Translator Programs 43
2.12 Algorithm and Flow Chart 44
2.13 Using the Computer 47
Review Questions 47
Review Exercises 48
vi Contents

3. Constants, Variables and Data Types 49

3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Character Set 49
3.3 C Tokens 51
3.4 Keywords and Identifiers 51
3.5 Constants 52
3.6 Variables 56
3.7 Data Types 57
3.8 Declaration of Variables 60
3.9 Declaration of Storage Class 63
3.10 Assigning Values to Variables 64
3.11 Defining Symbolic Constants 70
3.12 Declaring a Variable as Constant 71
3.13 Declaring a Variable as Volatile 71
3.14 Overflow and Underflow of Data 72
Case Studies 73
Review Questions 75
Programming Exercises 77

4. Operators and Expressions 78

4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Arithmetic Operators 78
4.3 Relational Operators 81
4.4 Logical Operators 82
4.5 Assignment Operators 83
4.6 Increment and Decrement Operators 85
4.7 Conditional Operator 86
4.8 Bitwise Operators 87
4.9 Special Operators 87
4.10 Arithmetic Expressions 89
4.11 Evaluation of Expressions 90
4.12 Precedence of Arithmetic Operators 91
4.13 Some Computational Problems 93
4.14 Type Conversions in Expressions 94
4.15 Operator Precedence and Associativity 98
4.16 Mathematical Functions 100
Case Study 102
Review Questions 104
Programming Exercises 107
 Contents vii

5. Managing Input and Output Operations 110

5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Reading a Character 111
5.3 Writing a Character 114
5.4 Formatted Input 115
5.5 Formatted Output 124
Case Studies 132
Review Questions 136
Programming Exercises 138

6. Decision Making and Branching 140

6.1 Introduction 140
6.2 Decision Making with if Statement 140
6.3 Simple if Statement 141
6.4 The if.....else Statement 145
6.5 Nesting of if....else Statements 148
6.6 The else if Ladder 152
6.7 The switch Statement 155
6.8 The ? : Operator 159
6.9 The Goto Statement 161
Case Studies 165
Review Questions 169
Programming Exercises 174

7. Decision Making and Looping 177

7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 The while Statement 179
7.3 The do Statement 182
7.4 The for Statement 184
7.5 Jumps in Loops 191
Case Studies 200
Review Questions 207
Programming Exercises 211

8. User-Defined Functions 214

8.1 Introduction 214
8.2 Need for User-defined Functions 214
8.3 A Multi-function Program 215
8.4 Elements of User-defined Functions 218
viii Contents

8.5 Definition of Functions 219

8.6 Return Values and their Types 221
8.7 Function Calls 222
8.8 Function Declaration 224
8.9 Category of Functions 226
8.10 No Arguments and No Return Values 226
8.11 Arguments but No Return Values 229
8.12 Arguments with Return Values 232
8.13 No Arguments but Returns a Value 236
8.14 Functions that Return Multiple Values 237
8.15 Nesting of Functions 238
8.16 Recursion 240
8.17 Passing Arrays to Functions 241
8.18 Passing Strings to Functions 246
8.19 The Scope, Visibility and Lifetime of Variables 247
8.20 Multifile Programs 257
Case Study 260
Review Questions 263
Programming Exercises 267

9. The Preprocessor 269

9.1 Introduction 269
9.2 Macro Substitution 270
9.3 File Inclusion 274
9.4 Compiler Control Directives 275
Review Questions 278
Programming Exercises 279

10. Arrays 280

10.1 Introduction 280
10.2 One-dimensional Arrays 282
10.3 Declaration of One-dimensional Arrays 283
10.4 Initialization of One-dimensional Arrays 285
10.5 Two-dimensional Arrays 289
10.6 Initializing Two-dimensional Arrays 293
10.7 Multi-dimensional Arrays 298
10.8 Dynamic Arrays 298
10.9 More about Arrays 299
Case Studies 300
Review Questions 312
Programming Exercises 315
 Contents ix

11. Character Arrays and Strings 318

11.1 Introduction 318
11.2 Declaring and Initializing String Variables 319
11.3 Reading Strings from Terminal 320
11.4 Writing Strings to Screen 325
11.5 Arithmetic Operations on Characters 330
11.6 Putting Strings Together 331
11.7 Comparison of Two Strings 333
11.8 String-handling Functions 333
11.9 Table of Strings 338
11.10 Other Features of Strings 340
Case Studies 341
Review Questions 345
Programming Exercises 348

12. Pointers 350

12.1 Introduction 350
12.2 Understanding Pointers 350
12.3 Accessing the Address of a Variable 353
12.4 Declaring Pointer Variables 354
12.5 Initialization of Pointer Variables 355
12.6 Accessing a Variable Through Its Pointer 357
12.7 Chain of Pointers 359
12.8 Pointer Expressions 360
12.9 Pointer Increments and Scale Factor 361
12.10 Pointers and Arrays 363
12.11 Pointers and Character Strings 366
12.12 Array of Pointers 368
12.13 Pointers as Function Arguments 369
12.14 Functions Returning Pointers 372
12.15 Pointers to Functions 372
12.16 Pointers and Structures 375
Case Studies 378
Review Questions 383
Programming Exercises 386

13. Structures and Unions 387

13.1 History of Computers 387
13.2 Defining a Structure 387
13.3 Declaring Structure Variables 389
13.4 Accessing Structure Members 391
13.5 Structure Initialization 392
x Contents

13.6 Copying and Comparing Structure Variables 394

13.7 Operations on Individual Members 396
13.8 Arrays of Structures 397
13.9 Arrays within Structures 399
13.10 Structures within Structures 401
13.11 Structures and Functions 403
13.12 Unions 405
13.13 Size of Structures 407
13.14 Bit Fields 407
Case Studies 411
Review Questions 414
Programming Exercises 418

14. File Management in C 420

14.1 Introduction 420
14.2 Defining and Opening a File 421
14.3 Closing a File 422
14.4 Input/Output Operations on Files 423
14.5 Error Handling During I/O Operations 429
14.6 Random Access to Files 431
14.7 Command Line Arguments 436
Review Questions 439
Programming Exercises 440

15. Developing a C Program: Some Guidelines 442

15.1 Introduction 442
15.2 Program Design 442
15.3 Program Coding 444
15.4 Common Programming Errors 446
15.5 Program Testing and Debugging 453
15.6 Program Efficiency 455
Review Questions 456

Solved Question Paper 2012 458–475

Solved Question Paper 2013 476–489
Solved Question Paper 2014 490–506

Bibliography 507
 Preface

C is a powerful, flexible, portable and elegantly structured programming language. Since C com-
bines the features of a high-level language with the elements of the assembler, it is suitable for
both systems and applications programming. It is undoubtedly the most widely used general-purpose
language today.
This book is designed for BTech first-year, second-semester students of West Bengal University
of Technology taking the paper on Basic Computation and Principles of Computer Programming
(CS201). This book will also be useful for students taking diploma courses in computer science.
All those who wish to be C programmers, regardless of their past knowledge and experience in pro-
gramming, will find this book very useful for it explains the ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of programming
with C in the most easy-to-understand manner.
The writing style uses and emphasizes on the concept of ‘learning by example’. Each major fea-
ture of the language is explained in a comprehensive manner and supported with complete program
examples to illustrate its use. The sample programs are designed to be both simple and educational.
Wherever necessary, pictorial descriptions of concepts are included to improve clarity and facilitate
better understanding.

Salient Features
� 100% coverage and organization as per the WBUT syllabus
� Latest WBUT Solved Examination Question Papers (2012, 2013 and 2012)
� Provides good understanding of both computing fundamentals and programming nuances
� In-depth discussion of operators, expressions, arrays, and pointers
� Dedicated chapter providing guidelines for developing C programs
� Case studies in every chapter comprise problem, problem analysis and program demonstrating
real-life applications
� Special features include supplementary notes and information in special boxes, ‘Just Remember’
section at chapter-end summarizes the main points
� Rich Pedagogy includes:
� 500+ Review Questions comprising True and False, Fill in the Blanks, Find the Errors, and
Objective-Type Questions
� 175 Programming Exercises to practice programming applications
� 105 Solved Examples
� 22 Case Studies
� 145 Illustrations
xii Preface

Chapter Organization
The contents of the book have been divided into 15 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the subject
describing the history of computers, the different generations of computers and their classification and
input and output devices. It also gives an overview of operating systems. Chapter 2 introduces the
binary number system and explains the procedure for writing algorithms and flowcharts. Chapter 3
discusses how to declare constants, variables and data types. Chapter 4 is on built-in operators and
explains how to build expressions using them. Chapter 5 details input and output operations. Decision
making and branching is discussed in Chapter 6. It describes the if-else, switch and goto statements.
Further, decision making and looping is discussed in Chapter 7 which covers the while, do and
for loops. Functions are discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with preprocessors. Arrays and
ordered arrangement of data elements, important to any programming language, have been covered
in Chapters 10 and 11. Chapter 11 also explains strings. Pointers, commonly perceived as a difficult
topic in C, are covered in Chapter 12 in the most lucid manner. Chapter 13 is on structures and unions.
Chapter 14 discusses file management. Finally, Chapter 15 is on developing a C program. It provides
a comprehensive understanding of the procedures for the development of a program.
Solved WBUT examination papers (2012 to 2014) are provided for students’ practice and self-
assessment toward the book’s end.

Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the following reviewers for taking out time and sharing their valuable comments after
going through various chapters of the book.
Susanta Mitra Adamas Institute of Technology, Kolkata
Sinthia Roy Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Kolkata
Debasis Giri Haldia Institute of Technology, Medinipur
Anup Mallick Regent Education and Research Foundation, Kolkata
Rinku Supakar Dr Sudhir Chandra Sur Degree Engineering College, Kolkata
Jayanta Pal Narula Institute of Technology, Kolkata
I am also thankful to the staff of McGraw Hill Education (India) for their cooperation and support
in bringing out this book on time.
Suggestions for improvement are always welcome.

E BALAGURUSAMY

Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback, comments and ideas to en-
hance the quality of this book. You can reach us at info.india@mheducation.com. Please mention the
title and author’s name as the subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
 Roadmap to the Syllabus
This textbook is useful for Subject Code:
Basic Computation and Principles of Computer Programming (CS201)

Unit 1 - Fundamentals of Computers

History of computers, generation of computers, classification of computers. Basic anatomy of computer
system, primary and secondary memory, processing unit, input and output devices. Binary and allied
number systems, representation of signed and unsigned numbers, BCD, ASII. Binary arithmetic and logic
gates, assembly language, high-level language, compiler and assembler (basic concepts). Basic concepts
of operating systems like MS DOS, MS WINDOW, UNIX, algorithm, and flow chart.

GO TO Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Computers

Chapter 2 Computing Concepts

Unit 2 - C Fundamentals
The C character set identifiers and keywords, data types and sizes, variable names, declaration,
statements.

GO TO Chapter 3 Constants, Variables and Data Types

Unit 3 - Operators and Expressions

Arithmetic operators, relational and logical operators, type, conversion, increment and decrement
operators, bit-wise operators, assignment operators and expressions, precedence and order of evaluation.
Input and Output: Standard input and output, formatted output—printf(), formatted input, scanf().

GO TO Chapter 4 Operators and Expressions

Chapter 5 Managing Input and Output Operations
xiv Roadmap to the Syllabus

Unit 4 - Flow of Control

Statements and blocks, if–else, switch, loops–while, for, do while, break and continue, go to and labels.

GO TO Chapter 6 Decision Making and Branching

Chapter 7 Decision Making and Looping

Unit 5 - Fundamentals and Program Structures

Basics of functions, function types, functions returning values, functions not returning values, auto,
external, static and register variables, scope rules, recursion, function prototypes, C preprocessor,
command line arguments.

GO TO Chapter 8 User-Defined Functions

Chapter 9 The Preprocessor

Unit 6 - Arrays and Pointers

One-dimensional arrays, pointers and functions, multidimensional arrays.

Chapter 10 Arrays
GO TO Chapter 11 Character Arrays and Strings
Chapter 12 Pointers

Unit 7 - Structures, Union and Files

Basics of structures, structures and functions, arrays of structures, bit fields, formatted and unformatted
files.

Chapter 13 Structures and Unions

GO TO Chapter 14 File Management in C
 CHAPTER

1
Fundamentals of Computers

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The term computer is derived from the word compute. A computer is an electronic device that takes
data and instructions as an input from the user, processes data, and provides useful information known
as output. This cycle of operation of a computer is known as the input–process–output cycle and is
shown in Fig.1.1 The electronic device is known as hardware and the set of instructions is known as
software.

INPUT OUTPUT
Data PROCESS Information

Instructions

Fig. 1.1 Input–process–output concept

The spurt of innovations and inventions in computer technology during the last few decades has led
to the development of a variety of computers. They are so versatile that they have become
indispensable to engineers, scientists, business executives, managers, administrators, accountants,
teachers and students. They have strengthened man’s powers in numerical computations and
information processing.
Modern computers possess certain characteristics and abilities peculiar to them. They can:
(i) perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately,
(ii) store large amounts of data and information for subsequent manipulations,
(iii) hold a program of a model which can be explored in many different ways,
(iv) compare items and make decisions,
(v) provide information to the user in many different forms,
(vi) automatically correct or modify the parameters of a system under control,
(vii) draw and print graphs,
(viii) converse with users interactively, and
(ix) receive and display audio and video signals.
2 Basic Computation and Principles of Computer Programming

These capabilities of computers have enabled us to use them for a variety of tasks. Application
areas may broadly be classified into the following major categories.
1. Data processing (commercial use)
2. Numerical computing (scientific use)
3. Text (word) processing (office and educational use)
4. Message communication (e-mail)
5. Image processing (animation and industrial use)
6. Voice recognition (multimedia)
Engineers and scientists make use of the high-speed computing capability of computers to solve
complex mathematical models and design problems. Many calculations that were previously beyond
contemplation have now become possible. Many of the technological achievements such as landing
on the moon would not have been possible without computers.
The areas of computer applications are too numerous to mention. Computers have become an
integral part of man’s everyday life. They continue to grow and open new horizons of discovery and
application such as the electronic office, electronic commerce, and the home computer center.
The microelectronics revolution has placed enormous computational power within the reach of not
only every organisation but also individual professionals and businessmen. However, it must be
remembered that computers are machines created and managed by human beings. A computer has no
brain of its own. Anything it does is the result of human instructions. It is an obedient slave which
carries out the master’s instructions as long as it can understand them, no matter whether they are right
or wrong.

1.2 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The use of computing techniques is over 5000 years old. The Babylonians, Chinese, and Egyptians
had used numerical methods for the survey of lands and the collection of taxes as early as 3000 BC.
Computing history starts with the development of a device called the abacus (Fig.1.2) by the Chinese
around this period. This was used for the systematic calculation of arithmetic operations. Since then
the number system has undergone various changes
and has been used in different forms in computing.
The most significant development in computing was
the formulation of the decimal number system in India
around 800 AD.
Another significant development was the invention
of logarithm by John Napier (a Scottish mathe-
matician) in 1614 which made computing simple. He
also designed a set of bones known as Napier bones
which were used for multiplication. Later in 1620, the
concept of the use of these bones was modified by
Edmund Gunter to produce what was known as the
‘slide rule’. This device consisted of two graduated
scales, one sliding over the other and used the
principle of logarithms. The slide rule which was Fig. 1.2 Abacus
 Fundamentals of Computers 3

further improved in 1632 by William Oughtred (an English mathematician) was used by scientists and
engineers until the electronic calculators appeared in the 1960s.
The modern age of mathematics emerged during the 17th century when Johannes Kepler and Galileo
Galilee deduced laws for planetary motion and Sir Isaac Newton formulated the law of gravity. The
subsequent developments in mathematics and other sciences increased the need for new computing
techniques and devices.
The first accounting machine known as Pascaline was built by Blaise Pascal (a French
mathematician and thinker) in 1642. Then came the Leibnitz calculator developed by Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibnitz, a German philosopher and mathematician in 1671. These machines progressed
in technology and variety and became the standard calculating machines of the business community.
During the beginning of the 19th century, Joseph Marie Jacquard a French textile manufacturer
invented an automated loom operated by a mechanism controlled by punched cards.
The origin of the modern computer can be traced back to 1834, when an English mathematician
Charles Babbage designed an analytical engine. This was considered as the first programmable digital
mechanical computer. This machine contained all the major parts of the modern computer system.
Charles Babbage is therefore known as the ‘father of modern computer’. Lady Ada Lovelace was one
of the strong supporters of Babbage’s work. She wrote many of the operating instructions for the
experimental machine designed by Babbage. She is therefore considered to be the ‘first computer
programmer’. She presented some of the key elements of programming and program design.
Around this time George Boole, a British mathematician, developed an algebra based on variables
that could have only two states, true or false. He published what is known as Boolean Logic in 1854.
All modern computers use this logic.
The first large-scale application of data processing was undertaken by the United States Census
Bureau in 1890. Dr Herman Hollerith (a mechanical engineer) who was employed by the Census
Bureau designed an electromechanical machine that could tabulate data using punched cards. This
formed the basis for the traditional punched card technology.
Later in 1896, Hollerith started the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture the tabulating
machines. The company, later on became the well-known IBM (International Business Machines)
company.
The dream machine of Babbage was not built until 1944, when Mark I, an electromechanical
automatic computer, was developed by Howard Aiken for IBM. Subsequently, a series of
technological improvements and innovations took place and the design of computers underwent
continuous and dramatic changes.
The first electronic digital computer known as the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC) was developed by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania, in
1946, using vacuum tubes.
The concept of ‘stored program’ was contributed by John von Neuman, a Hungarian born
mathematician in 1945. Computers known as EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator) and EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) were built later during
the 1940s based on this concept.
The era of commercial application of modern computers began in 1951 when the UNIVAC
(Universal Automatic computer) became operational at the Bureau of Census in USA. Since then
computers started appearing in quick succession, each claiming an improvement over the other. They
represented improvements in speed, memory (storage) systems, input and output devices and
4 Basic Computation and Principles of Computer Programming

programming techniques. They also showed a continuous reduction in physical size and cost. The
developments in computers are closely associated with the developments in material technology,
particularly the semiconductor technology. Some of the important developments since the slide rule
are given in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 Some Important Developments in Computing Technology

Year Device
1614 Napier bones and logarithms by John Napier
1632 Slide rule by William Oughtred
1642 Pascal calculator, an accounting machine by Blaise Pascal
1671 Leibnitz calculator by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz
1801 Punched card loom by Joseph Marie Jacquard
1822 Difference engine by Charles Babbage
1834 Analytical engine by Charles Babbage
1854 Boolean algebra by George Boole
1890 Punched card machine by Herman Hollerith
1906 Electronic valve invented by De Forest
1930 Differential analyzer by Vannevar Bush
1936 Paper on computational numbers by Alan Turing
Link between symbolic logic and electric circuit by Claude Shanon
1937 Binary adder built by George Stibitz
1941 First general-purpose computer designed by Konrad Zuse
1943 Colossus machine built to crack German secret codes, by the British
1944 First automatic computer, MARK I designed by Howard Aiken
1945 Critical elements of a computer system outlined by John Von Neumann
1946 First electronic digital computer, ENIAC put to operation by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly
1947 Transistor invented by John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain
1951 First business computer, UNIVAC became operational
1956 Second generation computer (using transistors) introduced by Bell Laboratory
1959 Integrated circuits (ICs) demonstrated by Clair Kilby
1964 First third generation computer using ICs developed
1965 First commercial minicomputer, PDP-8 introduced by Digital Equipment Corporation
1971 Intel 4004 microprocessor designed by Ted Hoff
1974 First fourth generation computer (using microprocessors) built by Ed Roberts
1975 First personal computer software created by Bill Gates and Paul Allen
1977 Apple introduced its famous personal computer
1981 IBM PC introduced in the market
1982 Cray supercomputer marketed by Cray Research Company
1984 Apple introduced Macintosh P.C.
1989 Optical Computer demonstrated
1990 Motorola announced 32-bit microprocessor
1992 IBM introduced Thinkpad laptop computer
1995 Intel released Pentium Pro microprocessor
1996 Intel announced 200 MHz Pentium processor
1997 Pentium II microprocessor introduced
1999 Pentium III processor announced by Intel
2000 Pentium 4 released
2006 Intel core 2 processor launched.
 Fundamentals of Computers 5

1.3 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

The different computing devices developed over the years can be categorized into several generations.
Each generation of computer is the result of a technological development, which changed the
way computers used to operate. As we proceed from one generation to another, we will see that the
computers have become smaller and cheaper with more efficient computing capability. Computers
can be categorized into five generations:
n First generation (1940–1956)
n Second generation (1956–1963)
n Third generation (1964–1971)
n Fourth generation (1971– till date)
n Fifth generation (1980s - - -)

First-Generation Computers
In this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used to build the circuitry for the computers and
magnetic drum was used for the memory of the computer. A vacuum tube was a device made up of
glass and used filaments to generate electrons. It was used to amplify the
electronic signals. Figure 1.3 shows a vacuum tube.
The first-generation computers used to perform calculation in
milliseconds. They were the fastest known computers of their time. The
size of these computers was very large, and a single computer was used to
cover the space of an entire room. Since the size of the computers was
very large, they used to consume a great deal of electricity and generated
a large amount of heat. To avoid malfunctioning from overheating, the
rooms where these computers were placed had to be air-conditioned.
These computers were also prone to frequent technical faults and hence
required proper maintenance at regular intervals.
The computers belonging to the first generation used machine
language to perform operations and were capable of performing one
operation at a time. These computers were used to take inputs from punch
cards and paper tapes and displayed the results on paper as printouts. The
computers that fall under the first generation of computers are ENIAC,
EDVAC and UNIVAC. These computers were used for scientific Fig. 1.3 Vacuum tube
calculations.

Second-Generation Computers
In the second generation of computers, transistors were used instead of vacuum tubes. Transistors
were invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, Willian Shockley, and Walter Brattain. The transistors were
faster and more reliable than vacuum tubes. In addition, the size of the transistors was smaller than
vacuum tubes and they generated less heat as compared to vacuum tubes. Figure 1.4 shows a transistor.
Since transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers, the size and cost
associated with computers had decreased to a considerable extent. The processing speed of the
6 Basic Computation and Principles of Computer Programming

computers had increased and they were more reliable than the
first generation computers. The heat generated by the
transistors was less as compared to the vacuum tubes and
therefore the damage caused to the computers was less.
The second generation computers used assembly language
instead of machine language. The use of assembly language
helped the programmer to specify instructions in the form of
words. The task of the programmer thus became easier with
the development of high-level languages like COBOL and
FORTRAN.
The main characteristic of second generation computers
was that they used the stored program concept, i.e. the
instructions were stored in the memory of the computer. Like Fig. 1.4 Transistors
the previous generation computers, the second-generation
computers also accepted inputs from punch cards and magnetic tapes. The output was either stored in
punch cards or printed on a paper. These computers use magnetic tapes and magnetic disks as external
storage devices. Even though the cost associated with the development of a computer was less as
compared to the first-generation computers, still the cost associated in the commercial production of
these computers was high, because thousands of transistors were assembled manually. IBM 1620,
PDP8 and CDC1604 are examples of second generation computers.

Third-Generation Computers
The third generation of computers were characterized by the development of the Integrated Circuit
(IC), which was developed by Jack Kilby, in 1958. An IC is a silicon chip that embeds an electronic
circuit, which comprises several components, such as transistors, diodes, and resistors. The use of ICs
had increased the speed and efficiency of the computers to
a significant extent.
These computers used a keyboard, which is an input
device, for accepting data from users and displayed the
output on the monitor, which is an output device. Several
programs were developed that helped execute more than
one application at the same time on a computer. With the
introduction of ICs in the development of computers, the
cost of the computers decreased to such an extent that they
were affordable by a large part of the common population.
Figure 1.5 shows an IC. Examples of third generation Fig. 1.5 An IC
computers include IBM 370, PDP11 and CDC 7600.

Fourth-Generation Computers
The fourth generation of computers is characterized by the use of Large Scale Integration (LSI)
circuits and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits in the construction of computing
components. In fourth generation computers, LSI and VLSI circuits were further integrated on a single
silicon chip, termed as microprocessor, containing control logic and memory. The major change in
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if he had just dipped his head into a tub of cold water, so fresh was
his colour.

"You haven't been up all night, I'll be bound," she inwardly

ejaculated; "but you look different from what I expected."

"I am the new nurse," she said in answer to the astonishment that
shot out of his blue eyes, "and the doctor has sent me to see after
your mother. What sort of night has she had?"

"Pretty bad," said Geo. "I was just gettin' th' kettle to boil, and
thought I'd make her some tea."

"Milk is better for her," said the nurse.

"That's too early for milk yet," said Geo; "you can't get milk at the
shop before eight o'clock."

"Oh, well, I've got a ticket for you," and the nurse produced it out of
her little black bag.

"Why, that's for the Hall!" said Geo with surprise.

"Yes, that's all right; the doctor sent it. You'd better take a can and
go and fetch it at once. I'll see after your mother if you'll just take
me to her."

"But I think I'd better first let her know," said Geo, thinking this
newcomer was taking rather too much on herself.

Nurse read his thoughts and flushed a little. She was so full of the
importance of her mission, so anxious to do her work thoroughly,
that she sometimes forgot the little courtesies due to everybody, sick
or well.

"Certainly," she said, rather curtly. "I'll wait till you come down."
George disappeared up the steep little staircase that led out of the
sitting-room to the bedroom overhead. He was gone a few minutes,
and when he came back he said his mother would be glad to see
nurse if the doctor had sent her, and he showed her up. The sick
woman, who looked thin and flushed with fever, looked half
frightened at the nurse for a moment, and then began to cry.

"Leave her to me," said nurse to Geo, who did not understand.
"She'll be all right in a minute or two."

So Geo went off in his usual leisurely way for the milk, and the nurse
talked soothingly to the sick woman, took her temperature, which
was very high, and gave her some fever medicine.

"Are you going to do for her?" asked the nurse bluntly when Geo
returned.

"I s'pose so," answered Geo in the same way.

"Well, I'll call in some time again this afternoon. You need not stop
with her all day, but you must come in and out; and give her nothing
but milk, but plenty of it. But can you be spared from your work?
Oh," as Geo hesitated, "I forgot."

Geo saw she had already heard about him. It was unnecessary to
explain.

"I'll due wot yue say," he said simply, opening the door and letting
her out; and then he went back to his mother, who spoke gratefully
of the nurse and seemed glad of her help.

CHAPTER XI.
 THE STRIKE AT THE WELL
One would have thought that so excellent a work as the digging of
the wells would be allowed to go on quietly, but unfortunately the
fact that the scheme happened to have been originated by the vicar
and the doctor was enough to make some people condemn it; and
we all know, when once the thin end of the wedge of discontent and
distrust has forced its way into anything, how difficult—nay, how
often impossible—it is to dislodge it. And so it was that the men at
the railway well, when they had dug to the depth of nearly fifty feet
and had found no water, began to get impatient and disheartened.
Most of the wells in Willowton were not more than thirty or forty feet
deep, and were fed, of course, chiefly by surface drainage; hence
their deadly poison. These new wells were on the higher ground
above the village, and naturally water was to be found there only at
a deeper level; but these men either would not or could not take this
in. Two of them had had very little experience whatever in the work,
and like all novices, they looked for immediate results; and when
these were not forthcoming, they grumbled at the dowser, their
employers, and everything else. Their evil counsellors advised a
strike for higher wages than the unprecedented amount they were
already receiving, and so it happened that one hot morning, when
the vicar went up to see how they were progressing, he found the
well deserted, and no signs of the men anywhere. He walked up to it
and looked in. It was partially covered with planks in the usual way,
apparently just as they had left it the night before. He was puzzled.
The men had apparently struck. But why? he asked himself. And
nothing he could recall threw any light upon the matter.

"That is the worst," he thought "of employing irregular workmen."

But it had been impossible at such short notice to procure all
professional well-sinkers, and he had thought himself very fortunate
to have secured two, one for each well; while all the men, except
Chapman, had seen the work going on at various farms in the
neighbourhood, if they had not actually assisted. They were
perfectly well aware of the nature of the work; they had volunteered
for it, and gone at it cheerfully enough. The strike was altogether
inexplicable.

The vicar paid his visit to the Union, and an hour later came on to
the bridge, where he saw all four men seated on the parapet,
smoking, and talking loudly and ostentatiously, as if they wished to
engage the attention of the passers-by. They were a rough-looking
gang, however, and nobody seemed inclined to stop. Curiously
enough, neither Corkam nor Farley was present.

"Good-morning, my men," he said pleasantly when he got within

speaking distance. "How is it you are not at work?"

A sort of sullen silence had come over them at his approach. No one
attempted to break it, but each looked covertly at the other for
guidance—all except the stranger, who turned his back and became
apparently deeply interested in the ducks on the water.

"You're all here, aren't you? No accident, I hope?" said the vicar.

"No accident as I know on," answered the foreman at last.

He was a man who had been in the choir, but had left for some
stupid reason or fancied slight, known only to himself. Mr. Rutland
had been extremely kind to him always, and had helped him more
than once with money when an accident during harvest had kept
him out of work.

"Well," said the vicar, turning very red with an evident effort to keep
his temper, "since none of you have anything to say, I will wish you
good-morning."

"Well, but we have something to say," said another man roughly.

This man had had three children down with the fever, and the doctor
had given them every attention, even sitting up half the night on
occasion when two of them had been in a very critical state. He had
behaved very differently then from what he was doing now. He
thrust his hands into his trousers pockets, and tried to look as
callous as he could.

The vicar looked at him for the eighth part of a second with disgust.

"Well, then, Cadger, stand up and say it properly," he said

authoritatively.

The man slipped off the parapet, and stood looking very
uncomfortable, for all his swagger, under the vicar's scrutiny.

"Now, then," said the vicar sharply, "what is it? what is your
complaint?"

"We've struck," said two or three voices at once.

The vicar never once glanced at the graceless creatures still dangling
their legs, though less aggressively; he addressed himself to Cadger.

"Oh, have you?" he said as calmly as he could. "What have you

struck for?"

"More wages," said Cadger, glancing at his comrades for directions.

"Which you won't have," said the vicar quietly. He was quite calm
now and very white. "You agreed for what was considered by
yourselves, and by everybody else, a very generous wage. You have
no right to ask more. I, for one, will certainly not advocate it. There
is reason in all things, and money is not so plentiful in Willowton as
you seem to think. I am disappointed in you, Cadger, particularly; I
had thought better things of you. I fancied you, at least, were
anxious to take your share in lessening the terrible trouble that has
been put upon us; but I see now you only thought of your own
interest. With my consent, I tell you honestly, you will not get a
penny more."
"He! he!" laughed one or two of the men; but the vicar never looked
round.

"But," he added, "I am only one. You can bring your complaint in
proper form before the committee, and, of course, if the majority
agree, what I say will not stand; so you have your remedy."

He walked away as he finished speaking, and Cadger sat down

again. He did not say anything, for somehow or other, though he felt
very valiant at first, he began now to feel rather small. There was an
uncomfortable silence for a few minutes, and then the stranger,
whose name was Hayes, knocked the ashes out of his pipe against
the root of a tree and spoke.

"He don't look such a bad sort," he said reflectively.

"I don't mind him so much," said Cadger patronizingly, "when he

mind 'is own business."

"Oh, indeed!" said the stranger with a twinkle. "Well, now, whatever
is 'is business?"

"Well, I s'pose that's te preach in th' church, and give the money tue
th' poor, and wisit th' sick."

"Yis. Well, go on; northin' more'n that?"

"Well yis," went on the man, never seeing that Hayes was "pulling
his leg:" "he've got ter due th' christenin', and th' marryin', and th'
buryin'."

"Well, that last ought ter give 'im plenty o' work in this hole," said
Hayes rather brutally. "Well, go on. Anythin' more?"

"Well, he've got ter see after the schule, an' the clothin' club, an' the
parish room, an' sech like things."
"And don't he take no trouble about the choir? Don't he have no
Bible classes, nor confirmation classes, nor nothin'?"

"Oh yis, hev them," Cadger allowed.

"Well, then, there's them concerts, and trips to the seaside, and
school treats you was tellin' me about the other day. Don't he have
nothin' to do with them?"

"Oh yis; he manages them, in coorse."

"Oh, 'ndeed! Well, now, how about the cricket clubs and the football
clubs?"

"Oh, he's treasurer for them tue."

"Well, then—I don't hold much with parsons myself, but I should like
to know wat's not his business!"

"That's not 'is business to come interferin' wi' us," said the man who
had laughed derisively. It was he who had insulted the memory of
Geo's father.

"Oh, ain't it? Well—- Don't be angry," as the man fired up; "I only
ask for information. Who had the startin' o' these here wells?"

Nobody seemed anxious to answer this question, and Hayes did it

himself.

"Why, the parson hisself, didn't he? And aren't he and the doctor
answerable for the money? If any one has a right to say anything, I
should think the parson has. But you're on the strike, and right or
wrong you're in for it; but I don't mind tellin' of yer I ain't—I'm only
one to four, and that's no good holdin' out. But I ain't one a' yer
sneakin' sort; I ain't afeared ter speak out, no more'n th' parson,
and I tell yer honest I hain't struck. I can't goo on by myself; but
I've been a well-sinker all my days, and I know I niver had sech
good pay offered to me before, and I'm content. If they don't give
in, why, the well, I s'pose will have to be closed. But that don't
matter to me; I can get plenty a' jobs at Ipswitch, an' I can go back
where I come from, quite agreeable."

He put his pipe back into his mouth when he had finished his
harangue, and puffed away for some moments in silence; and then
the storm broke. The other men were furious at his words. They
called him by every opprobrious name they could think of.

"All right," he said at last, leisurely pulling off his jacket; "let's fight it
out."

He stood up boldly in the middle of the road, with his head thrown
back and his fists clenched; but nobody seemed inclined to accept
his invitation.

A butcher's cart that was passing pulled up to see the fun, and in a
minute or less there was quite a crowd of small boys standing round
the angry group. Encouraged by the "gallery," Hayes, who had
hitherto been perfectly good-humoured, was beginning to be really
angry, and in another minute would probably have let fly at one or
other of his late mates; but the policeman, who happened to be at
hand, stepped up in the nick of time and placed a heavy hand on his
shoulder.

Hayes was sobered in a minute.

"All right, master, I don't want to fight. There ain't one a' them but
wot I could pound into mincemeat if I liked, but I'll let 'em off since
you've come."

He pulled down his shirt sleeves as he spoke, and Cadger and his
mates took the opportunity of slipping off, and in five minutes the
bridge was clear. Indeed, the whole scene had not lasted quarter of
an hour; and when Farley and Corkam emerged from the back
parlour of the Swan, their mortification and disgust at having missed
it knew no bounds. But there had been one silent spectator who
concerns our story—it was Geo Lummis. He had heard it all, every
word, as he hung over the bridge watching the stream. It was no
business of his, so he did not interfere; and knowing that he would
be questioned and cross-questioned a hundred times over by both of
them if they knew he had been there, he turned off abruptly and
went home.

CHAPTER XII.

BACK TO THE WORK

Annie Chapman never had liked her husband working at the well.
She said as little as she could, and she scarcely knew why, but a sort
of nameless fear always crept over her when people spoke of the
work. Though she took her husband his "'levenses" and his "fourses"
every day, she never could be induced to look down into its depths,
which naturally grew deeper day by day.

It was a hot walk though a short one, and Annie's head throbbed
with the intensity of the heat, and her feet felt as if they were
weighted with lead. It was like walking on hot flags, she thought, as
she plodded over the common with the last baby in her arms. The
men had rigged up a sort of rough tent with four poles and a stack-
cover, and placed a couple of benches underneath it, and Annie
stopped to rest under its grateful shade. She was a little early, and
Tom was still at work ninety feet below her. She shuddered as she
thought of it, and Martin's daughter, who had come on the same
errand for her father, laughed at her.
"You're never cold, Mrs. Chapman!" she said. "That must be a goose
walkin' over your grave."

"Likely as not," said Annie, answering in the same vein; "there are
plenty on 'em about."

The girl laughed. She was a nice, bright, curly-haired, freckly girl.
She looked kindly at Annie, and held out her arms for the baby.

"I don't believe you half like your husband takin' on with my father,"
she said.

"How do you know?" asked Annie, rather sharply for her.

"Why, Chapman told fayther so. He said you was rare put about
when he told you, and if it weren't that he think that's only duin'
what he oughter, he'd ha' chucked the job long ago. But he would
not go back on fayther, he say, after he've giv his word; and he's a
good man, he is," she added warmly. "Fayther he think a lot o' him.
He's a good un to work, he say, and a good mate tew, and fayther
don't say that a' ivrybody, I can tell yew."

Annie felt pleased. It is always pleasant to hear nice things, of

course, about those we love, and Annie was generally so busy
muddling along with her household and children all day that she had
very little time for gossiping or exchanging many words with her
neighbours; and she scarcely knew how her Tom stood amongst his
fellows, for he was quiet and unobtrusive, and was not a man to
make many friends.

"He think a lot a' your father too," she answered, giving tit for tat
with truth.

"I wish they'd come up," Annie said at last. "If they're not quick I'll
have to go back without seein' Tom."
"Why don't you put your head over and call down to him?" said the
girl.

Annie shuddered again.

"Oh no, no, I dursn't"

"Well, I will," said her companion. "I know Mr. Hayes'll let me.—
Won't you now, Mr. Hayes?"

The big man who sat on the edge of the temporary woodwork that
was erected at the mouth of the well turned a good-natured,
sunburnt visage towards her.

"All right, my gal! come on, I'll hold ye. They've got on well to-day.
They're down a sight deeper than last time you looked."

The man held back the ropes that hung from a windlass over the
top, and the girl stooped over the brink. She could see the heads of
both men down at what appeared to her an unfathomable depth.
She uttered a little cry of dismay. The earth had been getting softer
and easier to dig into for the last two days and they had made
considerable progress. Martin looked up as the shadow cast by the
girl's head and shoulders darkened the pit a little.

"Hullo! That's you, my gal, is it? Well, I'm coming. I want my fourses
bad, I can tell you."

"Well, come on up then, father; and tell Mr. Chapman his wife have
been waitin' for him ever so long, and she've got to go home
directly, to give the children their teas."

"All right, then.—You go up first, Tom." And nothing loath, Tom put
his foot into the loop, and gripping the rope with both hands was
soon drawn up.
"My eye, it is hot up here," he said, as half blinded by the sun he
made his way to the tent. Martin soon followed, and the women
unpacked their baskets. Annie had brought Tom a bottle of his
favourite fromerty and a large harvest-bun. Martin liked tea, so his
daughter had a pot full of it rolled up in an old shawl to keep it hot,
for Martin held that hot tea is the most cooling of drinks. "Drinkin'
cold things when you're hot only makes you all the hotter!" Well,
every one to his taste, and the big man preferred beer. He was a
stranger, and the same man who had made such cruel remarks on
Geo Lummis's muscles.

He lodged at Martin's house, so "Martin's gal," as Polly was generally

called in the village, had brought his "fourses" too. He quaffed off
his half-pint of good home-brew, made by Mrs. Martin herself, and
with a sigh of enjoyment flung the drops at the bottom of the glass
on to the thirsty ground.

"That 'ud be a rum job," he said, as he seated himself on the form,

"if that dowser chap ha' happened ar a mistake, and we don't find
no water arter all."

"We'll find it all right," said Martin decidedly. "He knowed what he
was about. He said that was a long way down, and I believe him."

That Martin should believe him was quite sufficient for himself and
Chapman, for Martin was one of those people that carry about them
a quiet power of making every one else trust them. He possessed
that nameless intangible quality that we know as "character." Martin
was not particularly clever, he was not entertaining or amusing in
conversation; but he undoubtedly possessed a great deal of
character, and in his quiet, deliberate, commonplace way he carried
as much weight as any man in the parish. If it had not been for
Martin, it is pretty certain the wells would never have been begun,
much less finished. It was Martin whose example made Chapman,
Lake, and the other two Willowton men at the railway well come
forward in the first instance and volunteer their services. It was
Martin who gave the other men courage to come forward with with
their offer of work. It was Martin who kept Lake and Chapman up to
the mark when, seeing the difficulty and hardness of the work, they
wavered, and, urged on by "the bridge," were inclined to strike for
more wages.

"What, give in," he said, "when we've go so far—sixty feet or more

below th' surface? More money yer want? Well, I'm all fur gettin' all
we can. I haven't no sort er objection te money myself; but fair
play's a jewel, I say, and we've took this risk, and we've jest got te
keep it. A few more shillin's won't make our lives na safer, and we've
got a good wage—three shillin's a day ter start on, and a shillin'
more for every ten feet; and I say that's good pay, and we don't
want na better—leastways we didn't ought to. Do you think folks is
made o' money?" he asked, warming to his subject. "I don't say as
Mr Rutland and the doctor are goin' to pay us out o' their own
porckets—in coorse they're not; but they're responsible—that's how I
take it. And they are payin' us fair and punctual; and I'm not goin' to
say that I don't believe but what if they get more money than they
want by their subscription boxes, and they offer me a bonus, that I'll
refuse it," with a twinkle in his honest gray eye. "No, if they like to
remember the well-diggers when the water is come, I won't hev
northin' to say agin it, I'm sure; and nor wud yue now. Jest yue put
that in your pipes and smoke it!"

He lounged off as he spoke with a "good-night" over his shoulder,

and next morning, when, having "smoked it" with much thought
overnight, the two men arrived on the scene, they found Martin
there before them. He made no remark, and work began as usual.
The idea of going back never entered either of their heads again,
though the railway-well men had carried out their threat and struck.

When Lake, who lived in Gravel-pit Lane, went down with the fever,
it was Martin who suggested to Mr. Rutland to get back the stranger,
who had only gone away that morning reluctantly; for he was an
experienced digger, and saw little risk in the railway well, and would
willingly have gone on with the work if he had not been thrown out
by the pusillanimity of his mates. He came at once, and both the
Willowton men took to him. He was pleasant to work with, for he
was both able and hard-working, and never, "shirked a spadeful," as
Martin told the vicar, with just a touch of pride at his own sagacity in
suggesting him. Mr. Rutland had been doubtful when it was
proposed to him. He did not think it wise to bring him in again, but
Martin's good sense overruled him.

"There's nobody in the place durst come and help us," he said, "time
them tue others is out a' work; they wouldn't leave 'em alone, not a
minute. That's only a stranger we can hev now, as matters are, and
he hadn't northin' ter due with the strike."

"Who do you think had then?" asked the vicar, little expecting so
prompt a reply.

"Why, that scum Corkam!" asserted Martin stoutly. "He's at th'

bottom a' most a' these here messes, he is! He goes a-talkin' ar a lot
o' rubbidge about 'Meriky (as I don't believe he ever landed on), and
he tell 'em a sight o' stories about the big wages over there, and he
don't say northin' about the house rent they have to pay, nor the
price o' wittles, nor clothin', which I know ('cos my brother lived out
in them parts for years) don't leave them not sa very much over for
theirselves to due what they like with arter all. And they've got ter
goo and leave the old place and their friends and relations, and work
a sight harder fur their money than we due here."

"Just so, that's just it, Martin," said the vicar. "A little knowledge is a
dangerous thing. Corkam has got a little knowledge—a smattering of
facts about many countries; but he is like a parrot—he repeats what
he has been told, and has never gone into the subject himself,—not
had the chance, most likely."

"You're right, sir; that's about the size on it! And them chaps on the
bridge of an evenin', they'll swaller anythin' he like tue tell 'em. That
there young Lummis—-"

"Oh, George Lummis! Yes, poor fellow, it's heartbreaking to see him
idling away his whole life like that. But somehow I fancy George will
break loose one of these days. One day Master Corkam will tell him
something he can't swallow, or offend his sense of right and wrong,
for there's nothing really bad about Geo—at present, at any rate. I
still have hopes of Geo, and I hear he is making an excellent nurse
to his mother."

In speaking thus the vicar was not talking at random. He had for
some time past been unaccountably interested in Geo. To his keen
sight—lazy, good-for-nothing as he appeared—Geo was full of
possibilities. There came into the young fellow's sleepy, handsome
face a look sometimes that made you fancy that under certain
circumstances he might rise even to some great height of heroism.

The vicar had been fortunate enough, as long ago as last summer, to
catch that expression one day when he came accidentally upon him
lying on the bank in the flowery meadow, lazily dropping leaves into
the stream and watching them float way. Mr. Rutland was one of
those very rare philanthropists who can resist the temptation of
improving the occasion. He saw a whole sermon in the picture
before him, and could have drawn half a dozen lessons from the
vagaries of the leaves—some of which spun round and round and
disappeared rapidly into the flowing water, others that caught in
weeds and remained prisoners or drifted under the bank—but he did
not. Geo had looked up as he caught the sound of his footstep, and
there was a look in his face that took the vicar by surprise. It was,
he thought (and he almost felt ashamed of being so imaginative) an
expression that might have been on the face of a hero of the middle
ages—a look, brave, clear, determined, as of a man braced for some
great deed, and yet he was idling away his time on the grass, tipping
leaves in the stream. A man of less tact and less human sympathy
than the vicar would have stopped and made some remark, or at
any rate have given him the customary greeting; but Mr. Rutland
refrained, and passed on as if he had not noticed him. There was
something fermenting in Geo's brain, he saw, and he felt certain it
was, whatever it might be, for good.

Nothing, as far as Mr. Rutland knew, ever came of this. Geo worked
hard at the "haysel" and the harvest that had followed, it is true, and
he took on occasional jobs at various farms in the neighbourhood,
but for the most part he idled away his days, as we have already
seen. His latent heroism, if he possessed any, remained dormant.
But the vicar always remembered the look when people meted out
to Geo their not unjust strictures on his useless life.

In the meantime Geo was growing daily in the good graces of Nurse
Blunt. No patient of hers, she often told Milly, was more carefully
tended than Mrs. Lummis. Geo was a born nurse, and was as gentle
and dexterous as a woman, and even old Jimmy's grunts of
disapproval failed to convince her that there was "nothin' in him."

CHAPTER XIII.

RAIN AT LAST
On the following day the heat became almost intolerable. People
went about their work, and got through it somehow, but everything
in nature appeared to be at its last gasp. The farmers had given up
any further hope of a hay crop, and had begun to feel anxious about
the harvest. When night fell the tiny cool breeze that had sprung up
most evenings to refresh the earth a little was absent—a dead
weight was over everything. The Chapman children were unusually
restless, and Tom, tired with his work, grumbled fretfully as his wife
moved about, first consoling one child and then the other, and
rocking the restless infant to and fro. On such nights as this sleep is
well-nigh impossible; and it was well for Annie that she had the
children to attend to, for her heart was heavy with a terrible
foreboding. Merry, careless Annie was smitten with an
unaccountable miserable feeling of coming calamity. It had been
growing and growing ever since Tom had "taken on" at the well, and
to-night it seemed to have reached its height, and Annie longed
most intensely for morning. Never had a night seemed so long and
unbearable.

The vicar, too, was lying sleepless through the long hot hours,
puzzling over the unexpected strike of the well-diggers, wondering
at their folly, and coming very near the truth when he thought of the
changed aspect of many of his parishioners, when he remembered
the averted looks, the nervous salutations that had taken the place
of the ready smiles, the respectful yet friendly greetings that only a
few short weeks ago met him at every turn. He had really been
almost too busy to notice it; and even now he thought this notion
that he was losing his hold on the affections of the people he lived
for and spent his life for was probably a creation of his own troubled
brain, born of the heat and the anxiety and overstrain of those same
past weeks. The rain could not be far off now, he thought, for all day
long the sky had been overcast, and a steaming, stifling blanket
seemed to have been thrown over everything. As he tossed and
fretted the first heavy drops pattered on his window-sill. It had come
—the blessed, blessed rain—and the long, hard drought was over!

He sprang from his bed and stood at the open casement, listening
with delight to the growing volume of water that splashed down on
to the baked earth and ran off the roofs into the dry, warped water-
butts. He stood there, with the welcome spray leaping up and
shooting into his face and dropping on to his bare feet, till he felt
almost cold; and then with a thankful heart he regained his bed, and
for the first time for some nights fell asleep. What mattered anything
now? the rain had come—Willowton was saved—"the plague was
stayed!"
There were others in the clustering houses in the back streets who,
sitting up with their sick and dying, felt the bands that had tightened
round their weary heads suddenly loosed, felt the killing physical
strain give way as the first drops fell on their roofs.

Milly Greenacre, from behind her white dimity curtains, rubbed her
sleepy eyes and turned over again, with the comforting thought that
the rain had at last come. The cattle, lying out in their baked
pastures, lifted their thirsty heads, lowing with pleasure for the
heaven-sent moisture. The birds in the orchard awoke at dawn, and
enjoyed a long-anticipated bath. Milly's white pigeons came out of
their cot, and lay on the little gravel-path, with wings upturned,
enjoying to the full the fall of the great cool drops. The horses in the
far-off farm stables neighed joyfully at each other, and every
creature alive drank in new life at every pore; even the fever-
stricken patients rallied and gained strength. Soon the grass would
grow green again, and the springs would begin to work, and all
would be well. And yet nothing in the future could undo the past;
nothing could give back to the mourners their loved ones. Willowton
had indeed paid the penalty of its own disregard of the laws of
health; but now, please God, the others would be saved.

All through the day that followed this blessed night the rain fell—not
quietly, or even with a break, but heavily, incessantly, and
unremittingly. People paddled out in it under cloaks and umbrellas,
and rejoiced with each other. The work at the well was necessarily
suspended for the time, for the rough wooden shelter over it proved
of little protection from the tropical violence of the rain.

"That don't kinder rain at all," old Greenacre said; "that come down
whole water."
 CHAPTER XIV.

THE COLLAPSE
On the third day the rain abated, and work was resumed at the well.
For the first few hours it went steadily on; but before noon an awful
catastrophe had occurred, and it became known all over Willowton
that the brickwork had fallen in, and that Chapman and Hayes were
entombed under the débris.

---

Mr. Rutland was at the Workhouse Infirmary when the news reached
him. The doctor was there too, and the two gentlemen drove off at
once to the scene of the disaster, where stood Annie Chapman with
a white drawn face, her baby in her arms and three other little ones
clinging to her skirts as usual. Martin's girl stood by her. The children
were out of school, and they too were there, a hundred or more of
them with wide eyes and horror-struck faces. What was not there
was any sensible, capable man to take command and keep the
crowd back; for it was not yet the dinner-hour, and the labourers
were still in the fields, and Martin, on the principle that what is
important had better be done by yourself, had rushed off, after
sending a boy to fetch Mr. Rutland, to telegraph to Ipswich for
scientific help from the firm who had supplied Hayes, and who had
given advice as to the mode of proceeding at the outset. Martin
returned scarcely a minute later than Mr. Rutland and the doctor,
and hurriedly informed them of his action in the matter.

Having made a clear space of some thirty feet or so round the spot
where the unfortunate men were perhaps even now lying with the
life crushed out of them, the doctor threw himself on the ground and
listened anxiously for some sound of life. If they lived, the men
would, of course, shout loudly and untiringly for assistance; and
then—as it was was just possible that, even if they could not make
themselves heard, some sound might reach them—Mr. Rutland
leaned over the chasm and shouted words of encouragement and
cheer. But he might have shouted to the empty air, for never a sound
reached them.

When one o'clock struck from the church tower the vicar sent the
children to their homes, and with kindly firmness insisted on Annie
Chapman's going back too and getting some refreshment. The
children's needs was a good excuse.

"I would not keep you away if you wish to come back," he said. "No
one has, alas, a greater right to be here than you. Come when the
children are gone into school again. I will have the tarpaulin shelter
that was taken down on account of the rain put up again, and you
can rest there."

Annie thanked him with a look; she was beyond speaking, and
seemed dazed. "Martin's gal" went home with her, helped her with
the children's dinner, and came back to watch with her all that long,
weary afternoon.

It was two hours before the Ipswich man arrived in a carriage drawn
by a strong, fast horse, white with foam, and reeking with the heat
of his rapid run. An assistant quickly unpacked the apparatus for
lowering the men who had volunteered for the dangerous task of
removing the fallen bricks. The accident, the man said, was due to
the violence of the rain, which had percolated through the earth so
quickly that it had loosened the soil all round the well to a depth of
some twenty or thirty feet, and caused the brickwork to bulge
inwards and fall. How far down the mischief extended, of course, he
was as unable to determine as any one else; but one thing was
sufficiently obvious—that time was everything. Another downfall
would be almost certain destruction, and the unfortunate men, he
said, had two dangers, not one, to contend with. At any moment the
springs might begin to work, and they might have escaped death
from the fall of the well only to be drowned by the rising water. It
was a truly awful predicament, and as it always happens when a real
calamity overtakes any of their mates, those who had most reviled
them for refusing to strike now came forward with offers of help,
and even forbore to make unpleasant remarks of any sort.

Corkam, who was, of course, soon on the scene, actually held his
tongue too until the work of rescue was fairly set in hand, and each
man had been told off to his hours of duty, when he entertained a
favoured group with various supercilious remarks, and an assurance
that these things were much better done in 'Meriky. No one,
however, paid much attention to him. They naturally could think of
nothing but the horror and the magnitude of the present
catastrophe. Things that had or had not happened years ago in a
foreign country mattered very little to any one now in the face of
this horrible reality; and Martin told him so pretty plainly, and not a
little roughly, with the desirable result that he went off to the bridge
to give his friend Farley the latest details. And nobody missed him
particularly!

CHAPTER XV.

FRIENDS IN NEED.
Next morning Milly Greenacre was making bread in her little kitchen
at the back of the parlour, when an unaccustomed step sounded on
the gravel-path. It was a shy, hesitating sort of step, and yet it was
unmistakably a man's. Milly looked through the door, and saw Geo
Lummis bending his head to enter the porch. She rubbed some of
the flour off her arms and bade him enter.
"Is it my grandfather you want to see?" she asked him, with that
modest self-possession that never deserted her. "Won't you sit
down?" she added, drawing a chair forward.

"No, miss, thank you," said Geo shyly; "I can't stop. 'Tain't your
grandfather that I come after; I wanted to see the nurse if I could."

"I'm afraid she won't be in this forenoon," said Milly. "but will you
leave a message with me? I'll be sure to give it to her as soon as she
comes back."

"Well, I hardly know as I can leave a message. The truth is," Geo
blurted out suddenly, with a rush of colour into his fair-skinned face,
"I want to go and help at the well, and I can't leave mother. I was
going to ask if she could come now for a couple of hours and let me
go. They are wantin' help badly. I don't seem as if I could stay quiet
while them pore chaps are underground, dead or alive; that seem as
if we must get at 'em as soon as we can.'

"When do you want to go?" asked Milly, in a matter-of-fact tone.

"Now, at once, if I could; but nurse haven't been yet, and there's a
lot to see to and do for mother, and I don't ever leave her till she is
put comfortable for the day. I've jest run over on the chance of
finding nurse; but if she isn't here I s'pose I must jest go back and
wait till she come."

He made a step towards the door. Milly glanced at the clock: it was a
quarter-past ten.

"I'll come," she said quietly, "when I've finished laying my bread. If
you go on, I'll be there in twenty minutes, and I'll wait till nurse
comes, and settle with her what can be done."

He muttered some incoherent thanks, but they were, except for the
sake of his manners, quite unnecessary. The look of gratitude that
he cast on Milly was quite a sufficient expression of thanks, as far as
she was concerned. As he went out she returned to her bread-
making.

A quarter of an hour later the bread was safe in its earthen pan,
with a snowy cloth laid over it; and Milly had washed her hands,
turned down her sleeves, set a tray on the table in the parlour, with
nurse's glass of milk and some bread and cheese on it, and had
gone in next door to tell her lame neighbour where she was to be
found, and to ask her to explain her absence to her grandfather if he
returned while she was at Mrs. Lummis's, and also to ask nurse
directly she had had her luncheon to call in and tell her what to do.
Milly had heard quite enough of the relations between Geo and his
mother from Nurse Blunt to be quite certain of her sympathy in the
sudden impulsive step she had taken; and she felt sure grandfather
would raise no insuperable objection now that all available hands
were required at the well.

So Milly went upstairs and sat down quietly by the bedside of the
sick woman, who was now sufficiently convalescent, in spite of some
serious heart weakness, to take an interest in her neighbours, and
was glad to see the pretty, bright girl she had often seen and
admired at a distance but had never spoken to before.

"I promised your son to stop till nurse comes," Milly said pleasantly,
"so I hope you will let me do so."

The sick woman smiled her willingness, and Geo, with renewed
efforts at expressing his thanks, departed.

In the meantime there was trouble at the well. The work of rescue
had been going on all night, and the men were giving out. Martin,
toil-stained and weary, was still there, but the work was practically
for the time at a standstill. The men were in absolute need of rest.
When Geo reached the scene the director from Ipswich had given
the order for a break-off in ten minutes for five hours rest. He was
surveying, with some anxiety, the relief men who had arrived in
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