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 As per
JNTU-Kakinada
Syllabus Regulation
2016

Computer
Programming
 About the Author

E Balagurusamy, former Vice Chancellor, Anna University, Chennai and Member, Union Public Service
Commission, New Delhi, is currently the Chairman of EBG Foundation, Coimbatore. He is a teacher, trainer,
and consultant in the fields of Information Technology and Management. He holds an ME (Hons) in Electrical
Engineering and PhD in Systems Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His
areas of interest include Object-Oriented Software Engineering, E-Governance: Technology Management,
Business Process Re-engineering, and Total Quality Management.
A prolific writer, he has authored a large number of research papers and several books. His best-selling
books, among others include:
∑ Programming in ANSI C, 7/e
∑ Fundamentals of Computers
∑ Computing Fundamentals and C Programming
∑ Programming in Java, 5/e
∑ Programming in BASIC, 3/e
∑ Programming in C#, 3/e
∑ Numerical Methods
∑ Reliability Engineering
∑ Introduction to Computing and Problem Solving using Python, 1e

A recipient of numerous honors and awards, E Balagurusamy has been listed in the Directory of Who's
Who of Intellectuals and in the Directory of Distinguished Leaders in Education.
 As per
JNTU-Kakinada
Syllabus Regulation
2016

Computer
Programming

E Balagurusamy
Chairman
EBG Foundation
Coimbatore

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI

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Computer Programming
Copyright © 2017 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
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 Contents

Preface xiii
Roadmap to the Syllabus xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.1—1.30

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Computer Systems 1.2
1.2.1 Input Devices 1.3
1.2.2 CPU 1.5
1.2.3 Output Devices 1.6
1.2.4 Memory 1.8
1.3 History of C 1.12
1.4 Data Types 1.13
1.4.1 Integer Types 1.14
1.4.2 Floating Point Types 1.15
1.4.3 Void Types 1.16
1.4.4 Character Types 1.16
1.5 Programming Languages 1.16
1.5.1 Machine Language (Low Level Languages) 1.16
1.5.2 Assembly Language (Symbolic Language) 1.16
1.5.3 High-Level Languages 1.18
1.6 Development of C Algorithms 1.19
1.6.1 Characteristics of Algorithms 1.20
1.6.2 Advantages of Algorithms 1.20
1.6.3 Disadvantages of Algorithms 1.20
1.7 Software Development Method 1.22
1.7.1 Analysing the Requirements 1.23
1.7.2 Feasibility Analysis 1.23
1.7.3 Creating the Design 1.24
1.7.4 Developing Code 1.24
1.7.5 Testing the Software 1.25
1.7.6 Deploying the Software 1.25
1.7.7 Maintaining the Software 1.25
1.8 Applying Software Development Method 1.25
Key Terms 1.27
Just Remember 1.28
Multiple Choice Questions 1.28
vi Contents

Answers 1.29
Review Questions 1.29

Chapter 2 Basics of C 2.1—2.90

2.1 Importance of C 2.1
2.2 Basic Structure of C Programs 2.1
2.3 Programming Style 2.2
2.4 Executing a ‘C’ Program 2.3
2.5 Sample Programs 2.4
2.5.1 Sample Program 1: Printing a Message 2.4
2.5.2 Sample Program 2: Adding Two Numbers 2.6
2.5.3 Sample Program 3: Interest Calculation 2.8
2.5.4 Sample Program 4: Use of Subroutines 2.10
2.5.5 Sample Program 5: Use of Math functions 2.10
2.6 C Character Set 2.12
2.6.1 Trigraph Characters 2.13
2.7 C Tokens 2.14
2.8 Keywords and Identifiers 2.14
2.9 Operators and Expressions 2.15
2.9.1 Arithmetic Operators 2.15
2.9.2 Relational Operators 2.18
2.9.3 Logical Operators 2.19
2.9.4 Assignment Operators 2.20
2.9.5 Increment and Decrement Operators 2.22
2.9.6 Conditional Operator 2.23
2.9.7 Bitwise Operators 2.25
2.9.8 Special Operators 2.25
2.9.9 Operator Precedence 2.27
2.9.10 Precedence of Arithmetic Operators 2.29
2.9.11 Some Computational Problems 2.30
2.9.12 Type Conversions in Expressions 2.31
2.9.13 Operator Precedence and Associativity 2.34
2.10 Constants 2.36
2.10.1 Integer Constants 2.37
2.10.2 Real Constants 2.38
2.10.3 Single Character Constants 2.38
2.10.4 String Constants 2.39
2.11 Variables 2.40
2.12 Declaration of Variables 2.41
2.12.1 Primary Type Declaration 2.41
2.12.2 User-defined Type Declaration 2.42
2.12.3 Declaration of Storage Class 2.43
2.12.4 Assigning Values to Variables 2.44
 Contents vii

2.13 ANSI C Library Functions 2.50

2.14 Managing Input and Output Operations 2.53
2.14.1 Reading a Character 2.54
2.14.2 Writing a Character 2.56
2.14.3 Formatted Input 2.58
2.14.4 Points to Remember while Using scanf 2.65
2.14.5 Formatted Output 2.66
2.15 Case Studies 2.71
Key Terms 2.78
Just Remember 2.79
Multiple Choice Questions 2.80
Answers 2.84
Review Questions 2.84
Debugging Exercises 2.86
Programming Exercise 2.87

Chapter 3 Decision Making, Branching and Looping 3.1—3.70

3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Decision Making with If Statement 3.1
3.2.1 Simple If Statement 3.2
3.2.2 The If.....Else Statement 3.6
3.2.3 Nesting of If....Else Statements 3.9
3.2.4 The Else If Ladder 3.11
3.3 Decision Making with Switch Statement 3.15
3.4 The ? : Operator 3.20
3.5 Decision Making with Goto Statement 3.22
3.6 Introduction to Looping Procedure 3.25
3.6.1 Sentinel Loops 3.26
3.7 The While Statement 3.27
3.8 The Do Statement 3.29
3.9 The For Statement 3.33
3.9.1 Simple ‘for’ Loops 3.33
3.9.2 Additional Features of For Loop 3.37
3.9.3 Nesting of For Loops 3.39
3.10 Jumps In Loops 3.43
3.10.1 Jumping Out of a Loop 3.43
3.11 Case Studies 3.45
Key Terms 3.56
Just Remember 3.57
Multiple Choice Questions 3.58
Answers 3.60
Review Questions 3.61
Debugging Exercises 3.65
Programming Exercises 3.66
viii Contents

Chapter 4 User-Defined Functions 4.1—4.52

4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Need for User-Defined Functions 4.1
4.3 A Multi-Function Program 4.2
4.3.1 Modular Programming 4.4
4.4 Category of Functions 4.5
4.4.1 No Arguments and No Return Values 4.5
4.4.2 Arguments but No Return Values 4.7
4.4.3 Arguments with Return Values 4.10
4.4.4 No Arguments but Returns a Value 4.16
4.4.5 Functions that Return Multiple Values 4.16
4.4.6 Nesting of Functions 4.17
4.5 Elements of User-Defined Functions 4.19
4.6 Definition of Functions 4.19
4.6.1 Function Header 4.20
4.6.2 Name and Type 4.20
4.6.3 Formal Parameter List 4.20
4.6.4 Function Body 4.21
4.7 Return Values and their Types 4.21
4.8 Function Calls 4.22
4.8.1 Function Call 4.24
4.9 Function Declaration 4.24
4.9.1 Prototypes: Yes or No 4.25
4.9.2 Parameters Everywhere! 4.25
4.10 Recursion 4.26
4.10.1 Recursion versus Iteration 4.27
4.11 Passing Arrays to Functions 4.27
4.11.1 One-Dimensional Arrays 4.27
4.11.2 Two-Dimensional Arrays 4.31
4.12 Passing Strings to Functions 4.32
4.12.1 Pass by Value versus Pass by Pointers 4.32
4.13 The Scope, Visibility, and Lifetime of Variables 4.33
4.13.1 Automatic Variables 4.33
4.13.2 External Variables 4.35
4.13.3 External Declaration 4.37
4.13.4 Static Variables 4.39
4.13.5 Register Variables 4.40
4.14 Multifile Programs 4.42
4.15 Case Study 4.43
Key Terms 4.46
Just Remember 4.46
Multiple Choice Questions 4.47
 Contents ix

Answers 4.48
Review Questions 4.49
Debugging Exercises 4.51
Programming Exercises 4.51

Chapter 5 Arrays 5.1—5.44

5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.1.1 Data Structures 5.2
5.2 One-Dimensional Arrays 5.2
5.3 Declaration of One-dimensional Arrays 5.3
5.4 Initialization of One-dimensional Arrays 5.6
5.4.1 Compile Time Initialization 5.6
5.4.2 Run Time Initialization 5.7
5.4.3 Searching and Sorting 5.11
5.5 Two-Dimensional Arrays 5.12
5.6 Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays 5.16
5.6.1 Memory Layout 5.19
5.7 Multi-Dimensional Arrays 5.25
5.8 Dynamic Arrays 5.26
5.9 Case Studies 5.26
Key Terms 5.38
Just Remember 5.38
Multiple Choice Questions 5.39
Answers 5.40
Review Questions 5.40
Debugging Exercises 5.41
Programming Exercises 5.42

Chapter 6 Strings 6.1—6.34

6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Declaring and Initializing String Variables 6.2
6.3 Reading Strings from Terminal 6.3
6.3.1 Using scanf Function 6.3
6.3.2 Reading a Line of Text 6.5
6.3.3 Using getchar and gets Functions 6.6
6.4 Writing Strings to Screen 6.11
6.4.1 Using printf Function 6.11
6.4.2 Using putchar and puts Functions 6.14
6.5 Arithmetic Operations on Characters 6.15
6.6 Putting Strings Together 6.16
6.7 Comparison of Two Strings 6.18
6.8 String-Handling Functions 6.18
6.8.1 strcat() Function 6.18
x Contents

6.8.2 strcmp() Function 6.19

6.8.3 strcpy() Function 6.20
6.8.4 strlen() Function 6.20
6.8.5 Other String Functions 6.22
6.9 Table of Strings 6.24
6.10 Case Studies 6.26
Key Terms 6.30
Just Remember 6.30
Multiple Choice Questions 6.30
Answers 6.31
Review Questions 6.31
Debugging Exercises 6.33
Programming Exercises 6.33

Chapter 7 Pointers 7.1—7.42

7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Understanding Pointers 7.2
7.2.1 Underlying Concepts of Pointers 7.3
7.3 Initialization of Pointer Variables 7.3
7.3.1 Pointer Flexibility 7.4
7.4 Declaring Pointer Variables 7.5
7.4.1 Pointer Declaration Style 7.5
7.5 Accessing the Address of a Variable 7.6
7.6 Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer 7.8
7.7 Chain of Pointers 7.10
7.8 Pointer Expressions 7.11
7.9 Pointer Increments and Scale Factor 7.12
7.9.1 Rules of Pointer Operations 7.13
7.10 Pointers as Function Arguments 7.13
7.11 Functions Returning Pointers 7.16
7.12 Pointers to Functions 7.17
7.12.1 Compatibility and Casting 7.19
7.13 Pointers and Arrays 7.19
7.14 Pointers and Character Strings 7.23
7.15 Array of Pointers 7.25
7.16 Dynamic Memory Allocation 7.26
7.17 Allocating a Block of Memory: Malloc 7.27
7.18 Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory: Calloc 7.29
7.19 Releasing the Used Space: Free 7.33
7.20 Case Studies 7.33
Key Terms 7.38
Just Remember 7.38
Multiple Choice Questions 7.39
 Contents xi

Answers 7.40
Review Questions 7.40
Debugging Exercises 7.42
Programming Exercise 7.42

Chapter 8 Structures and Unions 8.1—8.59

8.1 Introduction 8.1
8.2 Defining a Structure 8.1
8.3 Declaring Structure Variables 8.2
8.3.1 Accessing Structure Members 8.4
8.4 Structure Initialization 8.5
8.5 Arrays of Structures 8.8
8.5.1 Arrays Within Structures 8.11
8.5.2 Structures Within Structures 8.13
8.6 Structures and Functions 8.15
8.6.1 Passing Structure Through Pointers 8.17
8.6.2 Self Referential Structure 8.18
8.7 Pointers and Structures 8.18
8.8 Unions 8.21
8.9 Bit Fields 8.23
8.10 Typedef 8.25
8.11 Command Line Arguments 8.37
8.11.1 Application of Command Line Arguments 8.48
8.12 Case Study 8.50
Key Terms 8.53
Just Remember 8.53
Multiple Choice Questions 8.54
Answers 8.54
Review Questions 8.55
Debugging Exercises 8.57
Programming Exercise 8.58

Chapter 9 Data Files 9.1—9.22

9.1 Introduction 9.1
9.2 Defining and Opening a File 9.2
9.3 Closing a File 9.3
9.4 Input/Output Operations on Files 9.4
9.4.1 The getc and putc Functions 9.4
9.4.2 The getw and putw Functions 9.8
9.4.3 The fprintf and fscanf Functions 9.10
9.5 Error Handling During I/O Operations 9.12
9.6 Random Access to Files 9.14
Key Terms 9.20
xii Contents

Just Remember 9.20

Multiple Choice Questions 9.21
Answers 9.21
Review Questions 9.21
Debugging Exercise 9.22
Programming Exercise 9.22

Appendix 1 C99/C11 Features A1.1—A1.8

Solved Question Paper Nov-Dec 2015 (Set 1— Set 4) SQP1—SQP32
Solved Question Paper May 2016 (Set 1— Set 4) SQP1—SQP29
 Preface

INTRODUCTION
Computers plays an increasing important role in today’s world and a sound knowledge of computers has
become indispensable for anyone who seeks employment not only in the area of IT but also in any other
field as well. Computer programming is dedicated to the understanding of computer language, and writing
and testing of programs that computers’ follow to perform their functions. The programs are created using
programming languages and C is the most prevalent, efficient and compact programming language. C
combines the features of a high-level language with the elements of the assembler and is thus close to both
man and machine. The growth of C during the last few years has been phenomenal. It has emerged as the
language of choice for most applications due to its speed, portability and compactness of code. Thus, many
institutions and universities in India have introduced a subject covering Computer Programming.
This book is specially designed for first-year students of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Kakinada (JNTU K) and would enable them to master the necessary skills for programming with C language.
The text has been infused with numerous examples and case studies to empower the learner. Furthermore, the
book also covers design and implementation aspect of data structures using standard ANSI C programming
language.

SIGNIFICANT FEATURES
∑ New! Completely in sync with the syllabus of JNTU Kakinada (2016 Regulation)
∑ New! Incorporates all the features of ANSI C that are essential for a C programmer.
∑ New! Solutions to latest 2015 (Nov/Dec) and 2016 (May) JNTU Kakinada question paper is placed
at the end of the book (All 4 sets)
∑ New! 149 Multiple Choice Questions incorporated at the end of each chapters help students tests
their conceptual understanding of the subject
∑ 22 Case Studies in relevant chapters with stepwise solution to demonstrate real-life applications
∑ New! Updated information on C99/C11 features
∑ New! Topics like ANSI C library functions, Negation, Swapping Values, Recursion v/s Iteration are
covered in detail
∑ Learning by example approach ensures smooth and successful transition from a learner to a skilled
C programmer
∑ Enhanced student-friendly chapter design including Outline, Introduction, Section-end Solved
Programs, Case Studies, Key Terms, Just Remember, Multiple Choice Questions, Review Questions,
Debugging Exercises, Programming Exercises
∑ Special box feature highlighting supplementary information that complements the text.
xiv Preface

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
∑ 134 Solved C Programs demonstrate the general principles of good programming style
∑ 171 Review Questions helps in testing conceptual understanding
∑ 28 Debugging Exercise helps in participating coding contests
∑ 179 Programming Exercises simulate interest to practice programming applications

CHAPTER ORGANIZATION
The content is spread across 9 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces computer systems, programming languages
and environment, software development method, and algorithms. Chapter 2 gives an overview of C and
explaining the keywords, identifiers, constants, variables, data types and various case studies on these.
Chapters 3 comprises of decision-making, branching and looping methods. Chapter 4 covers the functions
which are used in C language. Chapter 5 focuses on arrays while Chapter 6 deals with strings. Different
types of pointers and its types are discussed in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 presents structures and unions while
Chapter 9 covers file types and their management. Appendix 1 covers C99/C11 features in detail. In addition
to all this, Solved Question Papers of Nov/Dec 2015 (4 sets) and May 2016 (4 sets) are also given in this
book.

CD RESOURCES
The supplementary CD provided along with the book would help the students master programming language
and write their own programs using Computer programming concepts and data structures. The CD comprises
of the following resources:
∑ New! 2012, 2013, 2014, Jan/Feb 2015 solved question papers
∑ New! Lab Programs as per the new syllabus
∑ Two major programming projects—Inventory and Record Entry & two mini projects—Linked List
and Matrix Multiplication
∑ 100 Programming Exercises and 200 Objective Type Questions aligned as per the new syllabus
∑ 5 Solved Model Question Papers
∑ 79 Additional Solved Programs
∑ Additional content on Matrix Operation

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A number of reviewers took pains to provide valuable feedback for the book. We are grateful to all of them
and their names are mentioned as follows:
S. Krishna Rao Sir CR Reddy College of Engineering, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh
Narasimha Rao Kandula Vishnu Institute of Technology, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh
K. Phani Babu, Chundru Raja Ramesh Sri Vasavi Engineering College, Tadepalligudem, Andhra
Pradesh
 Preface xv

Rama Rao Adimalla Lendi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jonnada,

Andhra Pradesh
S. Rama Sree Aditya Engineering College, Peddapuram, Andhra Pradesh
M V S S Nagendranath Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering, Tadepalligudem,
Andhra Pradesh
S. Satyanarayana Raghu Engineering College, Dakamarri, Andhra Pradesh
S C Satapathy Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Ch Vijaya Kumar DVR & Dr. HS MIC College of Technology, Kanchikacherla,
Andhra Pradesh

E Balagurusamy

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments, all of which can be sent to
info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
 Roadmap to the Syllabus

Computer Programming
Revised Course from Academic Year 2016-2017

Unit 1: History and Hardware—Computer hardware, Bits and bytes, Components, Programming
Languages—machine language, assembly language, low-level and high-level languages, procedural and
object-oriented languages, Application and system software, Development of C algorithms, Software
development process

Go to
Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers and Programming

Unit 2: Introduction to C programming, Identifiers, main () function, printf () function, Programming

style, Indentation, Comments, Data types, Arithmetic operations, Expression types, Variables and
declarations, Negation, Operator precedence and associativity, Declaration statements, Initialization
assignment, Implicit type conversions, Explicit type conversions, Assignment variations, Mathematical
library functions, Interactive input, Formatted output, Format modifiers

Go to
Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers and Programming
Chapter 2: Basics of C

Unit 3: Control flow-relational expressions—logical operators, Selection—if-else statement—nested if,

examples—multi-way selection—switch—else-if, examples, Repetition—basic loop structures, Pretest
and post-test loops, Counter-controlled and condition-controlled loops, While statement, For statement,
Nested loops, do-while statement

Go to
Chapter 3: Decision Making, Branching and Looping
 Roadmap to the Syllabus xvii

Unit 4: Modular programming: function and parameter declarations, Returning a value, Functions with
empty parameter lists, Variable scope, Variable storage class, Local variable storage classes, Global
variable storage classes, Pass by reference, Passing addresses to a function, Storing addresses variables,
Using addresses, Declaring and using pointers, Passing addresses to a function, Swapping values,
Recursion—mathematical recursion—recursion versus iteration.

Go to
Chapter 4: User-Defined Functions

Unit 5: One-dimensional arrays, Input and output of array values, Array initialization, Arrays as function
arguments, Two-dimensional arrays, Larger dimensional arrays—matrices, String fundamentals, Library
functions, String input and output, String processing

Go to
Chapter 5: Arrays
Chapter 6: Strings

Unit 6: Pointers—concept of a pointer, Initialisation of pointer variables, Pointers as function arguments,

Passing by address, Dangling memory, Address arithmetic, Character pointers and Functions, Pointers to
pointers, Dynamic memory management functions, Command line arguments
Structures—derived types, Structures declaration, Initialization of structures, Accessing structures,
Nested structures, Arrays of structures, structures and functions, Pointers to structures, self-referential
structures, Unions, typedef, bit-fields
Declaring, Opening, and Closing file streams, Reading from and Writing to text files, Random file
access

Go to
Chapter 7: Pointers
Chapter 8: Structures and Unions
Chapter 9: Data Files
 Introduction to Computers
1 and Programming

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 1.4 Data Types 1.7 Software Development Method
1.2 Computer Systems 1.5 Programming Languages 1.8 Applying Software
1.3 History of C 1.6 Development of C Algorithms Development Method

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term computer is derived from the word
compute. A computer is an electronic device Data INPUT PROCESS
OUTPUT
Information
that takes data and instructions as an input
from the user, processes data, and provides
useful information known as output. This
cycle of operation of a computer is known as Instructions
the input–process–output cycle and is shown Fig. 1.1 Input–process–output concept
in Fig. 1.1. The electronic device is known as
hardware and the set of instructions is known as software.
A computer consists of various components that function as an integrated system to perform computational
tasks. These components include the following:
Central Processing Unit (CPU) It is the brain of the computer that is responsible for controlling
and executing program instructions.
Monitor It is a display screen, which shows information in visual form.
Keyboard and Mouse These are the peripheral devices used by the computer for receiving inputs
from the user.
Figure 1.2 shows the various components of a computer.
The unique capabilities and characteristics of a computer have made it very popular among its various
users, including engineers, managers, accountants, teachers, students, etc.
Some of the key characteristics of a modern digital computer include, among others the following:
Speed The computer is a fast electronic device that can solve large and complex problems in few
seconds. The speed of a computer generally depends upon its hardware configuration.
Storage capacity A computer can store huge amounts of data in many different formats. The storage
area of a computer system is generally divided into two categories, main memory and secondary storage.
1.2 Computer Programming

Monitor
CPU

Keyboard

Mouse

Fig. 1.2 Components of a computer

Accuracy A computer carries out calculations with great accuracy. The accuracy achieved by a
computer depends upon its hardware configuration and the specified instructions.
Reliability A computer produces results with no error. Most of the computer-generated errors are
in actuality human errors that are instigated by the user itself. Therefore, computers are regarded as
quite trustworthy machines.
Versatility Computers are versatile machines. They can perform varied tasks and can be used for
many different purposes.
Diligence Computers can perform repetitive calculations any number of times with the same level
of accuracy.
These capabilities of computers have enabled us to use them for a variety of tasks. Application areas may
broadly be classified into the following major categories.
1. Data processing (commercial use)
2. Numerical computing (scientific use)
3. Text (word) processing (office and educational use)
4. Message communication (e-mail)
5. Image processing (animation and industrial use)
6. Voice recognition (multimedia)

1.2 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A computer system comprises of hardware and software components. Hardware refers to the physical
parts of the computer system and software is the set of instructions or programs that are necessary for the
functioning of a computer to perform certain tasks. Hardware includes the following components:
Input devices They are used for accepting the data on which the operations are to be performed.
The examples of input devices are keyboard, mouse and track ball.
Processor Also known as CPU, it is used to perform the calculations and information processing on
the data that is entered through the input device.
Output devices They are used for providing the output of a program that is obtained after performing
the operations specified in a program. The examples of output devices are monitor and printer.
Memory It is used for storing the input data as well as the output of a program that is obtained
after performing the operations specified in a program. Memory can be primary memory as well
as secondary memory. Primary memory includes Random Access Memory (RAM) and secondary
memory includes hard disks and floppy disks.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.3

Software supports the functioning of a computer system internally and cannot be seen. It is stored on
secondary memory and can be an application software as well as system software. The application software
is used to perform a specific task according to requirements and the system software is mandatory for running
application software. The examples of application software include Excel and MS Word and the examples of
system software include operating system and networking system.
All the hardware components interact with each other as well as with the software. Similarly, the different
types of software interact with each other and with the hardware components. The interaction between
various hardware components is illustrated in Fig. 1.3.

1.2.1 Input Devices

Input devices can be connected to the computer system using cables. The most commonly used input devices
among others are:

Magnetic Magnetic
Tape Disk

EXTERNAL STORAGE UNITS

Input Input Memory Output Output

Media Unit Unit Unit Media

Arithmetic
Unit

Control
Data and results flow
Unit
Control Instructions to units
Instructions to control unit
CPU

Fig. 1.3 Interaction among hardware components

Keyboard
A standard keyboard includes alphanumeric keys, function keys, modifier keys, cursor movement keys,
spacebar, escape key, numeric keypad, and some special keys, such as Page Up, Page Down, Home, Insert,
Delete and End. The alphanumeric keys include the number keys and the alphabet keys. The function keys
are the keys that help perform a specific task such as searching a file or refreshing a Web page. The modifier
keys such as Shift and Control keys modify the casing style of a character or symbol. The cursor movement
1.4 Computer Programming

keys include up, down, left and right keys and are used to modify the direction of the cursor on the screen.
The spacebar key shifts the cursor to the right by one position. The numeric keypad uses separate keypads for
numbers and mathematical operators. A keyboard is show in Fig. 1.4.

Function Keys
(F1 to F12)
Escape Key
Special Keys

Numeric Keypad

Modifier Keys

Alphanumeric Spacebar Key Cursor Movement

Keys Keys

Fig. 1.4 Keyboard

Mouse
Wheel
The mouse allows the user to select elements on the screen, Right Button
such as tools, icons, and buttons, by pointing and clicking Left Button
them. We can also use a mouse to draw and paint on the
screen of the computer system. The mouse is also known
as a pointing device because it helps change the position of
the pointer or cursor on the screen.
The mouse consists of two buttons, a wheel at the top and
a ball at the bottom of the mouse. When the ball moves, the Fig. 1.5 Mouse
cursor on the screen moves in the direction in which the ball rotates. The left button of the mouse is used to select
an element and the right button, when clicked, displays the special options such as open and explore and shortcut
menus. The wheel is used to scroll down in a document or a Web page. A mouse is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Scanner
A scanner is an input device that converts documents and images as the
digitized images understandable by the computer system. The digitized
images can be produced as black and white images, gray images, or
colored images. In case of colored images, an image is considered
as a collection of dots with each dot representing a combination of
red, green, and blue colors, varying in proportions. The proportions
of red, green, and blue colors assigned to a dot are together called as
color description. The scanner uses the color description of the dots to
produce a digitized image. Fig. 1.6 shows a scanner.
There are the following types of scanners that can be used to
produce digitized images: Fig. 1.6 Scanner
Flatbed scanner It contains a scanner head that moves across a page from top to bottom to read the
page and converts the image or text available on the page in digital form. The flatbed scanner is used
to scan graphics, oversized documents, and pages from books.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.5

Drum scanner In this type of scanner, a fixed scanner head is used and the image to be scanned is
moved across the head. The drum scanners are used for scanning prepress materials.
Slide scanner It is a scanner that can scan photographic slides directly to produce files understandable
by the computer.
Handheld scanner It is a scanner that is moved by the end user across the page to be scanned. This
type of scanner is inexpensive and small in size.

1.2.2 CPU
The CPU consists of Control Unit (CU) and ALU. CU stores the instruction set, which specifies the operations
to be performed by the computer. CU transfers the data and the instructions to the ALU for an arithmetic
operation. ALU performs arithmetical or logical operations on the data received. The CPU registers store the
data to be processed by the CPU and the processed data also. Apart from CU and ALU, CPU seeks help from
the following hardware devices to process the data:

Motherboard
It refers to a device used for connecting the CPU with the input and output devices (Fig. 1.7). The components
on the motherboard are connected to all parts of a computer and are kept insulated from each other. Some of
the components of a motherboard are:
Buses Electrical pathways that transfer data and instructions among different parts of the computer.
For example, the data bus is an electrical pathway that transfers data among the microprocessor,
memory and input/output devices connected to the computer. The address bus is connected among
the microprocessor, RAM and Read Only Memory (ROM), to transfer addresses of RAM and ROM
locations that is to be accessed by the microprocessor.
System clock It is a clock used for synchronizing the activities performed by the computer. The
electrical signals that are passed inside a computer are timed, based on the tick of the clock. As a
result, the faster the system clock, the faster is the processing speed of the computer.

Fig. 1.7 A motherboard

1.6 Computer Programming

Microprocessor CPU component that performs the processing and controls the activities performed
by the different parts of the computer. The microprocessor is plugged to the CPU socket placed on the
motherboard.
ROM Chip that contains the permanent memory of the computer that stores information, which
cannot be modified by the end user.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

It refers to primary memory of a computer that stores information and programs, until the computer is used.
RAM is available as a chip that can be connected to the RAM slots in the motherboard.

Video Card/Sound card

The video card is an interface between the monitor and the CPU. Video cards also include their own RAM
and microprocessors that are used for speeding up the processing and display of a graphic. These video cards
are placed on the expansion slots, as these slots allow us to connect the high-speed graphic display cards to
the motherboard. A sound card is a circuit board placed on the motherboard and is used to enhance the sound
capabilities of a computer. The sound cards are plugged to the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
slots. The PCI slots also enable the connection of networks interface card, modem cards and video cards, to
the motherboard.

1.2.3 Output Devices

The data, processed by the CPU, is made available to the end user by the output devices. The most commonly
used output devices are:

Monitor
A monitor is the most commonly used output device that produces
visual displays generated by the computer (Fig. 1.8). The monitor,
also known as a screen, is connected as an external device using
cables or connected either as a part of the CPU case. The monitor
connected using cables, is connected to the video card placed on the
expansion slot of the motherboard. The display device is used for
visual presentation of textual and graphical information.
The monitors can be classified as cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors
or liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors. The CRT monitors are
large, occupy more space in the computer, whereas LCD monitors
are thin, light weighted, and occupy lesser space. Both the monitors
are available as monochrome, gray scale and color models. However,
the quality of the visual display produced by the CRT is better than Fig. 1.8 Monitor
that produced by the LCD.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.7

A monitor can be characterized by its monitor size and resolution. The monitor size is the length of
the screen that is measured diagonally. The resolution of the screen is expressed as the number of picture
elements or pixels of the screen. The resolution of the monitor is also called the dot pitch. The monitor with
a higher resolution produces a clearer image.

Printer
The printer is an output device that is used to produce a hard copy
of the electronic text displayed on the screen, in the form of paper
sheets that can be used by the end user (Fig. 1.9). The printer is an
external device that is connected to the computer system using cables.
The computer needs to convert the document that is to be printed to
data that is understandable by the printer. The printer driver software
or the print driver software is used to convert a document to a form
understandable by the computer. When the computer components are
upgraded, the upgraded printer driver software needs to be installed on Fig. 1.9 Printer
the computer.
The performance of a printer is measured in terms of dots per inch (DPI) and pages per minute (PPM)
produced by the printer. The greater the DPI parameter of a printer, the better is the quality of the output
generated by it. The higher PPM represents higher efficiency of the printer. Printers can be classified based
on the technology they use to print the text and images:
Dot matrix printers Dot matrix printers are impact printers that use perforated sheet to print the
text. The process to print a text involves striking a pin against a ribbon to produce its impression on
the paper.
Inkjet printers Inkjet printers are slower than dot matrix printers and are used to generate high
quality photographic prints. Inkjet printers are not impact printers. The ink cartridges are attached to
the printer head that moves horizontally, from left to right.
Laser printers The laser printer may or may not be connected to a computer, to generate an output.
These printers consist of a microprocessor, ROM and RAM, which can be used to store the textual
information. The printer uses a cylindrical drum, a toner and the laser beam.

Speaker
The speaker is an electromechanical transducer that converts an
electrical signal into sound (Fig. 1.10). They are attached to a computer
as output devices, to provide audio output, such as warning sounds and
Internet audios. We can have built-in speakers or attached speakers in a
computer to warn end users with error audio messages and alerts. The
audio drivers need to be installed in the computer to produce the audio
output. The sound card being used in the computer system decides the
quality of audio that we listen using music CDs or over the Internet.
The computer speakers vary widely in terms of quality and price. The
sophisticated computer speakers may have a subwoofer unit, to enhance
bass output. Fig. 1.10 Speakers
1.8 Computer Programming

Plotter
The plotter is another commonly used output device that is connected to a computer to print large documents,
such as engineering or constructional drawings. Plotters use multiple ink pens or inkjets with color cartridges
for printing. A computer transmits binary signals to all the print heads of the plotter. Each binary signal
contains the coordinates of where a print head needs to be positioned for printing. Plotters are classified on
the basis of their performance, as follows:
Drum plotter They are used to draw perfect circles and other graphic images. They use a drawing
arm to draw the image. The drum plotter moves the paper back and forth through a roller and the
drawing arm moves across the paper.
Flat-bed plotter A flat bed plotter has a flat drawing surface and the two drawing arms that move
across the paper sheet, drawing an image. The plotter has a low speed of printing and is large in size.
Inkjet plotter Spray nozzles are used to generate images by spraying droplets of ink onto the paper
(Fig. 1.11). However, the spray nozzles can get clogged and require regular cleaning, thus resulting in
a high maintenance cost.
Electrostatic plotter As compared to other plotters, an electrostatic plotter produces quality print
with highest speed. It uses charged electric wires and special dielectric paper for drawing.

Control
Buttons

Plotted
Paper

Fig. 1.11 An ink-jet plotter

1.2.4 Memory
The memory unit of a computer is used to store data, instructions for processing data, intermediate results of
processing and the final processed information. The memory units of a computer are classified as primary
memory and secondary memory. Figure 1.12 shows the memory categorization in a computer system.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.9

Fig. 1.12 Categorization of memory devices

Primary Memory
The primary memory is available in the computer as a built-in unit of the computer. The primary memory is
represented as a set of locations with each location occupying 8 bits. Each bit in the memory is identified by
a unique address. The data is stored in the machine-understandable binary form in these memory locations.
The commonly used primary memories are:
ROM represents Read Only Memory that stores data and instructions, even when the
computer is turned off. It is the permanent memory of the computer where the contents cannot be
modified by an end user. ROM is a chip that is inserted into the motherboard. It is generally used to
store the Basic Input/Output system (BIOS), which
performs the Power On Self Test (POST).
RAM is the read/write memory unit in
which the information is retained only as long as
there is a regular power supply (Fig. 1.13). When
the power supply is interrupted or switched off, the
information stored in the RAM is lost. RAM is a Integrated
volatile memory that temporarily stores data and chips
applications as long as they are in use. When the
Fig. 1.13 RAM
use of data or the application is over, the content in
RAM is erased.
Cache memory is used to store the data and the related application that was last
processed by the CPU. When the processor performs processing, it first searches the cache memory
and then the RAM, for an instruction. The cache memory is always placed between CPU and the main
memory of the computer system.
1.10 Computer Programming

Table 1.1 depicts some of the key differences between RAM and ROM.

TABLE 1.1 Differences between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
It is a read/write memory It is a read only memory
It is volatile storage device It is a permanent storage device
Data is erased as soon as power supply is Data remains stored even after power supply
turned off has been turned off
It is used as the main memory of a computer It is used to store Basic input output system
system (BIOS).

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory represents the external storage devices that are connected to the computer. They provide
a non-volatile memory source used to store information that is not in use currently. A storage device is either
located in the CPU casing of the computer or is connected externally to the computer. The secondary storage
devices can be classified as:
The magnetic storage
devices store information that can be read,
erased and rewritten a number of times. These
include floppy disk, hard disk and magnetic tapes
(Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 1.15).
The optical storage
devices are secondary storage devices that use
laser beams to read the stored data. These include Fig. 1.14 Magnetic tape
CD-ROM, rewritable compact disk (CD-RW), and
digital video disks with read only memory (DVD-ROM).

Tracks
Sectors

Fig. 1.15 Magnetic disk

 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.11

Incident laser beam

Reflected laser beam

Fig. 1.16 Optical Disk

Reflective aluminium layer Magneto optical flim

Protective coating

Dielectric
layers

Laser beams

Substrate layer Lens

Fig. 1.17 Magneto-optical disk

The magneto-optical devices

are generally used to store information, such as large programs,
files and backup data (Fig. 1.17). The end user can modify the
information stored in magneto-optical storage devices multiple
times. These devices provide higher storage capacity as they use
laser beams and magnets for reading and writing data to the device.
Examples of magneto-optical devices include Sony MiniDisc,
Maxoptix T5-2600, etc.
USB drive or commonly
known as pen drive is a removable storage device that is interfaced
on the USB port of a computer system (Fig. 1.18). It is pretty Fig. 1.18 USB drive
1.12 Computer Programming

fast and compact in comparison to other storage devices like CD and floppy disk. One of the most
important advantages of a USB drive is that it is larger in capacity as compared to other removable
storage devices. Off late, it has become very popular amongst computer users.

1.3 HISTORY OF C
‘C’ seems a strange name for a programming language. But this strange sounding language is one of the most
popular computer languages today because it is a structured, high-level, machine independent language. It
allows software developers to develop programs without worrying about the hardware platforms where they
will be implemented.
The root of all modern languages is ALGOL, introduced in the early 1960s. ALGOL was the first
computer language to use a block structure. Although it never became popular in USA, it was widely used in
Europe. ALGOL gave the concept of structured programming to the computer science community. Computer
scientists like Corrado Bohm, Guiseppe Jacopini and Edsger Dijkstra popularized this concept during 1960s.
Subsequently, several languages were announced.
In 1967, Martin Richards developed a language called BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language)

of BCPL and called it simply B. B was used to create early versions of UNIX operating system at Bell
Laboratories. Both BCPL and B were “typeless” system programming languages.
C was evolved from ALGOL, BCPL and B by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Laboratories in 1972. C uses
many concepts from these languages and added the concept of data types and other powerful features. Since
it was developed along with the UNIX operating system, it is strongly associated with UNIX. This operating
system, which was also developed at Bell Laboratories, was coded almost entirely in C. UNIX is one of the
most popular network operating systems in use today and the heart of the Internet data superhighway.
For many years, C was used mainly in academic environments, but eventually with the release of many
C compilers for commercial use and the increasing popularity of UNIX, it began to gain widespread support
among computer professionals. Today, C is running under a variety of operating system and hardware
platforms.
During 1970s, C had evolved into what is now known as “traditional C”. The language became more popular
after publication of the book ‘The C Programming Language’

community. The rapid growth of C led to the development of different versions of the language that were similar
but often incompatible. This posed a serious problem for system developers.
To assure that the C language remains standard, in 1983, American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
appointed a technical committee to define a standard for C. The committee approved a version of C in
December 1989 which is now known as ANSI C. It was then approved by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) in 1990. This version of C is also referred to as C89.
During 1990’s, C++, a language entirely based on C, underwent a number of improvements and
changes and became an ANSI/ISO approved language in November 1977. C++ added several new
features to C to make it not only a true object-oriented language but also a more versatile language.
During the same period, Sun Microsystems of USA created a new language Java modelled on C and C++.
All popular computer languages are dynamic in nature. They continue to improve their power and scope
by incorporating new features and C is no exception. Although C++ and Java were evolved out of C, the
standardization committee of C felt that a few features of C++/Java, if added to C, would enhance the
usefulness of the language. The result was the 1999 standard for C. This version is usually referred to as C99.
The history and development of C is illustrated in Fig. 1.19.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.13

Fig. 1.19 History of C

Although C99 is an improved version, still many commonly available compilers do not support all of the
new features incorporated in C99.

1.4 DATA TYPES

C language is rich in its data types. Storage representations and machine instructions to handle constants
differ from machine to machine. The variety of data types available allow the programmer to select the type
appropriate to the needs of the application as well as the machine.
ANSI C supports three classes of data types:
1. Primary (or fundamental) data types
2. Derived data types
3. User-defined data types
The primary data types and their extensions are discussed in this section. The user-defined data types are
defined in the next section while the derived data types such as arrays, functions, structures and pointers are
discussed as and when they are encountered.
1.14 Computer Programming

All C compilers support five fundamental data types, namely integer (int), character (char), floating point
(float), double-precision floating point (double) and void. Many of them also offer extended data types
such as long int and long double. Various data types and the terminology used to describe them are given
in Fig. 1.20. The range of the basic four types are given in Table 1.2. We discuss briefly each one of them in
this section.

NOTE: C99 adds three more data types, namely _Bool, _Complex, and _Imaginary. See Appendix 1.

PRIMARY DATA TYPES

Integral Type

Integer Character

signed unsigned type char

int unsigned int signed char
short int unsigned short int unsigned char
long int unsigned long int

Floating point Type

void
float double Long double

Fig. 1.20 Primary data types in C

TABLE 1.2 Size and Range of Basic Data Types on 16-bit Machines
Data type Range of values
char –128 to 127
int –32,768 to 32,767
float 3.4e–38 to 3.4e+e38
double 1.7e–308 to 1.7e+308

1.4.1 Integer Types

Integers are whole numbers with a range of values supported by a particular machine. Generally, integers
occupy one word of storage, and since the word sizes of machines vary (typically, 16 or 32 bits) the size of
an integer that can be stored depends on the computer. If we use a 16 bit word length, the size of the integer
value is limited to the range –32768 to +32767 (that is, –215 to +215–1). A signed integer uses one bit for sign
and 15 bits for the magnitude of the number. Similarly, a 32 bit word length can store an integer ranging from
-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.15

In order to provide some control over the range of numbers and storage space, C has three classes of
integer storage, namely short int, int, and long int, in both signed and unsigned forms. ANSI C defines
these types so that they can be organized from the smallest
to the largest, as shown in Fig. 1.21. For example, short
short int
int represents fairly small integer values and requires half
the amount of storage as a regular int number uses. Unlike int
signed integers, unsigned integers use all the bits for the
long int
magnitude of the number and are always positive.
Therefore, for a 16 bit machine, the range of unsigned
integer numbers will be from 0 to 65,535. Fig. 1.21 Integer types
We declare long and unsigned integers to increase the range of values. The use of qualifier signed on
integers is optional because the default declaration assumes a signed number. Table 1.3 shows all the allowed
combinations of basic types and qualifiers and their size and range on a 16-bit machine.

NOTE: C99 allows long long integer types. See Appendix 1.

TABLE 1.3 Size and Range of Data Types on a 16-bit Machine

Type Size (bits) Range
char or signed char 8 –128 to 127
unsigned char 8 0 to 255
int or signed int 16 –32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 0 to 65535
short int or
signed short int 8 –128 to 127
unsigned short int 8 0 to 255
long int or
signed long int 32 –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned long int 32 0 to 4,294,967,295
32 3.4E – 38 to 3.4E + 38
double 64 1.7E – 308 to 1.7E + 308
long double 80 3.4E – 4932 to 1.1E + 4932

1.4.2 Floating Point Types

Floating point (or real) numbers are stored in 32 bits (on all 16 bit and 32 bit machines), with 6 digits of
precision. Floating point numbers are defined in C by the keyword float. When the accuracy provided by
a float number is not sufficient, the type double can be
used to define the number. A double data type number uses
64 bits giving a precision of 14 digits. These are known float
as double precision numbers. Remember that double type double
represents the same data type that float represents, but with
long double
a greater precision. To extend the precision further, we
may use long double which uses 80 bits. The relationship
among floating types is illustrated Fig. 1.22. Fig. 1.22 Floating-point types
1.16 Computer Programming

1.4.3 Void Types

The void type has no values. This is usually used to specify the type of functions. The type of a function is
said to be void when it does not return any value to the calling function. It can also play the role of a generic
type, meaning that it can represent any of the other standard types.

1.4.4 Character Types

A single character can be defined as a character(char) type data. Characters are usually stored in 8 bits (one
byte) of internal storage. The qualifier signed or unsigned may be explicitly applied to char. While unsigned
chars have values between 0 and 255, signed chars have values from –128 to 127.

1.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The operations of a computer are controlled by a set of instructions (called a computer program). These
instructions are written to tell the computer:

The communication between two parties, whether they are machines or human beings, always needs a
common language or terminology. The language used in the communication of computer instructions is
known as the programming language. The computer has its own language and any communication with the
computer must be in its language or translated into this language.
Three levels of programming languages are available. They are:

1.5.1 Machine Language (Low Level Languages)

As computers are made of two-state electronic devices they can understand only pulse and no-pulse
(or ‘1’ and ‘0’) conditions. Therefore, all instructions and data should be written using binary codes
1 and 0. The binary code is called the machine code or machine language.
Computers do not understand English, Hindi or Tamil. They respond only to machine language. Added to
this, computers are not identical in design, therefore, each computer has its own machine language. (However,
the script 1 and 0, is the same for all computers). This poses two problems for the user.
First, it is difficult to understand and remember the various combinations of 1’s and 0’s representing
numerous data and instructions. Also, writing error-free instructions is a slow process.
Secondly, since every machine has its own machine language, the user cannot communicate with other
computers (If he does not know its language). Imagine a Tamilian making his first trip to Delhi. He would
face enormous obstacles as the language barrier would prevent him from communicating.
Machine languages are usually referred to as the first generation languages.

1.5.2 Assembly Language (Symbolic Language)

The Assembly language, introduced in 1950s, reduced programming complexity and provided some
standardization to build an application. The assembly language, also referred to as the second-generation
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.17

programming language, is also a low-level language. In an assembly language, the 0s and 1s of machine
language are replaced with abbreviations or mnemonic code.
The main advantages of an assembly language over a machine language are:

language.

An assembly language program consists of a series of instructions and mnemonics that correspond to a
stream of executable instructions. An assembly language instruction consists of a mnemonic code followed
by zero or more operands. The mnemonic code is called the operation code or opcode, which specifies the
operation to be performed on the given arguments. Consider the following machine code:
10110000 01100001
Its equivalent assembly language representation is:
mov al, 061h
In the above instruction, the opcode “move” is used to move the hexadecimal value 61 into the processor
register named ‘al’. The following program shows the assembly language instructions to subtract two
numbers:
ORG 500 /Origin of program is location 500
LDA SUB /Load subtrahend to AC
CMA /Complement AC
INC /Increment AC
ADD MIN /Add minuend to AC
STA DIF /Store difference
HLT /Halt computer
MIN, DEC 56 /Minuend
SUB, DEC -2 /Subtrahend
DIF, HEX 0 /Difference stored here
END /End of symbolic program
It should be noted that during execution, the assembly language program is converted into the machine
code with the help of an assembler. The simple assembly language statements had one-to-one correspondence
with the machine language statements. This one-to-one correspondence still generated complex programs.
Then, macroinstructions were devised so that multiple machine language statements could be represented
using a single assembly language instruction. Even today programmers prefer to use an assembly language
for performing certain tasks such as:

language code is stored in ROM

1.18 Computer Programming

1.5.3 High-Level Languages

High level languages further simplified programming tasks by reducing the number of computer operation
details that had to be specified. High level languages like COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN, and C are more
abstract, easier to use, and more portable across platforms, as compared to low-level programming languages.
Instead of dealing with registers, memory addresses and call stacks, a programmer can concentrate more on
the logic to solve the problem with help of variables, arrays or Boolean expressions. For example, consider
the following assembly language code:
LOAD A
ADD B
STORE C
Using FORTRAN, the above code can be represented as:
C=A+B
The above high-level language code is executed by translating it into the corresponding machine language
code with the help of a compiler or interpreter.
High-level languages can be classified into the following three categories:
Procedure-oriented languages (third generation)

Procedure-oriented Languages
High-level languages designed to solve general-purpose problems are called procedural languages or third-
generation languages. These include BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, C, C++, and JAVA, which are designed
to express the logic and procedure of a problem. Although, the syntax of these programming languages
is different, they use English-like commands that are easy to follow. Another major advantage of third-
generation languages is that they are portable. We can use the compiler (or interpreter) on any computer and
create the object code. The following program represents the source code in the C language:
if( n>10)
{
do
{
n++;
}while ( n<50);
}
The third generation programming languages are considered as domain-specific programming languages
because they are designed to develop software applications for a specific field. For example, the third
generation programming language, COBOL, was designed to solve a large number of problems specific to
the business field.

Problem-oriented Languages
Problem-oriented languages are used to solve specific problems and are known as the fourth-generation
languages. These include query Languages, Report Generators and Application Generators which have
simple, English-like syntax rules. Fourth-generation languages (4 GLs) have reduced programming efforts
and overall cost of software development. These languages use either a visual environment or a text
environment for program development similar to that of third-generation languages. A single statement in
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.19

a fourth-generation language can perform the same task as multiple lines of a third-generation language.
Further, the programmer just needs to drag and drop from the toolbar, to create various items like buttons,
text boxes, labels, etc. Also, the programmer can quickly create the prototype of the software application.
These languages are typically used in the WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) environment
to facilitate faster and convenient application development. Visual Studio is one such environment that
encompasses a number of programming tools as well multiple programming language support to ensure
flexibility to the programmer during application development.

Natural Languages
Natural languages are designed to make a computer to behave like an expert and solve problems. The
programmer just needs to specify the problem and the constraints for problem-solving. Natural languages
such as LISP and PROLOG are mainly used to develop artificial intelligence and expert systems. These
languages are widely known as fifth generation languages.
The programming languages of this generation mainly focus on constraint programming, which is
somewhat similar to declarative programming. It is a programming paradigm in which the programmer only
needs to specify the solution to be found within the constraints rather than specifying the method of finding
the desired solution
The programming languages of this generation allow the users to communicate with the computer system
in a simple and an easy manner. Programmers can use normal English words while interacting with the
computer system.

1.6 DEVELOPMENT OF C ALGORITHMS

Algorithms help a programmer in breaking down the solution of a problem into a number of sequential
steps. Corresponding to each step a statement is written in a programming language; all these statements are
collectively termed as a program.
The following is an example of an algorithm to add two integers and display the result:

Algorithm
Step 1 – Accept the first integer as input from the user.
(num1)
Step 2 – Accept the second integer as input from the user.
(num2)
Step 3 – Calculate the sum of the two integers.
(sum = num1 + num2)
Step 4 – Display sum as the result.

There is a time and space complexity associated with each algorithm. Time complexity specifies the amount
of time required by an algorithm for performing the desired task. Space complexity specifies the amount of
memory space required by the algorithm for performing the desired task. While solving a complex problem,
it is possible to have multiple algorithms for obtaining the required solution. The algorithm that ensures best
time and space trade off should be chosen for obtaining the desired solution.
1.20 Computer Programming

1.6.1 Characteristics of Algorithms

The typical characteristics that are necessary for a sequence of instructions to qualify as an algorithm are the
following:

run infinitely.

1.6.2 Advantages of Algorithms

Some of the key advantages of algorithms are the following:

system using any programming language of user’s choice.

solution.

1.6.3 Disadvantages of Algorithms

Apart from the advantages, algorithms also posses certain limitations, which are

the logic becomes relatively difficult.

Example 1.1

Algorithm
Step 1 - Start
Step 2 – Accept a number from the user (num)
Step 3 – Initialize looping counter i = 2
Step 4 – Repeat Step 5 while i < num
Step 5 – If remainder of num divided by i (num%i) is Zero then goto Step 6 else
goto Step 4
Step 6 - Display “num is not a prime number” and break from the loop
Step 7 – If i = num then goto Step 8 Else goto Step 9
Step 8 – Display “num is a prime number”
Step 9 - Stop
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.21

Example 1.2

Algorithm
Step 1 - Start
Step 2 – Accept the marks in three subjects from the user (marks1, marks2, marks3)
Step 3 – Calculate average marks using formula, average = (marks1 + marks2 +
marks3)/3
Step 4 – Display the computed average of three subject marks
Step 5 - Stop

Example 1.3 Write an algorithm to determine whether the given year is a leap year or not.

Algorithm
Step 1 - Start
Step 2 – Accept an year value from the user (year)
Step 3 – If remainder of year value divided by 4 (year%4) is 0 then goto Step 4
else goto Step 5
Step 4 – Display “’year’ is a leap year” and goto Step 6
Step 5 – Display “’year’ is not a leap year”]
Step 6 - Stop

Example 1.4

Algorithm
Step 1 - Start
Step 2 – Accept a number from the user (num)
Step 3 – If remainder of num divided by 2 (num/2) is Zero then goto Step 4 else
goto Step 5
Step 4 – Display “num is an even number” and goto Step 6
Step 5 – Display “num is an odd number”
Step 6 - Stop
1.22 Computer Programming

Example 1.5 Write an algorithm to determine whether a given string is a palindrome or not.

Algorithm
Step 1 - Start
Step 2 – Accept a string from the user (str)
Step 3 – Calculate the length of string str (len)
Step 4 – Initialize looping counters left=0, right=len-1 and chk = ‘t’
Step 5 – Repeat Steps 6-8 while left < right and chk = ‘t’
Step 6 – If str(left) = str(right) goto Step 8 else goto step 7
Step 7 – Set chk = ‘f’
Step 8 – Set left = left + 1 and right = right + 1
Step 9 - If chk=’t’ goto Step 10 else goto Step 11
Step 10 – Display “The string is a palindrome” and goto Step 12
Step 11 – Display “The string is not a palindrome”
Step 12 - Stop

1.7 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT METHOD

The entire process of software development and implementation involves a series of steps. Each successive
step is dependent on the outcome of the previous step. Thus, the team of software designers, developers and
operators are required to interact with each other at each stage of software development so as to ensure that
the end product is as per the client’s requirements. Figure 1.23 shows the various software development steps:

Analysing the requirements

Feasibility Analysis

Creating the Design

Developing code

Testing the software

Deploying the software

Maintaining the software

Fig. 1.23 Software development steps

 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.23

1.7.1 Analysing the Requirements

In this step, the requirements related to the software, which is to be developed, are understood. Analysing
the requirements or requirement analysis is an important step in the process of developing a software. If the
requirements of the user are not properly understood, then the software is bound to fall short of the end user’s
expectations. Thus, requirement analysis is always the first step towards development of a software.
Software is abstract in nature; as a result, the users may not be able to provide the complete set of
requirements pertaining to the desired software during the requirement analysis stage. Thus, there should be
continuous interaction between the software development team and the end users. Moreover, the software
development team also needs to take into account the fact that the requirements of the users may keep changing
during the development process. Thus, proper analysis of user requirements is quite essential for developing
the software within a given timeframe. It will not only help in controlling the software development cost but
will also lead to faster and accurate development of a software.
The task of requirement analysis is typically performed by a business analyst. The person is a professional
in this field who understands the requirements of the novice end user, and documents and shares it with the
development team.

1.7.2 Feasibility Analysis

In this step, the feasibility of developing the software in terms of resources and cost is ascertained. In order
to determine the feasibility of software development, the existing system of the user is analysed properly.
Apart from studying the existing system, this step involves identifying the need of automation in the existing
system. The analysis done in this step is documented in a standard document called feasibility report, which
contains the observations and recommendations related to the task of software development. Some of the
important activities performed during the feasibility analysis stage are as follows:
Determining development alternatives This activity involves searching for the different
alternatives that are available for the development of software. There are mainly four alternatives
available for the development of a software. The first alternative is to allow the existing system
to continue without developing a new software for automation. The second alternative can be to
develop the new software using specific programming languages such as Java, C++, Visual Basic etc.
The third alternative is to develop the software using the architectural technologies such as Java 2
Enterprise Edition (J2EE) and mainframe based with thin clients. The fourth development alternative
is to buy an already developed software along with its source code from the market and customise it
according to the client’s requirements.
Analysing economic feasibility This activity involves determining whether the development of
a new software will be financially beneficial or not. This type of feasibility analysis is performed
to determine the overall profit that can be earned from the development and implementation of
the software. This feasibility analysis activity involves evaluating all the alternatives available for
development and selecting the one which is most economical.
Assessing technical feasibility The technical feasibility assessment involves analysing various
factors such as performance of the technologies, ease of installation, ease of expansion or reduction
in size, interoperability with other technologies, etc. The technical feasibility activity typically
involves the study of the nature of technology as to how easily it can be learnt and the level of
training required to understand the technology. This type of feasibility assessment greatly helps in
selecting the appropriate technologies to be used for developing the software. The selection should
be made after evaluating the requirement specification of the software. In addition, the advantages
and disadvantages of each identified technology must also be evaluated during technical feasibility
assessment.
1.24 Computer Programming

Analysing operational feasibility Operational feasibility assessment involves studying the

software on operational and maintenance fronts. The operational feasibility of any software is done
on the basis of several factors, such as:
– Type of tools needed for operating the software
– Skill set required for operating the software
– Documentation and other support required for operating the software

1.7.3 Creating the Design

After the feasibility analysis stage, the next step is creating the architecture and design of the new software.
This step involves developing a logical model or basic structure of the new software. For example, if the
new software is based on client–server technology then this step would involve determining and specifying
the number of tiers to be used in the client–server design. This step also involves documenting the varied
specifications pertaining to database and data structure design. The flow of the development process is mainly
illustrated in this stage using a special language known as Unified Modelling Language (UML). UML uses
pictorial representation methods for depicting the flow of data in the software. Some of the key features,
which are considered while designing a software are:
Extensibility The design of the software should be extensible so that it allows the addition of some
new options or modules in future. The architecture of the software should be flexible enough to not
get disturbed with the addition of new functionality.
Modularity The software should be modular in nature so that its working and data flow can be
understood easily. Modularity also helps in parallel development of the various software modules,
which are later integrated into a single software product.
Compatibility Software should run correctly in the existing system with an older version or with
other software. Thus, software should be compatible and work well in conjunction with other software.
Security Software must be able to control unauthorised access. While designing a new software, it
is ensured that there are proper security mechanisms incorporated in the product.
Fault tolerance The software should be capable of handling exceptions or faults that may occur
during its operation. The software must have the capability to recover from failures.
Maintainability The design of the software should be created in a simple manner with appropriate
details so that it is easy to maintain.

1.7.4 Developing Code

In this step, the code for the different modules of the new software is developed. The code for the different
modules is developed according to the design specifications of each module. The programmers in the software
development team use tools like compilers, interpreters and debuggers to perform tasks such as finding errors
in the code and converting the code into machine language for its execution. The code can be written using
programming languages such as C, C++ or Java. The choice of the programming language to be used for
developing the code is made on the basis of the type of software that is to be developed. There are certain key
points or conventions, which must be kept in mind while writing code; for instance:
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.25

1.7.5 Testing the Software

Testing is basically performed to detect the prevalence of any errors in the new software and rectify those er-
rors. One of the reasons for the occurrence of errors or defects in a new software is that the requirements of the
users or client were not properly understood. Another reason for the occurrence of errors is the common mis-
takes committed by a programmer while developing the code. The two important activities that are performed
during testing are verification and validation. Verification is the process of checking the software based on
some pre-defined specifications, while validation involves testing the product to ascertain whether it meets
the user’s requirements. During validation, the tester inputs different values to ascertain whether the software
is generating the right output as per the original requirements. The various testing methodologies include:

1.7.6 Deploying the Software

In this step, the newly developed and fully tested software is installed in its target environment. Software
documentation is handed over to the users and some initial data are entered in the software to make it
operational. The users are also given training on the software’s interface and its other functions.

1.7.7 Maintaining the Software

Once the software has been deployed successfully, a continuous support is provided to it for ensuring its
full-time availability. A corrupt file, a virus infection and a fatal error are some of the situations where the
maintenance personnel are asked to fix the software and bring it back to its normal functioning. Further, a
software may also be required to be modified if its environment undergoes a change. In order to successfully
maintain the software, it is required that it should have been properly documented at the time of its
development. This is because the maintenance person might not be the same who was originally involved in
the development of the software. Thus, a good code documentation serves vital for the maintenance person
to fix the software.

1.8 APPLYING SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT METHOD

To understand how software development method is applied, consider a simple scenario where it is required
to convert the temperature given in Fahrenheit to its corresponding Celsius value.

Program Objective
To convert the temperature value from Fahrenheit to Celsius

Analysis
Input: Temperature value in Fahrenheit
Output: Temperature value in Celsius
1.26 Computer Programming

Conversion method: The formula C = (F–32) / 1.8 can be used to generate the desired output
Data elements: Real Variable F is used to store the input temperature value in Fahrenheit
Real Variable C is used to store the resultant temperature value in Celsius

Design

Algorithm
Step 1 – Read F
Step 2 – Compute C = (F-32) / 1.8
Step 3 – Display C

Development

Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main()
{
float F, C;
clrscr();

printf("Enter the temperature value in Fahrenheit: ");

scanf("%f",&F);

C=(F-32.0)/1.8;

printf("The equivalent temperature value in degrees Celsius is: %.2f",C);

getch();
}

Testing
The program must be tested with multiple input values so as to ensure that there are no logical errors present
in the code.

Enter the temperature value in Fahrenheit: 0

The equivalent temperature value in degrees Celsius is: –17.78

Enter the temperature value in Fahrenheit: 175

The equivalent temperature value in degrees Celsius is: 79.44

Enter the temperature value in Fahrenheit: 250

The equivalent temperature value in degrees Celsius is: 121.11
 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1.27

Key Terms
Computer: It is an electronic device that Input devices: Input devices accept the data
takes data and instructions as input from the from the end users on which the operations
user, processes the data, and generates useful are to be performed.
information as an output. Output devices: Output devices are used for
Vacuum tube: It was used in the first genera- providing the output of a program that is ob-
tion computers for developing the circuitry. It tained after performing the operations speci-
comprised of glass and filaments. fied in a program.
Transistor: It is a solid state device used in CPU: It is the heart of a computer that is used
the second generation computers. It replaced to process the data entered through the input
vacuum tubes. device.
IC: It is a silicon chip that embeds an elec- Memory: It is used for storing the input data
tronic circuit comprising of several compo- as well as the output of a program that is ob-
nents, such as transistors, diodes, and resis- tained after performing the operations in a
tors. It is used in third generation computers. program.
Microprocessor: It is a processor chip used Scanner: It is an input device that converts
in fourth generation computers. It integrates documents and images as the digitized im-
thousands of components on a single chip. ages understandable by the computer system.
LAN: It is a network, where multiple com- Motherboard: It is a device used for con-
puters in a local area, such as home, office, or necting the CPU with the input and output
small group of buildings, are connected and devices.
allowed to communicate among them. RAM: It is the primary memory of a com-
WAN: It is a network, which facilitates con- puter that stores information and programs,
nection and communication of hundreds of until the computer is used.
computers located across multiple locations. Monitor: It is an output device that produces
MAN: It is a network that is used to connect visual displays generated by the computer.
the computers over a large geographical area, Printer: It is an output device that prints the
such as district or city. computer generated information onto the pa-
GUI: It is a user-friendly interface that pro- per sheets.
vides icons and menus to interact with the Speaker: It is an electromechanical trans-
various computer applications. ducer that converts an electrical signal into
Microcomputer: It is defined as a computer sound.
that has a microprocessor as its CPU. Plotter: It is an output device that is connect-
Minicomputer: It is a medium-sized com- ed to a computer to print large documents,
puter that is designed to serve multiple users such as engineering and constructional draw-
simultaneously. ings.
Mainframe computer: It is a computer, System software: It refers to a computer
which helps in handling the information pro- program that manages and controls hardware
cessing of various organizations like banks, components.
insurance companies, hospitals and railways. Application software: It is a computer pro-
Supercomputer: It is the most powerful and gram that is designed and developed for per-
fastest computer. It is used for complex sci- forming specific utility tasks; it is also known
entific applications. as end-user program.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hieroglyfic: or, a
Grammatical Introduction to an Universal Hieroglyfic
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Title: Hieroglyfic: or, a Grammatical Introduction to an Universal Hieroglyfic Language

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIEROGLYFIC: OR, A GRAMMATICAL

INTRODUCTION TO AN UNIVERSAL HIEROGLYFIC LANGUAGE ***
 H I E R O G L Y F I C:
OR,
A Grammatical Introduction
TO
An Universal Hieroglyfic Language;
CONSISTING OF
E n g l i s h SIGNS and VOICES.
WITH
A Definition of all the Parts of the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin Languages;
Some Physical, Metaphysical, and Moral cursory Remarks on the Nature, Properties, and Rights of Men and
Things.
And Rules and Specimens for composing an Hieroglyfic Vocabulary of the Signs or Figures, as well as the
Sounds of Things, upon rational and philosophical Principles, and the primitive Meaning of Names.
By R O W. J O N E S.

“Expatiate free o’er all this Scene of Man,

A mighty Maze! yet not without a Plan.”

L O N D O N:
Printed by John Hughs, near Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields;
And sold by Messrs. Dodsley, in Pall-Mall; Davis, in Piccadilly; Shropshire, in Bond-Street; Elmsley, late
Vaillant, in the Strand; Owen, at Temple-Bar; and Crowder, in Pater-Noster-Row. Of whom may be had,
the Origin of Language and Nations, by the same Author; Price 5s. and his Postscript 1s. in Sheets.
1768.
 PREFACE.
The subject of this inquiry, tho’ of that importance as to demand the care and attention
of the ablest writers, is perhaps the least understood of any branch of science. This being
in a great measure owing to the present corrupt state of languages, and the wrong course
and direction of lexicographers in the investigation of them, the Writer of this essay,
therefore, without presuming to instruct his readers in any common track of literature,
only submits to their perusal some discoveries, which perhaps may be of service towards
the restoration of language and primitive knowledge, and excite the curiosity of those of
greater learning and penetration, and engage them, if possible, in a research worthy of
their contemplation, the restoration of the first universal language of mankind. For
although the ground-work, which chiefly depends on the author’s own discoveries, may be
sketched out by himself, without the parts and learning of an Aristotle, yet it must be
confessed that the finishing strokes in any new abstruse branches of literature deserve a
more masterly hand. However, since we are here indiscriminately permitted a decent
exercise of our faculties upon the most serious subjects, it is to be hoped no unpardonable
offence has been committed, in submitting the following sheets to the judgment and
decision of men of candor and learning. If they should in any degree approve of the
writer’s labours, he will then be justified this intrusion into the province of the literati, with
all his defects and inaccuracies. But should the contrary happen after an impartial and
candid examination, he must then acquiesce with the common fate of his fellow-labourers,
and impute his errors or mistakes to the intensity of his zeal for the service of mankind,
more particularly Britons of all denominations. But to be condemned unheard, in a country
that boasts so much of its liberties, especially those of the press, must be without a
precedent.
However customary it has been for writers to take notice of the performances of former
authors upon the like subjects, in order to shew the necessity or utility of their own; yet,
as no person ever treated this subject upon the present plan, and the author is not so vain
as to imagine that any thing he could have advanced might have been sufficient to attract
those that have been long accustomed to the clod-cutting traces, and the voice of
prejudice or mere sounds, and he presumes not to teach any particular language or
doctrine, it shall be declined as useless in the present case; and we shall proceed here to
what seems to be more proper and necessary for the illustration of the subject in hand,
namely, to transcribe some notes taken in the course of these inquiries, introductory to a
rational grammar. And first of the nature and state of man.
Man, in the sense of language, is to be considered as a compound of all beings, a
microcosm in his form, and a general intelligent echo of the divine fiat by his speech; a
vegetable, by his manner of growth and nourishment; an animal by his motion,
respiration, and feeling; and a spiritual being from his thinking or intelligent faculties; his
animal part being probably formed with the other animals, out of the dust of the earth,
and his intelligence in its first state, that tree of life, breath, or superaddition breathed into
his nostrils by the creator, by which he became a living soul. The essence of this celestial
and terrestrial system or compound being will probably remain indefinable, until man shall
recover his primitive existence, as the tree of life; tho’ the tree of knowledge of good and
evil in the mean time furnish him with sufficient means for his happiness here, and
existence hereafter as the tree of life; for his organs of sensation, in contact with external
objects and impressions, form in the sensory the various modes of feeling, and those
images are perceived by the will; which has not only a nilling power of permitting those
images to remain without any additional light, as the mere images of sensation fit only for
the government of animal bodies; but also of willing or presenting them to the reflecting
faculty of the soul for the formation of sentimental ideas, to be registered in the memory,
and employed by the mind in its intelligent, rational, wise and virtuous operations, for the
illumination and conduct of a reasonable being, appointed by Providence lord of the
creation.
The human will being the sole energy of all voluntary motions in man, and motions
continuing in direct lines or courses, if not diverted therefrom, most probably would have
continued its pure intuitive course and direction towards goodness, virtue, and true
happiness, without the power of nilling or depravely contradicting its original nature, as
the tree of life, had not the serpent interposed and put the fruit of the tree of knowledge
of good and evil in its way. And as man in his state of innocence, before his fall, must, as
the tree or breath of life, have been furnished with the knowledge of good, so it seems
probable that Moses by the tree of knowledge of good and evil, meant the generative
powers, or certain characters or letters representing them, engraved on the bark of the
tree of knowledge of good and evil, furnishing the first pair, in their state of innocence,
with two sorts of ideas or knowledge, and the means of gratifying their lust, as well as
pride or curiosity of knowing good and evil, like their superiors; mankind before their fall
being probably capable of seeing each others ideas, without the use of sounds; and of
propagation after the manner of the second Adam.
Since those animals, which are endued with the organs of speech, are incapable of
articulating any conceptions, it is reasonable to suppose that the animal part of man
alone, without the assistance of the intelligent or rational, must be so likewise. It is
therefore probable that the human will, agreeable to the notes or ideas impressed on the
memory, plays upon the fibres, the simple tones of articulation; which in their passage,
with respiration, thro’ the lungs, stomach, windpipe, larynx, and mouth, are by the glotis,
tongue, lips, muscles, and other organical powers, which assume literal figures, modulated
into articulate sounds, both simple and compound, agreeable to the nature of things and
their ideas, as impressed in the human sensory. And as man is furnished with ideas chiefly
by the means of speech, the tree of knowledge of good and evil seems to be no improper
metaphor of the human voice or person, or the Dryades and Hamadryades, nor the tree of
life, of man’s intuitive state of knowledge and virtue.
It is yet the general opinion that human speech derives its origin solely from the
arbitrary composition or invention of man, without any connexion with nature or the
intervention of Providence. However true such bold and presumptuous doctrines may be
with respect to some of the corrupt compounded parts, which chiefly occasioned the great
variety and confusion of languages, yet articulate sounds, the materials of speech, clearly
appear to have been the gift of Providence, and always the same in all countries; as for
instance, an Indian, as well as an European, in expressing the idea of length, will contract
and lengthen the organs of articulation, so as to form an acute sound, and the shape of
the letter i; and to express breadth they will alike extend them, like the letter o, to express
a broad or grave sound; and so in other cases, though they differ as to the manner of
compounding those sounds; more especially on account of the great loss of primitives
amongst the Indians. And it cannot be otherwise, since the scripture proves that Adam
named things agreeable to their nature, under the inspection and direction of Providence.
Again, to suppose man of himself, without the intervention of Providence, capable of
forming the materials of his own speech, must be as absurd as to imagine that he formed
the materials of his own ideas or himself, since speech depends on the original frame of
man, and the shape of his organs, and abstract and complex ideas on names, as the
means of forming and registering them in the memory. Nor does it appear to be less so, to
imagine dumb men, without inspiration, capable of fixing upon arbitrary signs of language,
or advancing in knowledge, or at least, of forming so perfect a system, without being
previously taught the use of letters and characters, the elements and principles of
languages; more especially such of the sounds and figures, as were not to be met with in
any other parts of nature, and the unintuitive, vicious, privative, and negative parts both
of knowledge and language, which depend on the hieroglyfic, sacred, or secret characters.
And, whatever may be the disguise of arbitrary or corrupt dialects, they will all appear
upon due examination to derive their origin from the original tree of knowledge; and was
it not for the difference of climates, constitutions, habits, manners, and other accidents,
which demand the aid of grammar, it seems probable, since characters represent the
figures of things, and letters, or natural articulate sounds subsist in the very frame of
man, the very ideas causing vibrations in the speaker, are felt by the hearer, and the
elements of speech are universally the same, that languages would naturally fall, or at
least, like the English, incline to their primitive universal state, and the same combination
and construction of particles into words and sentences, if the particles of all languages
were precisely defined according to their primitive meaning; there being in man an innate
potency of recurring to, as well as an impotency of erring or deviating from the original
modes of speech, as well as perceptions, and of becoming virtuous and vicious by turns.
Languages, it is true, have been fluctuating, and in particular the English; which was
originally the Celtic or Phrygian, brought by our ancestors, the Titans, in the first
westward migration, from the lesser Asia, thro’ Greece and Italy into ancient Celtica; and
which on the arrival of the Romans in Italy partook of the Greek dialects, and furnished
the Romans with a considerable part of the Latin tongue. Some of the Aborigines of Italy,
Spain, and Gaul, having afterwards fled from the Roman yoke into Germany, without their
priests and druids, who had before retired into Britain, their language as well as
knowledge received an ebb, though no foreign admixture. But their priests and bards
denominated in the writings of the British poets, the Luchlin colony, and in Germany and
Italy, by the names of Longobards, and Lombards, the great bard nation, and speaking
the British language in Germany, being drove by the Romans out of Britain, into Germany
and Denmark, their language as well as knowledge received some increase from the
mother tongue; which then in its turn began to sink in Britain. And thus all the dialects of
ancient Celtica are but different dialects of the old Celtic language, which first made its
way into Europe, and so they ought to be deemed by lexicographers in their definition of
vocables. But of all those dialects, the English in respect to the copiousness, strength, and
simplicity both of its vocables and construction, seems to be the best fund for an universal
language of any upon earth.
It may not perhaps seem improper here to explain some other abstruse principles in
physics and metaphysics, from the meaning of vocables, as they too seem to explain the
principles of rational grammar. There are, it seems, in physics, discoverable by the
signification of words, three universal principles or genusses of things, namely, space,
matter, and motion; which, as to their essences, if essence, nature, and quality differ in
ought but form, are indefinable. But with respect to their modes, properties, and forms,
space is distance every way, whether with or without body; with it, it is extension or
capacity; without it, a vacuum; quantity, mensuration, number, place or matter extended,
a continent, an island, length, breadth, figure, thickness, an inch, a foot, a yard and such
things being its modes. Matter, whatever its essence may be, is an indivisible impenetrable
atom or corpuscule; of which two or more assembled or cohered, form a particle, and
larger cohesions or combinations of those form sensible bodies, which are chiefly
distinguishable in language by their forms; though they have such properties and modes,
as length, breadth, and thickness, or extension, solidity, or an assemblage excluding all
other bodies from its place, divisibility or the separation of its quantity, mobility,
passiveness, and figure, or that length and breadth without thickness, which present
themselves to the eye. And as to the active qualities of matter, they seem to be all
intentional, as fluidity, softness, rarity, heat, and other modes of motion; all the rest being
passive, and arising merely from the different texture, disposition, and combination of
bodies; or a privation of the former; as, firmness, hardness, density, coldness, dryness,
and rest. Motion is the successive passage or change from once place or state to another.
Of which there are three sorts expressible by language, viz. the energic, generative, and
local; which with their various modes or actions are expressible by verbs.
The metaphysical part of man, which derives its origin from the Creator’s impression, or
the essence of the thinking soul, altho’ it has no more consciousness or knowledge of its
own essence, than those of other beings; nor perhaps the means of its present modes of
conception, without the use of those bodily organs, to which the all-wise Creator was
pleased to confine it for a time, and the presence of internal objects, any more than the
organs of sensation feel the touch without the contact of external objects, is still in the
fool, as well as philosopher, when furnished with proper organs, equally capable of that
innate potency of expressing its own qualities and actions, as is evident from our universal
acknowledgement of a creator, and the different powers of those fools who are capable of
lucid intervals. And however different our reasonings may be concerning the attributes of
the infinite Creator, from the variousness of objects and different degrees of volition, there
can be nothing more absurd than to affirm that the human soul cannot be impressed with
the image of its Creator, because at times it expresses or affects no consciousness of it;
consciousness being rather an energic affirmation or quality of the soul, than its essence,
as an involuntary animal or vegetable motion is an act, rather than the cause of motion.
Such perceptions however as it does express of spiritual beings, have privative, energic, or
moral names; which are formed by the symmetry, and just measures and proportions of
parts and modes of motion; from whence moral notions also derive their origin, as shall be
shewn in the course of the following work, as shall also as to our mistaking infinite
duration for time.
 Tho’ metaphysics aid the moral plan,
“The proper study of mankind is man;”
His language part we now presume to scan,
A mighty maze to be without a plan;
‘A wild where weeds promiscuous shoot,
Or garden tempting with forbidden fruit;’
The tree of life, once, branches, stem, and root,
Of knowledge too, since vices on it shoot.
The garden cleared of the tares and weeds,
Gives willing force, and cogitation speeds.
‘Then, as life can little more supply,
Than just to look about us, and to die;
Expatiate free o’er all this scene of man,
A mighty maze! yet not without a plan.’
Plain truth, not person, is my utmost hope,
I tell you truly in the sense of Pope.

Wild signifies a wood, or the place of the higher growth, and is an emblematical
expression for the tree of knowledge of good and evil, the Υλη, matter or sound of human
speech, as ειδος seems to be of its ideal property.
Person is a compound of pêr-son, sweet sound; pêr also signifies any sweet ripe fruit,
as figs or figes, according to the Welsh; which perhaps resembles that which gave man
the denomination of person, the sound of the apple or afal, and to the fallen angel that
tempted Eve, the name of di-afal or devil, the apple God; and figes and vices signify the
same thing; the v consonant and digamma being the same, and g being an inflection of
the radical c. See person, wood, &c. in the vocabulary.
The fall of man has laid us under a sort of charm, which nothing can remove but a
thorough taste of the tree of knowledge, and avoiding its vicious branches as much as
possible. Had that great reasoner Mr. Lock been so happy as to attend a little more to the
tree of knowledge, instead of intirely rejecting the divine origin of human speech, and
innate principles of thinking, he might have reasoned well upon right principles, instead of
misleading and confirming us in our errors, as without doubt was his intention.
The learned Hermes, the very best of modern grammarians, whose ingenious
performance, had it sooner come to my perusal, might have charmed me out of my
present labours, to acquiesce with his opinions, seems to be a little affected by this fort of
charm, and perhaps is as much deluded from his subject by the language, learning, and
beauties of the Greeks and Romans, as the late author of the short introduction to the
English language, by some of our modern barbarisms, the very exceptionable parts of our
language.
 GRAMMAR.
Grammar is the right method of expressing the ideas of things by signs and sounds
adapted for the sensation of the eye and ear, according to their hieroglyfic nature, forms,
and modes, and that εντελεχεια or intelligent echo, with which man was originally endued
by his Creator.
It consists of three parts or sorts of names, viz. letters, considered as characters or the
figures of things, and as signs of articulate sounds; their combination into particles and
nouns; and their construction into phrases, propositions, and sentences. And, according to
the present state of languages, etymology may be admitted as a fourth division of
grammar.

LETTERS.
Letters, as γραμματα or characters, either really or emblematically personate, and
represent things and ideas; and as notes of articulate sounds signify internal conceptions,
and express them to others. They consist of various sorts, such as simple characters to
denote elements or principles; compounds to express complex ideas, and things; the
dividers of parts; actives, energies, and affirmatives; and privatives, and negatives. These
are the smallest or elementary parts of language, as atoms are of matter and action of
motion; an assemblage thereof form particles, as of atoms do those of matter; and a
combination of either form more sensible bodies, and so on to the construction of larger
forms, masses or sentences; letters having been formed in their shapes and sounds,
agreeable to ideas and things, and having a natural connection therewith; and length and
breadth affecting the eye in the same manner as their vibrations do the ear, and a
combination of both the human will and perception.
Characters, which consist of irregular lines, circles, or curves, are incapable of general
signs or meanings, or representing many things; but strait lines, and circles, and their
division and multiplication, like the Roman, only are capable of that hieroglyfic, universal
representation and meaning, which the first universal language must be supposed to
express, and as most other characters seem to be only deviations from the Roman, from
mere affectation, or for the conveniency of sculpture, there seems to be no great
absurdity in supposing that Adam was furnished with those characters, and instructed in
their sounds; that they continued in general use until the confusion of Babel, when
mankind began to make use of the noise or sounds of cattle instead of human voices; and
that the Romans were furnished with those characters by the Tuscans on their arrival in
Italy. Nor does it seem in the least probable that those nations which had been destined
by Providence to be the possessors of the most distant countries westward from Asia, who
made their way thither accordingly, along the Mediterranean coasts, through Crete,
Greece, Sicily, Egypt, Mauritania, Tuscany, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, were in Asia at the
time of the confusion. And as those characters are adapted only for the Celtic, Phrygian,
or British language, which resolves the names of places of the several countries through
which it passed, preferable to the more modern dialects thereof, and Cæsar thought that
Druidism began in Britain; it seems very probable that Mercury, Gomer, or Hermes, and
other Druids, leaders of the western colonies, were always possest of those secret
characters; it being certain that the Gauls before Cæsar’s time had the use of letters.
Besides, ancient history takes notice of the hieroglyfics, as consisting of the figures of
animals, parts of human bodies, and mechanical instruments invented by Thoth the first
Hermes, which were afterwards translated into Greek, and deposited in books in the
Egyptian temples, and which the learned supposed to be sacred characters.
The characters of the first language were without doubt simple, requiring but few rules
for their combination and construction; and yet must have been expressive of all the
natural signs and sounds of things; for such certainly ought to be the construction of a
language proposed for an universal assent; and such in my opinion is the English, whose
vocables are hieroglyfic; and their meaning agreeing with the picturesque combination.
These were the ancient characters, engravings, or γραμματα; and their sounds were the
στοιχα, the chief sounds; and which we shall here proceed to explain, together with the
Greek characters.

Eng. Welsh. and Greek. Greek names.

Roman.
a, ɑ. α. Alpha, the call upon parts.
b. β, ϐ. Beta, upon the beasts of the fields.
c, k, q. κ. Kappa, the action upon parts.
d, dd. δ. Delta, the division or race of things.
e, ɛ, h, ɜ. ε, η, ϶, Η. Epsilon and Heta, the clitoris, erectors, and all the
interjectory generative springs.
f, ff. φ. Phi, the penis in action and generative qualities.
g. γ, Γ. Gamma, the testicles, or an action about the mother.
i, j. ι. Jota, the rays of the sun upon things.
l, ll. λ. Lamda, things extended or place.
m. μ. Mv, man’s body, and things about as surrounding man.
n, ng. ν. Nv, in man, or betwixt his thighs, human will and the
negatives.
o. ο, ω, Ω. Omicron and Omega, the little and great circle of space,
place, and motion.
p. π, Ψ, ψ. Pe and Psi, the penis not in action, and animal and other
dead parts.
r. ϱ, ρ. Rho, the eccho or sound of animals, &c.
s, ſ, z. σ, Ζ, ζ. Zigma and Zeta, sounds in general.
t, T, th. τ, Θ. Tau and Theta, man’s possessions, properties, extension,
&c.
v, u, u, w. υ, Υ. Upsilon, the upper springs, as man’s face, &c.
x, ch, wh. Ξ, ξ, χ. Chi or χi, animal, gutteral, and sounds of superior actions.

Transcriber’s Note: This table is included as an image here, as some of the characters in it may have more than
one interpretation.

This alphabet consists of seven vowels or voices, which in their own nature, actively,
and without any super-addition, yield compleat articulate sounds, particles, or names, and
hieroglyfically represent the elementary or active parts of the human body, and nature, as
similar thereto, namely, a, e or h, i, o, u, w or ω, Υ; and of other characters or letters,
which are called consonants from their yielding articulate sounds only in company with
vowels. Of these b, c, d, f, g, l, m, p, t, are also hieroglyfic representations of the various
parts of the human body and other things as similar thereto; and they are mutable and
inflectory in the pronominal cases, from the less animate, slow, and almost silent radical
state, both as to the sense and sound, to the rougher, louder, and more animate and
active sounds and things; as for instance, c, p, τ, the most silent, as expressive of material
or passive substances or local inanimate actions inflect into g, b, d, which are somewhat
louder and rougher, as being expressive of the higher and more active things and actions
of men and animals; and those again into the still louder and rougher sounds of ch, ff, th,
as those are expressive of the most energic actions or modes of motion; but when g, b, d,
are the radicals of inflection, they again inflect into ng, f, m, dd, n, and in some dialects
the l and r have the aspirates ll and rh for the radicals, as has been shewn in my former
treatises. To the loss of these inflections may in a great measure be imputed the great
variety and confusion of languages; new dialects having been formed by changing the
radicals and misapplying the inflectories, as father for pater, brother for frater, and mother
for mater. b, c, d, j, k, p, q, t, as yielding little or no sounds, without the assistance of
vowels, are called mutes; l, m, n, r, f, s, as having imperfect obscure sounds without the
company of vowels, have been distinguished as semivowels; and l, m, n, r, also as liquids
from their flowing in particles, as in, îf, îl, îm, în, îr, the flow of the sun’s rays, light,
motion, liquid, and life or qualities upon the lower world of beings and things; but the
distinctions of mutes and semivowels seem trifling, as most letters seem to be vowels in
some degree.
Here, before we proceed to explain the figures and powers of letters, it may not
perhaps be improper to observe that the parts, affections, and ideas of the human pair,
incorporated, as in the figures at the end of this essay, were the archetypes or patterns of
the original characters, whose figures and sounds are descriptive of the universe; that
letters and particles have two sounds, the masculine and feminine, the active and passive,
or the short and long; that a particle or syllable cannot in the genuine sense of language
consist of more than two letters; and that there are not in fact any such things as
dipthongs; those now supposed to be such, being two or three particles of one vowel
each, which formerly was a common method of composition, as appears by the following
piece of ancient poetry; in which there is no consonant made use of, the r being only a
letter of sound.

Oer iu yr eira ar yr yri,

Oi riu or awyr i rewi;
Oer iu yr ia oi riu ri
Ar eira oer iu yr yri.

Thus Englished.

From its high hill cold is ice,

Cold is the snow on Snowden;
Its nature from the sky to freeze
On snow so cold is Snowden.

The letter o is an indefinite circle, signifying the universe, motion, space, the sun’s
figure and motion, and all or ol, extension of length, breadth, and thickness; and it is
expressible of parts only by a diminution of its general sense; as in b-ol, a ball or part of
all, or-b, a circle part, w-or-l-d, a man’s circle part or place of life, b-or-d-er the circle part
of the possessions and 10, one circle, which being repeated comprehends all numbers.
This, like all other original letters, has two sounds, the long and the short, as in on, one,
ton, tone; and its shape or figure was taken from the circumference of the human pair
close together, face to face, which is man’s chief circle place, signified by the term world.
The Greek ω is a double υ as has been explained in my former treatise.
The letter i is an indefinite line, representing man in his primitive state of innocence, as
it does still his body, as a line, without its extension, and his head and senses by its dot;
and in a secondary sense are expressed by this line and dot, length or heighth towards
the sun, the sun-beams, fire, heat, and other qualities both spiritual and animal, as still
flowing upon man, and other things as relative to him, and originally perhaps centering in
himself, and since his fall only relatively. But though man and nature have been impaired
by original sin, they still seem to be invested with certain springs, energies, or returns of
those ilations and qualities, as, thinking, willing, voice articulate, powers generative and
growth; whereby the human species may be extended, and acquire so much knowledge
and virtue, as, with the blessing of Providence, to be capable of being reinstated. The
chief of which springs is expressed by the letter u, a compound of two i’s signifying man’s
compound of male and female, and spirit and matter, with a c at their bottom, springing
them upwards; by y as to the generative and vegetative parts, which also is expressive of
woods and other growth; it being a compound of i j, and half of the spring c, as not being
expressive of the spirit of man. The i also expresses man as an upright line placed in the
centre of all worldly beings and substances, to whom they bear a relation, as shall be
shewn under adverbs. The u vowel seems to derive its figure from the human face, the
seat of the voice, and the heart, and the feminine or consonant v from the vagina, if it be
an original letter, but, from its sound, it seems to supply the place of the digamma. The y
or Υ resembles trees, plants and vegetables, and the j consonant is the half of it, and
sometimes made use of instead of g, to express some of the generative parts and
qualities. These vowels have each two sounds, the high and low, long and short, or grave
and acute, viz. i, as in, in, high, or i, go thou; the u vowel, as, in, unction, united; and the
y as the u in unction and y in hyssop; but the w has only one long sound, as in woman,
womb, wood, and it is mostly applicable to spirituals, man, and things belonging to him;
the wh has the gutteral sound of the Welsh ch, or the Greek χ as in where, why; the j
consonant has the sound of g in generation; and the v consonant that of the soft flowing f
of the Welsh, or as in verb, vice; thus supplying the softer sound and meaning of the
digamma.
The letters a, e, h, ε, η, Η, in their primary sense signify the male and female
posteriors, the clitoris, erectores, &c. the impulse and springs of generation, and the earth
and water place of man; whence a came to be an expression for the element earth or
matter and things hard, rough, or interjectory, and ε for the element of water and any
feminine, soft, or passive parts or things, but the interjectory aspirate e or he is
masculine, and the ε has one spring resembling that of rain. The a has properly two
sounds, as in animal, have, or name, but not that of o or the northern a in all; the
masculine e or he has an aspirate sound, as in hero, and a mute one, as in echo; and the
feminine ε was originally sounded soft, like the French cedill ç, as in fleece, vice, and the
use of this character and sound ought to be continued or the soft c should be marked with
a cedill to prevent the confusion of the hard and soft sounds of c; but more of this
elsewhere.
The letters c, k, q, g, γ, wh, ch, κ, χ, Ξ, ξ signify actions of different sorts and degrees,
viz. c as the half of o, signifying motion, and k and q, as significant of its sound, signify
the modes of common local motions or actions; and the hard c also represents half the
round of the posteriors, as o doth the whole of the male and female together, as the
feminine or soft c doth the other half; g or γ represent the testicles or half the gamma, f
being the other half, and the generative and growing parts of man and nature; and the
rest are their gutteral inflections expressive of animal sounds and actions. The palatals
should be sounded hard and short, as in quick, the soft c in some cases as the feminine ε
before explained, and s before the vowel i, the superlative gutteral sorts, as the wh in
where, why, and the Welsh chwa, chwant, and g or γ as in egg, edge. All these characters
are nothing more than compounds of c, h, s, as will be shewn hereafter.
The letters d and b put together, thus, db, as compounds of i and o, or length and
breadth, are expressive of man and woman’s body part, from the thigh to the part of the
body which the elbow reaches, and all other living beings so extended, as τ does the
extension of matter, but being again divided into d and b, they express living things, or
the qualities of parts and diminutives of bodies, and emblematically spirits and privatives,
as p does parts of matter, as divisor of τ. The d and b ought to be sounded alike in all
languages, as, de, be, and dd, as the, but letters are farther explained in the former
treatise.
T represents man’s legs together, with the feet upwards, and both toes turned outwards
as upright and traverse lines, extension and man in his temporal state, turned out of
paradise, under the sky, topsy turvy, and all things as relative to him, and the line upon
which time or the manner of reckoning the distances of actions are measured. T sounds
alike in all languages, and th and θ as in the, Thebes, and those are the inflections of T.
 The letters p, ph, ff, f, π, φ, ψ, signify material or dead parts, or their qualities, as p
divides T; ph is p high, up, or active; the digamma φ or f, the p inflecting the gamma; and
ψ actions of a lesser nature, as growth. The p and π sound alike in all languages, ph, ff as
φυω, fusee, or fun, ψ as in Psalms, it being only a compound of p, and f as the v
consonant in verb, but these letters are farther explained in the former treatise.
m represents a man’s body and arms or wings from the top of b and d, or the elbow
part of the body, up to the neck, and the world, forms, and things, as surrounding and
belonging to man, as shall be further explained amongst the particles. It sounds the same
in all languages. n is the thighs, with the parts above them, forming a traverse line, and
the vacancy betwixt the same when extended, signifying to be in, or in existence or
possession, having f and d for its auxiliaries, but before the vowels or springs it expresses
a negative or privative; and it has no particular sound.
Ỻ, L, λ, are T or man’s legs, once put together, separated, and as divisors of T, which
signifies space or extension, are expressive of particular lengths and breadths, and their
places, qualities, &c. The L or λ is sounded as eel or îl and Ỻ has an aspirate hissing
sound in the Welsh, Spanish, and some other dialects.
The letters r, ϱ, ρ, Ρ, R, represent animals and their parts, and their mouths as the place
of sound; S being added to P, as a sound, forms R, the sound as well as part of an animal;
and they are all to be sounded as in viper, except where they happen to be radical letters,
and then with an aspirate h as in rhyme. The S, σ, Z, are also letters of sound, but
express no part of man, and are rather the shape of some animal of the serpentine kind,
the waving of the breath or water, &c. They have two sounds, the hard and soft, as in
loss, zone. This explanation of letters, together with what has been given already in my
former treatises, and shall be added amongst the particles, will, it is to be hoped, be
deemed satisfactory, as to the sense and origin of letters, and the sacred characters;
notwithstanding the pretensions lately set up for those of irregular lines, curves, and
windings, which can express but few things, and the remarks of another ingenious
gentleman, as to the non-entity or insignificancy of the Hieroglyfics; his enquiry having
been confined to the vulgar sorts, or the paintings or engravings of animals, &c. when it
now appears the Hieroglyfics consisted only of those few sacred or secret characters. The
hints and specimens here given of the method of combining the hieroglyfic figures, being
as compleat as the press will admit of; and a process thereof, thro’ the whole of the
English language, considering the corrupt state of languages, tho’ the English is as
capable of an hieroglyfic combination as any, requiring much loss of time, trouble, and
expence, and perhaps the aid of a Hunter and a Hill, and some other reasons occurring,
the author hopes he shall be excused for proceeding no further at the present, in the
combination of characters.

Of Particles and Syllables.

A Particle is a simple articulate sound and sign of one or two characters or letters; but a
syllable sometimes by the cutting off of vowels, becomes a combination of more letters,
which is yet commonly pronounced as a simple articulate sound; there being a natural
relation and agreement betwixt the signs and sounds of letters, and ideas and things.
Particles and syllables were originally framed according to their hieroglyfic shape, the
natural sounds of ideas and things, and the sense and value of letters, as has been
already explained; and therein the quantity of the action of sound was measured and
proportioned to the motion, action, or energy of the thing to be expressed, as the high,
loud, acute, or short accent, for an active or energic particle, and the low, grave, and
long, for a passive, substantive, or a negative one.
And altho’ some letters, as a, e, y, p, t, and some particles in words are so fixed by the
addition of y, ty, ive, and other terminations, as of themselves to be always substantive
and long, as to quantity and accent; yet those passive and long letters and particles, by
the addition of an active vowel, consonant, or particle, will become active and short.
Hence the best way of spelling or pronouncing must be to divide the particles of
compound names according to the original manner of their combination, sense, and
sounds, and when a vowel is cut off, its consonant, with the remaining vowel, or with the
most valuable, if there should be any doubt, as in the following examples, ex-ec-ra-ble,
co-re-spond-ing, pro-ble-m-at-ic-al-ly, un-ec-spect-ed-ly, prin-ce, o-af, o-ther, o-ver, ub-
iqu-i-ty. Those sorts of names and their compounds according to their significations and
nature in language, are distinguishable into the following sorts, viz. Articles to substantive
and identify names; nouns substantive, or the names of substances; pronouns, which
collectively express nouns and antecedent parts of sentences; adjectives, which are added
to the names of substances, to express their qualities and accidents; actives, or the names
of actions, verbs, energies, and affirmatives of being, acting, and feeling; adverbs or
additional words, to express quantities, qualities, distances, modes, and energies of
actions and things, with their degrees; prepositions to denote and connect situations, and
conjunctions or connectives of names, proportions, and sentences.
As the right apprehension of the hieroglyfic primitive language very much depends on a
clear illustration of particles, which as sorts of compound letters, together with the
primitive hieroglyfic letters, comprehend all the materials of the first universal language,
the following addition is here made to what has been already published on the etymology
of particles; the radicals being placed in each class before their inflections and
transponents. Ab, eb, af, ef; ba, be, fa, fe. These express the generas and species, as well
as causes and effects of animal life, beings, and growth of the earth and water, both male
and female, as in ab-ba, eb-riety, af-ect, ef-ect, ba-by, be-an, fa-ther, fe-male, fa-ar-am-er,
ba-ar-en-ess.
Ib, if, bi, fi. These are expressive of the qualities flowing from above, like the sun’s rays
upon man and inferior beings, and their return of life, as in l-ib-eral, l-îf, bi-le, fi-eld.
Ub, uf, bu, fu. These are the springs or returns of the above qualities in man and other
beings, as in ub-erty, h-uf, bu-d, fu-el, ub or springing upwards.
Ob, of, bo, fo. These signify out of, or from the circle of life or sight, or dead, as in ob-
lation, ob-livion, of-fering, of, bo-dy, bo-ne, fo-reign.
Ac, ec, ag, eg, ach, ech, ang, eng, ca, ce, ga, ge, cha, che, nga, nge. The first sort of
particles denote the several motions and actions of earth and water or matter, both
animate and inanimate, and their transponents express their contraries, such as, rest,
confinement, shuts or inclosures, as in, ac-t, ec-stacy, ec-ho, ag-ain, eg-g, ach-ieve, ach-
os or cause, spe-ech, bre-ech, ech-uin or a loan, ang-er, eng-age, ca-ab-age, ca-ge, ce-
iling, ce-ll, ke-ep, ga-te, ge-ld, cha-os, che-st, che-fn or her back, gnad or gned, or
finished, kna-ve, kne-ad.
Ic, ig, ich, ing, ci, gi, chi, ngi. These are the principles, qualities, and beginning of
motion, the first or chief action, or creation of heat, man, and things, and their returns, as
in h-ic, or the man action, ig-menos or proceeded, ig-neous, h-igh, wh-ich, ich-od, ing or
acting, as a man in the line of possession, th-ing, k-ing or ci-ing, the chief in the line of
possession, the rest are the inflections of ci or chief inflected thus, ci, a chief, gi, his chief,
chi, her chief, ngi, my chief.
Uc, ug, uch, ung, cu, qu, chu, ngu. These are the springs or returns of those acts from
man and other beings upwards, and the species of generations, productions, and energies
therefrom, as in uc, uc’s-or, cl-uck, h-ung, ug-ly, ug-ies, uch-el, cu-san or kiss, cu-r or
care, cu-b, Cu-pid, gu-ide, gu-ilt, gu-st, gu-t, chuck, chu-rl, chu-ith or breath, know-ledge,
gnu-eid or making.
Oc, og, och, ong, co, go, cho, ngo. These are the most occult actions as proceeding
from the hind part of the human circle, or from the sight part of the circle, occurrences,
and coalescence of actions and motions circular, and their species and productions, as in
oc-ult, oc-currence, og-le, och-i-my or filth to me, och or oh fie, th-ong, co-alescence, co-
herence, go-re, cho-ler, ngo or my memory.
Ad, add, ed, edd, da, dda, de, dde. These are expressive of diminution, privation and
division of earth, water, matter, growth, parts, and other things; and as such an addition
to the goods and possessions of man, as in add, ad-eg or de-crease, had or seed, ed-ible,
da or goods, dda his goods, de-arth, de-ath, de, dde, the or a thing. Id, idd, di, ddi,
signify the division, qualities, and action of man, or the human intellect, spirits, and
privatives, as in, id-ea, idd-o, or the human properties, di-vision, di-minish, yn ddi-rgel or
secretly.
Ud, udd, du, ddu. These are the spring or return of human intelligence, as divided or
exercised, and their species and negatives, as in, h-ud or fascination, cy-h-udd-o, to
confess one’s crimes, du-bious, du-ll or judgment, du-tifull, i-ddu-n, to a man.
Od, odd, do, ddo. These signify the division of the circle of motion, or a circle of actions
called time, present and past, as in, oed or age, od or life, odd or the past action or age,
do or it has been done, or it is past, ddoe or yesterday.
Ah, eh, ih, oh, uh, ha, he, hi, ho, hu. These express the different impulse or energies of
the human passions and affections, and are explained amongst the adverbs; of which
species of names they seem to be.
Ai, ei, ii, oi, ui, and their transponents, signify motions local as of moving, walking, or
driving, actions and affections of generation and growth, man out of possession, man’s
visage, and affirmations of yea, and the sun’s motion darting its rays by io; but an h is
commonly added to the radical as an additional energy.
Al, el, la, le. The extension of earth and water, or place in general, and qualities and
animal sounds as extended, as al high in alps and altus, el low or in hell, el-egy, la-nd or
surface, le or p-la-ce, terresti-al, aquati-le, c-all, kn-ell, la-ment, le-gible.
 Il, li, signify an ilation and extension of the sun’s rays, so as to cause light, with its
returns, effects, or lights below; and all intentional qualities, and emblematically
intelligence as proceeding from the divine censory, as in îl-ation, îl-um-ine, ho-îl the sun or
the glorious light, h-îl, its flowing rays and the human race, li-ght, li-u or colou-r, li-ke, or
the action of light, îl-ustrate. Ul, lu, signify the return or spring of the human light as
extended by male and female in their rays and race, and in a more compounded manner
than li, as in v-ul-tus or visage, r-ule or the light, lu a family.
Ol, lo, signify all or place, or space extended, and the circle of motion, as in oll or all, b-
oll or ball, lo-cus place lo-st.
Am, em, ma, me. These express the existence, forms, and modes of man, earth, and
water, as material beings, as in, am, the about or existences, am-bit, am-ple, mam, mater
or mother, ma-es a field, ma-ith and ma-int, quantity, size, and extensiveness.
Im, mi, are expressive of man’s present existence or state in this world, with respect to
his superior and more excellent qualities, than his animal state, as in im-agination, im-
mense, im-mortal, im-pulse, im-pio to shoot upwards, im-adel to depart, mi, me, mi-di-le,
me in the divided place, that is, the line betwixt his superior and inferior beings, myn or
mi-in, by my life.
Um, mu, signify man’s spring of enlarging himself in his present state, and at last,
through death, of returning to an immortal one, as in um-pire, h-um-an, h-um-ble, n-um-
erous, mu-te, d-um-b, mu-af, the greatest, mu-ch, mu-l-tiply, mum, mu-my, mu-se.
Om, mo, signify all forms, modes, and species, as in om-in-is all in the lower parts,
ombredd or abundance, omnific, mo-on, mo-ns or mo-untain, mo-r the sea, mo-ral, mo-
re.
An, en, na, ne. These signify the existence of earth and water or matter, and the
negative, as in an-y, the earth in, an-au, natural growth, en the firmament, en-d, en-
crease, na no matter, ne-b, nobody, or being, ne-st.
In, ni, are affirmative of existence and non existences, generally as, in, include, in-
carnation, ni or not, ni-d-ulation, ni-ght, ni-m.
Un, nu, as in and ni are affirmations, relative to man, spirits, beings and things unseen,
as, un, one or the uni-verse, un-ite, un-i-versal, un-i-form, nu-gacity, nu-de, nun or nu-un.
Ap, ep, af, ef, pa, pe, pha, phe. These are the divisors of T, signifying the extension of
this system, into parts of earth and water, or material substances and things, as, ap, from,
ap-erture, pa what part, pe-th or pa-rt, ep, ef, or eph, privatives and used as terminations
as parts of water, as are op and oph; it being absurd to suppose O all to be a part, or ip,
up, or ub, which imply no extension and are springs upwards, to be divisible. See the
Postscript.
Ar, er, ra, re, signify earth and water or matter, as in ar-able, ac-ar, bran-ar, fallow-land,
e-ar-th, or the elements of both earth and water, ab-er, running water or harbour, go-er, a
rivulet or shore, ra-bet, ra-ble, er-uption, re-turn, re-flow, re-nt.
Ir, ri, are the sun beams or rays, heat and fire; also heighth, length, distance, and direct
motion, as in ir-a or ir-e, f-ir-e, h-ir or length, ri heighth, ri-ght, ri-fe, pelyd-ir the rays of
the sun.
 Ur, ru, signify man inclusive of all his energies, springs, and superior qualities, as ur-tue
or virtue, t-ru-th, ur-th, worth or value, ur-d or word, ur-dd, hon-ur, or honour, ur-ship or
worship, ru-in-wedd, divine property, ru-ler, rue.
Or, ro, are the circle of extension, place and distance from the line of possession, as in
b-or-der, or, a circle, f-or the things within the borders of possession, or-der, or from, or-b,
ro-me, from me, round.
As, es, is, os, us, sa, se, si, so, su. These are expressive of earth and water, men and
things seen and sounded, the earth’s surface, the place of rest or lowest place; sound and
sight in general, as is and si; os and so a greater extension thereof; us and iu, the human,
sweet, or persuasive sound or person.
At, et, ath, eth, ta, te, tha, the. These express entities, properties, extensions,
possessions, and limits of earth and water, and other things under the sky, as in at, ath-
wart, et-ernal, eth-icks, ta-me, ta-n or fire, ta-acs or tax, te-rm, te-mpest, te-mple, te-
mion, tha-n, tha-t, the, the-m, the-re, the-nce, the-ory.
It, ith, ti or ty, thy. These are expressive of entities, properties, extensions, and
existences in general under the firmament, as it, ith or thine, time, thi-ef, thy, thing, thi-s,
ti-ll, it-in-e-rant.
Ut, uth, tu, thu, are the return, spring or extension of man and things in growth,
generation, and volition by labor, industry, and wisdom, as in ut as, ut-most, ut-erus, ut-
ility, ut-terly, mo-uth, tu or thou, aber-thu, to sacrifice, tu a house or possessions, tu-tor,
tu-g. Ot, oth, to, tho, are the circle and extent of possessions, properties, motions, and
things, as in hot, oth, from thy possession, to, top, to-il, to-parch, tho, tho-rough, tho-
ught.
Ou is woe or a man out of the circle of life; and uu or w is the spring of springs.
Of those sorts of names are formed the more complex, such as those names, phrases,
or propositions called words merely by a combination of the proper sorts, either with or
without an elision of consonants. In the latter case, the less expressive, valuable, or
necessary may be cut off when two vowels occur in composition, as its consonant will in
some measure preserve its sound in company with a more worthy vowel; and all active
radical vowels ought to be dropped in the names of substances and things, as appears by
the following examples, viz. blackish or b-li-ack-ish, a thing without light; blessedness or
bi-il-ess-ed-in-ess, life flowing down upon the world; brutish, or ab-ru-ti-ish, he is from the
property of truth; clamorous or ac-al-am-or-us, a great calling action about us; cliverly, or
ci-liv-erly, like the water clan; creating or ac-ci-ir-at-ing, the chief or first motion to
extension and action; crocodile or ac-ir-oc-o-di-il, an angry acting, deceitful water animal;
dread or id-ir-ad, at the fire; flow or af-il-ow, a spring of the rays of the sun; frost or af-
oer-st, the lower parts at a stand from the cold; and cold is from ac-ol-id to be without
sun; glorifying or ag-lo-ri-fying, the doing of an high action in an extensive place; gnaw or
ag-in-w, the acting in of an animal; grass or ag-ar-as, the action upon the ground; place
or p-la-ce, a part of the earth’s extension; property or pe-or-pe-er-ty, entity or possession
of the parts of land and water or of this globe; scull or si-cau-al, the sight shut; sky or is-
kay, the covering of below; slack or is-al-ack, a low or slow action; small or is-am-il, the
rays of the sun about below; snail or si-in-na-il, it is in without light; speak or si-pe-ak, the
action of the sound part; spy or si-pe-y, the seeing thing; star or sta-ir, the standing fires;
trace or tir-race, the land race; and race or ir-ace, is a long action.

ARTICLE.
The article, αρθρα, partakes of the nature of pronouns; and in apposition or concord
with another name, either active or substantive, determines it to be a substantive, or the
name of a substance, with its identity and number.
There are two sorts of articles, viz. the and an; an becomes a or any before a
consonant, and either of them being placed in apposition to an active convertible name,
convert it into a substantive, as to form into a form, to chase into a chase. And, names
being first formed in the plural number, both these then stood as signs of the singular
number; but since plural names have been taken as singular, and new signs have been
added thereto to form plurals, the is also put in apposition to plural names, to indentify
the person or thing meant or spoken of.
Example; Some may still imagine the signification of an article or a letter, and perhaps
more compound names to be indefinable, and the article to be useless; tho’ the definitions
here given thereof evidently shew the contrary; and the Greeks and Romans not only
made use of the genders ο, η, το, and hic, hæc, hoc, but also of a declining article at the
end of nouns, as the Welsh did un and yr, which last before a consonant sunk into y the,
inflecting with the following radical consonant; and other nations have made use of the
article. To dispute the utility of the article seems therefore absurd, but it may be a dispute,
whether either determine any particular individual, or only some third person alluded to,
pointed at, meant or spoken of in discourse, or in the line of possession; ο, η, το, hic,
hæc, hoc, this, that, yr, un, le, ein and der expressing as much.

Of Nouns Substantive.
A Noun Substantive denotes a substance, as a spirit, an animal, a vegetable, or any
other thing that may be conceived to subsist, as agreeableness, agility, acceleration;
which, tho’ their qualities, agreeable, agile, accelerate, are indefinite or indeterminate, yet
by the signs, ness, ty, ion, signifying substances, properties, and the sun’s motion, acquire
such a determinate meaning as to become substantives, and to shew their meaning
without being joined with any other word. And all names, whether of substances,
qualities, or other things, to which the articles an or the, or any other substantive signs
are joined or set in apposition, are nouns substantive.
There are in the English language more substantive names than seem to be necessary
for an universal language, besides the synonymas of various other dialects, which are
incongruous in sense, with the hieroglyfic signs, and tend to darken and confound the
natural sense and sounds of names and things. Tho’ the English vocables are explained
elsewhere, we shall here take notice of some peculiarities of that nature in the English
substantives.
Bl-ab, b-abe; ebb, gl-ebe; rib, tr-ibe; kn-ob, gl-obe; t-ub, t-ube; where the final e should
be dropped, and the remaining vowel marked with a grave accent, as tub, tùb.
B-ack, b-ake; b-eck, b-eke; l-ick, like, link; p-ock, p-oke, m-uck, p-uke. These might be
wrote as lic, lìc.
Ax, sex, ra-dix, ox, ux, as acs or ach as formerly. Ach, be-ach, spe-ech, st-ich, l-och, n-
och, touch.
M-atch, l-etch, itch, b-otch, sm-utch.
H-ac, ar-se, ace, dice, d-oce, d-uce.
H-ag, l-eg, g-ig, l-og, h-ug.
Age, b-adge, coll-ege, edge, se-ige, br-idge, d-oge, l-odge, subterf-uge, b-udge.
Aight, eight, f-ight, f-ought, o-ught. These eight last classes are made use of to express
the three subsisting sorts of actions, viz. the local or inanimate, the generative and
energic, when the first might be expressed by c, the second by g, and the third by ch, as,
ac, àc, and aç with a cedille, that is, the acute, the grave, and soft or feminine; ag, àg, āg
for the short, long, and soft of the generative species of motion; and ach, àch, and āch,
the last to be sounded like the Welsh ch or the English wh in what or where, for the acute,
grave, and gutteral of energies and animal motions; so that these three letters, which the
Welsh inflect so as to express the cases and genders by the difference of acute, grave,
and gutteral, might very well serve for all the uses of the eight last classes of names,
should the whole be deemed necessary. But, those of the third, fifth, eighth, and ninth
classes are compound sounds expressed by a combination of characters, which ought not
to be kept together but in terminations; they having been corruptly introduced into
languages by the Greeks and Romans, in order to express qualities and pleasant sounds
contrary to the nature of things.
Bre-ad, bl-ade, br-ed, br-eed, ma-id, si-de, c-od, c-ode, b-ud, pr-ude, should be wrote
and accented as ud, ùd.
St-af, st-ave, be-ef, be-eve, l-ife, ol-ive, beho-of, beho-ove, c-ave, might be made staff
and stàf, as formerly.
An-im-al, male, h-ell, h-eel, circ-le, Apr-il, v-ill, b-ile, car-ol, par-ole, c-ull, b-ull, m-ule,
might be wrote and accented al, àl, el, èl, il, ìl, not eel, ol, òl, ul, ùl; or as the Welsh and
Spanish aspirate ll.
H-am, l-ame, sarc-asm, anth-em, th-eme, apoth-egm, cla-im, cl-ime, quiet-ism, wisd-
om, h-ome, mikrocosm, ch-um, h-ume, usm. Here the final e might be dropped, and the
Greek compounds have no particular meaning; all being alike expressive of the forms of
substances and things.
Me-an, m-ane, g-ang, p-en, obsc-ene, chall-enge, p-in, p-ine, th-ing, mo-ti-on, t-ong, b-
un, b-ung. These signify various existences and things, and are properly accented; but the
final e might be exchanged in writing, for the grave accent, màn.
 Attend-ance, abstin-ence, prov-ince, sc-once, d-unce. These may do as to orthography
and accent, and signify the ens or essence of various things, as, ance of earthly
substances, ens those of water, ince of things in general, once of motion, and unce of
man, as in dunce or di-unce a privative of the human essence.
Ant, ag-ent, m-int, f-ont, h-unt, signify the possession of the earth and water or
property, properties in general, the property of motion and human property, that is of
hunting or driving to and fro in the possessions.
G-ap, g-ape, sle-ep, p-eep, tr-ip, tr-ipe, h-op, h-ope, s-up, d-upe, shap, ship, shop. Here
the grave accent might serve for the final e; the meaning thereof being the division
generally of matter into substances or parts, except the terminations shap, ship, and shop,
signifying from high or high.
Cell-ar, c-are, be-er, p-er, or pear, f-ir, fire, clam-or, st-ore, c-ur, cens-ure, am-our or am-
ur, here the final e might be dropped; and ar signifies upon, àr earth, er since, èr water, ir
high or to, ìr fire, or from, òr an extension of possession, or a circle, ur or wr a man.
Lam-as, ass, g-aze, ash, be-ast, actr-ess, sque-ese, fl-esh, ap-ish-ness, apt-ness, ch-est,
bl-iss, s-ize, f-ish, l-ist, m-oss, d-oze, osh, c-ost, b-uss, f-uze, bush, b-ust, might be all
expressed and accented as, as, às, ash, ast to express the affirmations and energies of
affections, properties, and things.
P-at, p-ate, p-et, def-ete, b-it, b-ite, kn-ot, m-ote, c-ut, mute, p-ath, t-eeth, fa-ith, m-
oth, mo-uth. These express the identity and property of different parts or things, and the
final e might be exchanged for the grave accent.
Abili-ty, agili-ty, ami-ty, du-ty, antipa-thy, apa-thy, sympa-thy. These signify different
general properties and qualities of things.
Aristocra-cy, oligar-chy, ordina-ry, mason-ry, orator-y, lecher-y, grocer-y, orthodox-y, ha-
y, ho-y. The cy and chy signify different qualities, and the y is the Welsh the.
Ma-w, me-w, mo-w, and s or es for substantives of a plural nature. This w signifies
different springs.
Substantives are distinguished by grammarians into appellatives or general names of
things common to many individuals, as man, river, month, wind; and proper names,
appropriated only to individuals, as, George, Britain, London, October, Libs, which admit
of neither articles or plurality of numbers. But all words, excepting one or an, according to
their natural meaning seem to me to be appellative and capable of being applied to things
of a plural nature, were their primitive sense understood, as for instance, George, which
originally signified a chief of the circle nation, as an appellative name of a magistrate, in
the same manner as King, Prince, Duke, or any other; but when its original meaning was
lost, and it came to be adopted as a Christian name by different families, it was thence
supposed to be a mere arbitrary term, imposed as the name of an individual; and so as to
Britain, London, October, Libs, Thames, Avon, which were originally appellatives or
common expressions for the sea coast, long towns, the eighth month from the spring, the
west south-west, or Libian wind, the limits of the Iceni, and Rivers. So that these names,
so long as their original meanings were understood, were as much appellative or common
expressions, as man, river, month, wind, or any other common names, and as capable too
of a plural or singular sense, in concord with the articles or demonstrative pronouns; as, a,
the, this, or that, chief of the circle nation or long town, &c. Hence the distinction of
common and proper names seems to be frivolous and unnecessary.
All substantives were originally appellative and plural, and the articles and
demonstrative pronouns were set in apposition or as terminations thereto, to determine
their singular nature as well as the identity of the individual. But as they are now mostly
understood as the signs of single things, the English method of adding s or es as a plural
termination, should be generally followed as the best method; unless substantives and
their articles should be restored to their original sense and use; but in either case the
particles, an or en, as terminations of plural names, when the sense will admit of their
being singular, and en does not express the male and female of the same kind, as men
does both man and woman, seem to be improper. Nor is it best so to continue the use of
such plurals, as mice, lice, teeth, feet, geese, but rather mus, lus, toth, fot, gus, which are
so in their nature, as expressing the little eaters, the little family, the grinders, the movers
and the water nation. It is however certain that the numbers of nouns are in their nature
but two, singular and plural, one and two or many, but whether they are expressed by one
or an, and two or as and es seems not to be very material, tho’ as and es were the
primitive signs, as, as signified the masculine gender, and es the feminine. And numbers
and genders ought to be the same.
There were originally no other distinction of genders of nouns than the masculine and
feminine, and which were distinguishable only by the signification of vocables; and
whatever other arbitrary modes and distinctions as to genders of nouns and their
declensions or inflections have been arbitrarily made by other nations, the English still in
fact adhere to the original masculine and feminine genders, the only distinction of nature,
as and es; for were the meaning of substantives precisely understood, they would all
appear to be either masculine or feminine, at least, as relative to man and woman, or
according to their active and passive, or hard and soft sounds. Nor do the English
adjectives or pronouns vary as to genders, numbers, or cases, as has been supposed; but
naturally agree in concord, without any variation or inflection thereof, from their primitive
state.
Indeed if the Welsh modes of inflection derive their origin from the original language,
which was musical, and vocables could be reduced to their true primitive state, perhaps it
might be the best way, but as that might be impracticable or too arduous a task, we may
as well stick to our old English voices, which deviate so very little from the primitive
language.
And, as to any variation of cases or the declension of nouns, the English still remains in
the primitive state of language without any; their prepositions being fully expressive of the
situation and direction of actions and things, and those of other nations being altogether
arbitrary and calculated more for the sake of variety and preservation of vocables, than
from any necessity, as their prepositions and vocables might in their primitive state be as
expressive, and agree in concord, like the English, which has no other state or case, than
that in which names were originally formed, or the nominative, as will appear to any one,
that will be at the trouble of a deliberate consideration of the origin, frame, and
construction of the English language, whatever may have been advanced by our modern
grammarians, as to the variation of the genitive or possessive case.
 Of Pronouns or general Personates.
Pronouns, so called from their being supposed to be mere substitutes of nouns, ought
according to their signification to be deemed either substantives or adjectives; for as
general signs they serve to personate, demonstrate, relate, and interrogate persons,
things, and parts of discourses; and being all demonstrative and interrogative, they are
properly distinguishable only into the following sorts, viz.

Personals. Possessives. Relatives.

1. I, me, myself; my - own, mine; one, any, none.
2. Thou or you, thee, thyself; thy - thine; this, each, every, either.
3. He, she, it, him, her, himself, herself; her, its - hers; that, some, another, such.
4. We, us, ourselves; our - ours; who, whose, whom.
5. Ye or you, yourselves; your - yours; which.
6. They, them, themselves; their - theirs; what.

Tho’ the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin pronouns are, with the other parts of speech,
all defined in the vocabulary at the end of this essay, it may not be improper here to
observe in general, as to their signification, that the first personal pronoun substantively,
and not substitutionally signifies man as an indefinite line placed alone or by himself in the
centre of things before his extension or division into u the male and female spring; the 2d,
the-o-u or y-o-u, the off man or woman; 3d, man extended into T, or in his race and
possessions; and hi and shi, the male and female forms and existences; 4th, mankind;
5th, the first and second female persons; 6th, all mankind, persons, and things, except
the first second and third persons singular. The possessives express all things to be in
man, as one universal possessor; and to relate to his descendents as their qualities and
properties. The relative and interrogative which is a compound of wch-ich signifying the
above action, as ich means the first act of motion or creation, and uch man’s utmost
return of that act or spring upwards. And so used as a general relative and interrogative of
all actions, as who is of persons, and what of things, and as to the rest they are
particularly explained in the vocabulary.
The personal pronouns and such of the possessives and relatives as will not join with
substantives in construction, are substantives, and the rest are adjectives; and pronouns
like other English nouns, have no variation or declension of person, number, gender, or
case, but each is an original, distinct name. So that to attempt any further distinction of
pronouns, like all other unnecessary distinctions, would tend to the confusion, rather than
the illustration of language, and they perhaps might be better distinguished by 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, or their original signification of 1st, 2d, 3d, persons singular and plural; tho’ such
names as have no foundation in nature, may require more arbitrary rules towards their
explanation.
 Of Nouns Adjective and Participle.
Adjective and participle nouns are added to substantives and propositions, as expressive
of the attributes or qualities, affections, and accidents of things, as in the following
example; The preying beast was daring; the astonished guese are fled, lost, or stolen; and
he is still pursuing a fled, lost, or stolen gus, in order to make a sweet morsel of its
garbage; but all such sensations are nauseous to human nature. But qualities were
originally expressed by the verbal actives, with few particles, and the compounded sorts
were adjected thereto.
And qualities being the effects of light, heat, and motion, flowing upon, warming or
penetrating bodies differently modified in various degrees, and the sensations thence
produced in us, as those of colours, tastes, sounds and feeling, rather than any internal
offences or properties of matter or substances, adjectives assert or express their
subsistence as the attributes of various substances and things, as the following specimen
of English adjectives shews.
There are no adjectives terminating in b except ib, which signifies life to beings, as in
glib liquid, and bib to drink; for ab, eb, ob, ub, signifying from or out of life, would be
improper to express life to things, as descending upon, and penetrating them, so as to
give them motion, growth, generation, and sensation. Nor is there any adjective
terminating in the letter p, it being expressive only of the parts of matter, as divisor of a,
e, o, and t.
Ac, ec, ic, oc, uc, and their softer inflections, are expressive of the different modes of
motion, as local, generative, and energic actions and their contraries, as in, weak, our
action, black, shut from the light, slack and lag, a low or earthly action, meek, a feminine
action, epic, an action past, like the first action of light, high, man acting, light, its active
property, coasting, acting along the edge or lower part of the possessions, big, a thing
swoln with heat, nigh, acting in, mock, the motion of the cheek, strong, the property of
the sun’s motion below, much, the upper parts.
Ad, ed, id, od, ud, signify an addition and division of qualities emanating on men,
animals, and substances of earth and water, as in bad, an earthly life, broad, an addition
of country, dead, matter without the addition of quality, sad, a low addition or quality,
glad, that of being high, mad, the addition of being dumb, or, a brute, red, a diminution of
the colour of light, aged, a past or diminished action, cold, the passive quality of being
deprived of the sun’s action, blind, deprived of animal light, mid, dividing the center of
existence, insipid, a thing deprived of the internal taste, arid, the earth deprived, calid,
deprived of a covering from the heat, tid, property diminished, acid, deprived of action,
acrid, depraved action of fire, wild, deprived of volition, odd, deprived of or out of the
circle of possession, ward, the spring or the division of man and woman, rude, the
privation of truth, crude, a rude action.
Af, ef, if, uf, with the inflections ave and ive, affirm the various state and situation of
men and things in life, as, deaf, he is deprived of sense, safe, he is standing, slavish, he is
low, brave, he is a warm or spirited being, chief, he is the first, active, it is the property of
action, dative, he or it is giving to, accusative, it is acting at us, abusive, he is from us,
captive, he is taken, abortive, he is from the border of possessions, adjective, it is cast to,
gruff, he is an angry man, bluff, he is an hairy man.
Al, el, il, ol, ul, express the qualities of earth and water, as to the parts of extension and
place, the ilation of the sun’s light thereon, all extension and human intelligence, as in,
actual, upon or in the state of action, aerial, in the state of air, adverbial, in the state of
an adverb, real, upon the return of matter, usual, upon the state of us, genial, in the state
of generation, bestial, upon the property of the lower beings, annual, upon the return of
the year, able, from hell, or being deprived of light, ample, an extensive place, genteel,
the first race, level, the place of the female extension, single, acting in a place, little, an
extension of the rays of light, agile, the acting light, chill, without light, civil, a race living
together, evil, privation of light, idle, about a place, oll or all, a circle extended, whole,
man’s place of action, full, man enlightened, artful, the light of man upon properties, dull,
without human light.
Am, im, om, um, are expressive of the different forms, modes, and existences of the
circumambient bodies, as lame, the mode of crawling, warm, man covered about, dim,
without extension, firm, the fire about, some, the things seen and sounded, dumb, an
earthly being.
An, en, in, on, un, signify existences of earth, water, and motion in general, and of man,
as, mean, me in earth, human, an earthly one, sane, sound one, profane, from purity,
clean, an action of light upon matter, ashen, the lower one, oak being the higher, even,
springing, serene, the stars in, divine, God in, supine, the low and up in, benign, being in,
twain, two in, one or un, the spring or man in, alone, in the state of one, none, no one in,
boon, the food one, wrong, a man from acting upright, dun, the daily one, young, the
growing one.
Ar, er, ir, or, ur, are properties of earth, water, fire, extension, and human nature, as in
clear, the action of light upon, dear, upon thee, near, the not upon, bitter, the biting water,
eager, water from action, tender, thin water, dire, he is hot, intire, in possession, sore,
from the lower, future, the man in embrio to be born, pure, a man’s part, immature, too
soon at man.
As, es, is, os, us, affirm the different qualities of mankind and things, as, base, a low or
earthy thing, adverse, a spring downwards, diverse, a divided spring, worse, a low man,
aguish, it is from a spring, apeish, he is a son, wise, he is man, actuose, it is all active,
close, it is all shut, globose, it is all round as a ball, jocose, it is all joy, noise, it is all nose,
as voice is all vocal, or the sound of the cheeks, upish, he is up, abstruse, from our
property, astonish, it is the tone of an ass or brutes, babish, that of a baby, copious, a
copy of man, ingenious, internally generated in us.
At, et, it, ot, ut, with their inflections and compounds signify property or in possession
and existence, as, great, the action of fire at or upon the possessions, last, upon the
lowest possession, agast, acting upon the lowest possession, past, a thing in the lowest
possession or existence, vacant, a thing without possession or property, radiant, a division
of rays upon the possessions, sweet and secret, female properties, absent, without
possession or property, agent, acting in possession, fit, it is property, apt, a proper thing,
first, the fire of life to the lower possessions, instinct, in action within, white, the upper
property, or the firmament, hot, the action of the sun on things, absorpt, without a part of
the circle of possession, both, man and woman, moist and most, things on the ground,
abrupt, from the earth up into the possessions, just, the property of mankind, curst, a
man’s action of the lower property, occult, actions without the property of light, ancient,
one first in possession, decent, fair in possession, acute, a springing property.
Y, ly, ty, thy, are expressive of properties, existences, and qualities generally, as in, any
the one in action or possession, many, the more in action or possession, dry, the thing
without water, airy, the air, ashy, the ash, barrenly, the barren race, brotherly, the brother
race, happy, the hap, holy, the high all, sappy, the sap, forty, the four tyes, times, rounds
or tens, swarthy, the men of lower property, wry, from upright; and thus are definable all
other English, Greek, Welsh, and Latin adjectives. These have been taken at random, and
the Greek and Latin terminations of adjectives being all in as, es, eis, os, òs, oos, ous, us,
on, and er, are mere affirmatives, by the sight, sound, spring, and motion of things.
So that adjectives and participles are names, which imply assertions and attributes, as
those of qualities, affections, and properties of substances and things generally; but
making no compleat sense, nor determining any particular thing without being joined to
another word as a daring, a daring man. In the English language they are not varied in
respect to genders, numbers, cases, or otherwise, except as to the degrees of
comparison.
The three degrees of comparison mentioned by grammarians, are the positive,
comparative, and superlative; the positive is the state in which the name was originally
put; the comparative is formed by adding er, a spring beyond the original state, to the
quality, where they will agree in concord, as, deep, deeper, deepest, high, higher, highest,
sweet, sweeter, sweetest; est signifying a spring beyond the limits of the possessions;
forming the superlative degree; but where those syllables will not so agree with the
names and in participles, as in aerial, ingenious, copious, daring, loving, loved, the
comparative must be formed, by setting more, that is, mo-er a great spring, in apposition
to the name; and the superlative by the addition of most, signifying a spring beyond the
limits of the possessions.

Of Prepositions
A Preposition is a substantive part of speech set before other names, most commonly
substantives, either in apposition, as, before a noun, or in composition, as, preposition, to
denote the situation or place of action, or rest of the things, to which they are joined; at
the same time implying their similar relations or kindred; and connecting the names of
substances, as, from this book, with the pen of the writer; or from thence, it may be
inferred that prepositions are of themselves significant of things. But the use of
prepositions or the names of cases are best understood from the following explanation
thereof.
It is observable that O is an universal expression for the circle of motion and extension;
that i signifies a perpendicular line or man placed in its center; and that this line, with a
traverse one, expressed by t or ⊥ and signifying mankind and other beings and things as
extended, and the properties of man denote the nominative case, or that in which they
were first named; and all the other cases, as they happen upon, up or down, or to or from
either of these lines, are distinguished as in the following example.

These prepositions are definable as follows.

In, with, within, to, into, unto, at, towards. In, signifies man placed in the center of
existences, as a middle being, partaking of, and connecting matter with spirit; with is the
spring of i into male and female, and t their possessions inflected; within is the same in
the circle of possession: to is t-o, the property of motion from t to the circle of motion;
into the same within the possessions; unto, at, and towards, the same towards man or the
line of possession; afore, before, against, signify things or parts in and out of the borders
of possession.
After, behind, since, according to. After is off t or the border of possession; behind is to
be after man in possession; since, having been in possession; according to, agreeing
together in acting; between, betwixt, among, amongst, for, from, about; for, the parts or
things of the circle of possession; about and from the parts or things within the circle of
possessions of men; between and betwixt, the line i dividing the possessions; among and
amongst, the things about the circle of possession. Above, up, on, upon; above, the upper
spring of the human sight; up, the spring part, on and upon the sky.
Under, below, beneath, down. Under, not sprung within or up the possessions; down,
not sprung in; below, from being up; beneath, to be not in possession.
Out, of, from, out of, without. Out, from the possessions of men and things; of, the
things within the borders; from, the surrounding parts therein; without, out of possession.
By, through, over, over and above, besides, beyond, except, until. By, the part; besides,
below the part; beyond, by the upper covering; thro’, from the possessions; over, from the
spring of sight; except, acting out of the possession part; until, during the spring or
possession of light; the two last names serve also for conjunctions.
 CONJUNCTIONS.
A Conjunction is an active part of speech, that connectively or disjunctively joins
together words and sentences, as the names of actions, as prepositions do those of
substances. They have been divided by grammarians into various sorts; tho’ the only
significant distinction seems to be into copulatives, connectives, and disjunctives, as the
two former sorts absolutely connect and coalesce both the sentences and their meaning,
or when the expression is only of mere local or inanimate motion, barely move on,
connect, and continue the sentence or discourse, without any compatibility of meaning;
and the latter sorts conditionally, exceptionably, or interrogatively do the same. Of the first
class are, and or ond, on in division or discourse, but, be it as or by man and things soon,
yet, it is or springs, also, on so, likewise, the same way, still, light on things, altho’, upon
to, notwithstanding, not opposing the former action, however, be the spring of action as it
may, nevertheless, without any spring, as, the earth seen, as well as, its surface or under
it out of sight, for, the part in the circle, therefore, the parts and spring within the circle,
wherefore, the parts in which circle, because, by our own actions, that, towards
possession. And the disjunctives are the following; or, the promiscuous things within the
circle of possession, either, action or matter, nor, not the things promiscuously within the
circle of possession, neither, no action or rest, till or untill, during the spring of light on the
possessions, whilst or while, the action of the upper light on the possessions, if, life or is it
life? unless, my spring out, except, acting from the parts of possession, besides, by the
side; and with which sense the Welsh, Greek and Latin conjunctions correspond, as
appears by an analysis thereof at the end of this essay.
An example of their use and construction.—Was it pride and folly, or avarice and envy,
that caused the confusion of human speech? It was neither the one or the other, but the
effect of some supernatural cause, as, the scripture informs us. Nor is it probable, that so
great a deviation could have naturally happened; unless there was some very great wilful
perversion of the original language, whilst mankind were contending for possessions as
well as power. Nevertheless the first language is still recoverable, notwithstanding its
many divisions and great disguise, if the subject be adverted, after a right method. And
altho’ it may be also attended with some labor to mankind, except those already skilled in
languages, yet it may be attained by any English reader, that will endeavour it, for,
however languages may differ, as to the manner of combination or construction of names
and sentences, they are certainly one and the same in their principles, and likewise in
their particles; because the letters and particles of all languages appear by this essay to
be still the same. Besides, as human speech derives its origin from a supernatural cause,
its various dialects cannot differ as to their materials. Wherefore then so many different
opinions concerning these matters, but from our own remissness? Let us therefore exert
our faculties in the laudable undertaking of recovering the first universal language, that
we may be thereby restored to our senses, which seem to be equally perverted.

VERBS.
 Verbs are either simple or compound. The simple are those springs or energic signs in
human speech, which, mark the relation and connection of the subject and attribute of a
proposition; and affirm or deny the agreement or disagreement betwixt things, as, man is
an animal. Compound or concrete verbs also include adjectives and participles; or the
qualities and attributes of the subject of a proposition, as, man thinks or think is;
sometimes only the subject, as mae, eimi, I am, or sum; and frequently the subject,
affirmation and attribute, as, walketh, man is upon action. In some dialects verbs have
been so modified, as to denote or imply the modes, times, persons, genders, and
numbers of the things affirmed; and nominally distinguished, as verbs active, passive,
neuter, personal, impersonal, regular, irregular, auxiliary, and substantive; tho’ according to
their real use and signification, all verbs seem to be substantive and auxiliary, and either
singly, or conjunctively, with adjectives or participles, formed into attributive or compound
verbs, express all modes of actions and affirmations, as appears by the following
instances; sum, I am, or, it is man’s existence, es, the second person created or the
feminine gender, est, the second, first, and a third person born of the first and second, fui,
I have lived or been, fuisti, thou hast lived or been, fuit, he the person born, hath lived or
been; amo, I love or am for a woman, the first person, amas, the feminine the second
person, amat, the third person produced, the third person, am-avi for ui in fui, he has
loved or been loved, the past tense; doceo, I teach or give the lowering action to man,
the first person, doc-es, the second person or feminine gender, doc-et the third
proceeding from the other two, doc-ui, as in fui, I have lived or been taught, the past
tense; lego I read or recall, the first person, leg-is the second, leg-it the third, and leg-i,
man read the past; audio, I hear, or, spring the passive sense, au-di-is, au-di-it and au-di-
vi, I have lived or been heard; and the conjugating particles seem to be the degrees of
comparison, as, a, e, i, or as, es is, male, female, mankind, or earth, water and fire, or
motion and existences in general; and the persons of u man, and thence all things of the
masculine gender the first person, as, es, or is signifying the feminine in different degrees
and qualities, the second, and at, et, it, the rest of mankind and things, the third person,
am-us, em-us, im-us, all men of the male kind of the first person plural, atis, etis, itis, all
except the first person singular of the second, and ant, ent, int, all mankind and things in
different degrees, except the first and second person singular, of the third person plural;
and thus may be explained all the Latin and Greek modes of conjugating verbs.
Verbs are farther distinguished by grammarians into active, passive, and neuter, as
being expressive of actions, passions, or neither the one or the other, but mere being or
existing, as, I love, am loved, live, walk, or stand; tho’ according to the signification of
words, there does not seem to be any real ground for the latter distinction, for to love, to
be loved, to live, sleep or rest, must signify either actions, active passions and energies, or
their privation and passiveness. So that the distinction in this respect might be more
properly made into active and passive only, agreeable to the masculine and feminine, the
only proper distinction of nouns as to genders; all actions, substances, and things, at
least, as having relation to mankind, being either masculine or feminine, and the
distinctions made by the Greeks and Romans being mostly arbitrary and contrary to the
meaning of words which ought to determine the genders of nouns.
Verbs have a designation of person, corresponding with the personal pronouns; of
number with the singular and plural of nouns, of tenses as representing present, past, and
future actions and things; and of modes or the manner in which they ought to be
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