(eBook PDF) Computer Organization and

Architecture10th Global Edition instant download

https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-computer-organization-
and-architecture10th-global-edition/

Download more ebook from https://ebooksecure.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooksecure.com
to discover even more!

(eBook PDF) Parallel Computer Organization and Design

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-parallel-computer-
organization-and-design/

(eBook PDF) Parallel Computer Organization and Design

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-parallel-computer-
organization-and-design-2/

Computer Organization and Architecture: Designing for

performance, Global Edition, 11th Edition William
Stallings - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/computer-organization-and-
architecture-designing-for-performance-global-edition-11th-
edition-ebook-pdf/

Computer Organization And Architecture. Designing For

Performance. 11 Global Edition Edition William
Stallings - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/computer-organization-and-
architecture-designing-for-performance-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Computer Organization & Architecture:
Themes and Variations

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-computer-organization-
architecture-themes-and-variations/

Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture

5th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/essentials-of-computer-
organization-and-architecture-5th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Essentials of Computer Organization and

Architecture 5th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-essentials-of-computer-
organization-and-architecture-5th-edition/

(eBook PDF) The Essentials of Computer Organization and

Architecture 4th

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-essentials-of-
computer-organization-and-architecture-4th/

(eBook PDF) Computer Organization and Design ARM

Edition: The Hardware Software Interface

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-computer-organization-
and-design-arm-edition-the-hardware-software-interface/
 Global
edition

Computer Organization
and Architecture
Designing for Performance
tenth edition

William Stallings
 To Tricia
my loving wife, the kindest
and gentlest person
This page intentionally left blank.
Contents
Foreword 13
Preface 15
About the Author 23

Part One Introduction 25

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution 25
1.1 Organization and Architecture 26
1.2 Structure and Function 27
1.3 A Brief History of Computers 35
1.4 The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture 51
1.5 Embedded Systems 53
1.6 Arm Architecture 57
1.7 Cloud Computing 63
1.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 66
Chapter 2 Performance Issues 69
2.1 Designing for Performance 70
2.2 Multicore, Mics, and Gpgpus 76
2.3 Two Laws that Provide Insight: Ahmdahl’s Law and Little’s Law 77
2.4 Basic Measures of Computer Performance 80
2.5 Calculating the Mean 83
2.6 Benchmarks and Spec 91
2.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 98

Part Two The Computer System 104

Chapter 3 A ­Top-​­Level View of Computer Function and Interconnection 104
3.1 Computer Components 105
3.2 Computer Function 107
3.3 Interconnection Structures 123
3.4 Bus Interconnection 124
3.5 ­ Point-​­to-​­Point Interconnect 126
3.6 Pci Express 131
3.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 140
Chapter 4 Cache Memory 144
4.1 Computer Memory System Overview 145
4.2 Cache Memory Principles 152
4.3 Elements of Cache Design 155
4.4 Pentium 4 Cache Organization 173
4.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 176
Appendix 4A Performance Characteristics of Two-​­Level Memories 181

7
8  Contents
Chapter 5 Internal Memory 189
5.1 Semiconductor Main Memory 190
5.2 Error Correction 198
5.3 DDR Dram 204
5.4 Flash Memory 209
5.5 Newer Nonvolatile ­Solid-​­State Memory Technologies 211
5.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 214
Chapter 6 External Memory 218
6.1 Magnetic Disk 219
6.2 Raid 228
6.3 Solid State Drives 236
6.4 Optical Memory 241
6.5 Magnetic Tape 246
6.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 248
Chapter 7 Input/Output 252
7.1 External Devices 254
7.2 I/O Modules 256
7.3 Programmed I/O 259
7.4 ­ Interrupt-​­Driven I/O 263
7.5 Direct Memory Access 272
7.6 Direct Cache Access 278
7.7 I/O Channels and Processors 285
7.8 External Interconnection Standards 287
7.9 IBM zEnterprise EC12 I/O Structure 290
7.10 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 294
Chapter 8 Operating System Support 299
8.1 Operating System Overview 300
8.2 Scheduling 311
8.3 Memory Management 317
8.4 Intel x86 Memory Management 328
8.5 Arm Memory Management 333
8.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 338

Part Three Arithmetic and Logic 342

Chapter 9 Number Systems 342
9.1 The Decimal System 343
9.2 Positional Number Systems 344
9.3 The Binary System 345
9.4 Converting Between Binary and Decimal 345
9.5 Hexadecimal Notation 348
9.6 Key Terms and Problems 350
Chapter 10 Computer Arithmetic 352
10.1 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit 353
10.2 Integer Representation 354
10.3 Integer Arithmetic 359
 Contents  9

10.4 ­ Floating-​­Point Representation 374

10.5 ­ Floating-​­Point Arithmetic 382
10.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 391
Chapter 11 Digital Logic 396
11.1 Boolean Algebra 397
11.2 Gates 400
11.3 Combinational Circuits 402
11.4 Sequential Circuits 420
11.5 Programmable Logic Devices 429
11.6 Key Terms and Problems 433

Part Four The Central Processing Unit 436

Chapter 12 Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions 436
12.1 Machine Instruction Characteristics 437
12.2 Types of Operands 444
12.3 Intel x86 and ARM Data Types 446
12.4 Types of Operations 449
12.5 Intel x86 and ARM Operation Types 462
12.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 470
Appendix 12A ­Little-, ­Big-, and ­Bi-​­Endian 476
Chapter 13 Instruction Sets: Addressing Modes and Formats 480
13.1 Addressing Modes 481
13.2 x86 and ARM Addressing Modes 487
13.3 Instruction Formats 493
13.4 x86 and ARM Instruction Formats 501
13.5 Assembly Language 506
13.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 508
Chapter 14 Processor Structure and Function 512
14.1 Processor Organization 513
14.2 Register Organization 515
14.3 Instruction Cycle 520
14.4 Instruction Pipelining 524
14.5 The x86 Processor Family 541
14.6 The ARM Processor 548
14.7 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 554
Chapter 15 Reduced Instruction Set Computers 559
15.1 Instruction Execution Characteristics 561
15.2 The Use of a Large Register File 566
15.3 ­ Compiler-​­Based Register Optimization 571
15.4 Reduced Instruction Set Architecture 573
15.5 RISC Pipelining 579
15.6 MIPS R4000 583
15.7 SPARC 589
15.8 RISC versus CISC Controversy 594
15.9 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 595
10  Contents
Chapter 16 ­Instruction-​­Level Parallelism and Superscalar Processors 599
16.1 Overview 600
16.2 Design Issues 605
16.3 Intel Core Microarchitecture 615
16.4 ARM ­Cortex-​­A8 620
16.5 ARM ­Cortex-​­M3 628
16.6 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 632

Part Five Parallel Organization 637

Chapter 17 Parallel Processing 637
17.1 Multiple Processor Organizations 639
17.2 Symmetric Multiprocessors 641
17.3 Cache Coherence and the MESI Protocol 645
17.4 Multithreading and Chip Multiprocessors 652
17.5 Clusters 657
17.6 Nonuniform Memory Access 664
17.7 Cloud Computing 667
17.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 674
Chapter 18 Multicore Computers 680
18.1 Hardware Performance Issues 681
18.2 Software Performance Issues 684
18.3 Multicore Organization 689
18.4 Heterogeneous Multicore Organization 691
18.5 Intel Core i7-990X 700
18.6 ARM ­Cortex-​­A15 MPCore 701
18.7 IBM zEnterprise EC12 Mainframe 706
18.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 709
Chapter 19 ­General-​­Purpose Graphic Processing Units 712
19.1 Cuda Basics 713
19.2 GPU versus CPU 715
19.3 GPU Architecture Overview 716
19.4 Intel’s Gen8 GPU 725
19.5 When to Use a GPU as a Coprocessor 728
19.6 Key Terms and Review Questions 730

Part Six The Control Unit 731

Chapter 20 Control Unit Operation 731
20.1 ­ Micro-​­Operations 732
20.2 Control of the Processor 738
20.3 Hardwired Implementation 748
20.4 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 751
Chapter 21 Microprogrammed Control 753
21.1 Basic Concepts 754
21.2 Microinstruction Sequencing 763
 Contents  11

21.3 Microinstruction Execution 769

21.4 TI 8800 779
21.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 790

Appendix A Projects for Teaching Computer Organization and Architecture 792

A.1 Interactive Simulations 793
A.2 Research Projects 795
A.3 Simulation Projects 795
A.4 Assembly Language Projects 796
A.5 Reading/Report Assignments 797
A.6 Writing Assignments 797
A.7 Test Bank 797

Appendix B Assembly Language and Related Topics 798

B.1 Assembly Language 799
B.2 Assemblers 807
B.3 Loading and Linking 811
B.4 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 819

References 824
Index 833
Credits 857

Online Appendices1

Appendix C System Buses

Appendix D Protocols and Protocol Architectures
Appendix E Scrambling
Appendix F Victim Cache Strategies
Appendix G Interleaved Memory
Appendix H International Reference Alphabet
Appendix I Stacks
Appendix J Thunderbolt and Infiniband
Appendix K Virtual Memory Page Replacement Algorithms
Appendix L Hash Tables
Appendix M Recursive Procedures
Appendix N Additional Instruction Pipeline Topics
Appendix O Timing Diagrams
Glossary

1
Online chapters, appendices, and other documents are Premium Content, available via the access card
at the front of this book.
This page intentionally left blank.
Foreword
by Chris Jesshope
Professor (emeritus) University of Amsterdam
Author of Parallel Computers (with R W Hockney), 1981 & 1988

Having been active in computer organization and architecture for many years, it is a pleas-
ure to write this foreword for the new edition of William Stallings’ comprehensive book on
this subject. In doing this, I found myself reflecting on the trends and changes in this subject
over the time that I have been involved in it. I myself became interested in computer archi-
tecture at a time of significant innovation and disruption. That disruption was brought about
not only through advances in technology but perhaps more significantly through access to
that technology. VLSI was here and VLSI design was available to students in the classroom.
These were exciting times. The ability to integrate a mainframe style computer on a single
silicon chip was a milestone, but that this was accomplished by an academic research team
made the achievement quite unique. This period was characterized by innovation and diver-
sity in computer architecture with one of the main trends being in the area of parallelism.
In the 1970s, I had ­hands-​­on experience of the Illiac IV, which was an early example of
explicit parallelism in computer architecture and which incidentally pioneered all semicon-
ductor memory. This interaction, and it certainly was that, ­kick-​­started my own interest in
computer architecture and organization, with particular emphasis on explicit parallelism in
computer architecture.
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s research flourished in this field and there was a
great deal of innovation, much of which came to market through university ­start-​­ups. Iron-
ically however, it was the same technology that reversed this trend. Diversity was gradually
replaced with a near monoculture in computer systems with advances in just a few instruc-
tion set architectures. Moore’s law, a ­self-​­fulfilling prediction that became an industry guide-
line, meant that basic device speeds and integration densities both grew exponentially, with
the latter doubling every 18 months of so. The speed increase was the proverbial free lunch
for computer architects and the integration levels allowed more complexity and innovation
at the ­micro-​­architecture level. The free lunch of course did have a cost, that being the expo-
nential growth of capital investment required to fulfill Moore’s law, which once again limited
the access to ­state-​­of-​­the-​­art technologies. Moreover, most users found it easier to wait for
the next generation of mainstream processor than to invest in the innovations in parallel
computers, with their pitfalls and difficulties. The exceptions to this were the few large insti-
tutions requiring ultimate performance; two topical examples being ­large-​­scale scientific
simulation such as climate modeling and also in our security services for code breaking. For

13
14  Foreword

everyone else, the name of the game was compatibility and two instruction set architectures
that benefited from this were x86 and ARM, the latter in embedded systems and the former
in just about everything else. Parallelism was still there in the implementation of these ISAs,
it was just that it was implicit, harnessed by the architecture not in the instruction stream
that drives it.
Throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s, this approach to implicitly exploiting con-
currency in ­single-​­core computer systems flourished. However, in spite of the exponential
growth of logic density, it was the cost of the techniques exploited which brought this era to
a close. In superscalar processors, the logic costs do not grow linearly with issue width (par-
allelism), while some components grow as the square or even the cube of the issue width.
Although the exponential growth in logic could sustain this continued development, there
were two major pitfalls: it was increasingly difficult to expose concurrency implicitly from
imperative programs and hence efficiencies in the use of instruction issue slots decreased.
Perhaps more importantly, technology was experiencing a new barrier to performance
gains, namely that of power dissipation, and several superscalar developments were halted
because the silicon in them would have been too hot. These constraints have mandated the
exploitation of explicit parallelism, despite the compatibility challenges. So it seems that
again innovation and diversity are opening up this area to new research.
Perhaps not since the 1980s has it been so interesting to study in this field. That diver-
sity is an economic reality can be seen by the decrease in issue width (implicit parallelism)
and increase in the number of cores (explicit parallelism) in mainstream processors. How-
ever, the question is how to exploit this, both at the application and the system level. There
are significant challenges here still to be solved. Superscalar processors rely on the processor
to extract parallelism from a single instruction stream. What if we shifted the emphasis and
provided an instruction stream with maximum parallelism, how can we exploit this in dif-
ferent configurations and/or generations of processors that require different levels of expli-
cit parallelism? Is it possible therefore to have a ­micro-​­architecture that sequentializes and
schedules this maximum concurrency captured in the ISA to match the current configur-
ation of cores so that we gain the same compatibility in a world of explicit parallelism? Does
this require operating systems in silicon for efficiency?
These are just some of the questions facing us today. To answer these questions and
more requires a sound foundation in computer organization and architecture, and this book
by William Stallings provides a very timely and comprehensive foundation. It gives a com-
plete introduction to the basics required, tackling what can be quite complex topics with
apparent simplicity. Moreover, it deals with the more recent developments in this field,
where innovation has in the past, and is, currently taking place. Examples are in superscalar
issue and in explicitly parallel multicores. What is more, this latest edition includes two very
recent topics in the design and use of GPUs for ­general-​­purpose use and the latest trends in
cloud computing, both of which have become mainstream only recently. The book makes
good use of examples throughout to highlight the theoretical issues covered, and most of
these examples are drawn from developments in the two most widely used ISAs, namely the
x86 and ARM. To reiterate, this book is complete and is a pleasure to read and hopefully
will ­kick-​­start more young researchers down the same path that I have enjoyed over the last
40 years!
Preface
What’s New in the Tenth Edition
Since the ninth edition of this book was published, the field has seen continued innovations
and improvements. In this new edition, I try to capture these changes while maintaining a
broad and comprehensive coverage of the entire field. To begin this process of revision, the
ninth edition of this book was extensively reviewed by a number of professors who teach
the subject and by professionals working in the field. The result is that, in many places, the
narrative has been clarified and tightened, and illustrations have been improved.
Beyond these refinements to improve pedagogy and ­user-​­friendliness, there have been
substantive changes throughout the book. Roughly the same chapter organization has been
retained, but much of the material has been revised and new material has been added. The
most noteworthy changes are as follows:
■■ GPGPU [­General-​­Purpose Computing on Graphics Processing Units (GPUs)]: One
of the most important new developments in recent years has been the broad adoption
of GPGPUs to work in coordination with traditional CPUs to handle a wide range of
­applications involving large arrays of data. A new chapter is devoted to the topic of
GPGPUs.
■■ Heterogeneous multicore processors: The latest development in multicore architecture

is the heterogeneous multicore processor. A new section in the chapter on multicore

processors surveys the various types of heterogeneous multicore processors.
■■ Embedded systems: The overview of embedded systems in Chapter 1 has been substan-

tially revised and expanded to reflect the current state of embedded technology.
■■ Microcontrollers: In terms of numbers, almost all computers now in use are embedded

microcontrollers. The treatment of embedded systems in Chapter 1 now includes cov-

erage of microcontrollers. The ARM ­Cortex-​­M3 microcontroller is used as an example
system throughout the text.
■■ Cloud computing: New to this edition is a discussion of cloud computing, with an over-

view in Chapter 1 and more detailed treatment in Chapter 17.

■■ System performance: The coverage of system performance issues has been

revised, expanded, and reorganized for a clearer and more thorough treatment.
Chapter 2 is devoted to this topic, and the issue of system performance arises through-
out the book.

15
16  Preface

■■ Flash memory: The coverage of flash memory has been updated and expanded, and now
includes a discussion of the technology and organization of flash memory for internal
memory (Chapter 5) and external memory (Chapter 6).
■■ Nonvolatile RAM: New to this edition is treatment of three important new nonvolatile

­solid-​­state RAM technologies that occupy different positions in the memory hierarchy:
­STT-​­RAM, PCRAM, and ReRAM.
■■ Direct cache access (DCA): To meet the protocol processing demands for very high

speed network connections, Intel and other manufacturers have developed DCA tech-
nologies that provide much greater throughput than traditional direct memory access
(DMA) approaches. New to this edition, Chapter 7 explores DCA in some detail.
■■ Intel Core Microarchitecture: As in the previous edition, the Intel x86 family is used as

a major example system throughout. The treatment has been updated to reflect newer
Intel systems, especially the Intel Core Microarchitecture, which is used on both PC and
server products.
■■ Homework problems: The number of supplemental homework problems, with solu-

tions, available for student practice has been expanded.

Support of ACM/IEEE Computer Science Curricula 2013

The book is intended for both an academic and a professional audience. As a textbook,
it is intended as a ­one-​­ or ­two-​­semester undergraduate course for computer science, com-
puter engineering, and electrical engineering majors. This edition is designed to support the
recommendations of the ACM/IEEE Computer Science Curricula 2013 (CS2013). CS2013
divides all course work into three categories: ­Core-​­Tier 1 (all topics should be included
in the curriculum); ­Core-​­Tier-​­2 (all or almost all topics should be included); and Elective
(desirable to provide breadth and depth). In the Architecture and Organization (AR) area,
CS2013 includes five ­Tier-​­2 topics and three Elective topics, each of which has a number of
subtopics. This text covers all eight topics listed by CS2013. Table P.1 shows the support for
the AR Knowledge Area provided in this textbook.

Table P.1 Coverage of CS2013 Architecture and Organization (AR) Knowledge Area
IAS Knowledge Units Topics Textbook Coverage
Digital Logic and Digital ●● Overview and history of computer architecture —Chapter 1
Systems (Tier 2) ●● Combinational vs. sequential logic/Field program- —Chapter 11
mable gate arrays as a fundamental combinational
sequential logic building block
●● Multiple representations/layers of interpretation
(hardware is just another layer)
●● Physical constraints (gate delays, ­fan-​­in, ­fan-​­out,
energy/power)
Machine Level Represen- ●● Bits, bytes, and words —Chapter 9
tation of Data (Tier 2) ●● Numeric data representation and number bases —Chapter 10
●● ­Fixed-​­and ­floating-​­point systems
●● Signed and ­twos-​­complement representations
●● Representation of ­non-​­numeric data (character
codes, graphical data)
 Preface  17

IAS Knowledge Units Topics Textbook Coverage

Assembly Level Machine ●● Basic organization of the von Neumann machine —Chapter 1
Organization (Tier 2) ●● Control unit; instruction fetch, decode, and execution —Chapter 7
●● Instruction sets and types (data manipulation, —Chapter 12
­control, I/O) —Chapter 13
●● Assembly/machine language programming —Chapter 17
●● Instruction formats —Chapter 18
●● Addressing modes —Chapter 20
●● Subroutine call and return mechanisms (­cross-​­ —Chapter 21
reference PL/Language Translation and Execution) —Appendix A
●● I/O and interrupts
●● Shared memory multiprocessors/multicore
organization
●● Introduction to SIMD vs. MIMD and the Flynn
Taxonomy
Memory System Organi- ●● Storage systems and their technology —Chapter 4
zation and Architecture ●● Memory hierarchy: temporal and spatial locality —Chapter 5
(Tier 2) ●● Main memory organization and operations —Chapter 6
●● Latency, cycle time, bandwidth, and interleaving —Chapter 8
●● Cache memories (address mapping, block size, —Chapter 17
replacement and store policy)
●● Multiprocessor cache consistency/Using the memory
system for ­inter-​­core synchronization/atomic mem-
ory operations
●● Virtual memory (page table, TLB)
●● Fault handling and reliability
Interfacing and Commu- ●● I/O fundamentals: handshaking, buffering, pro- —Chapter 3
nication (Tier 2) grammed I/O, ­interrupt-​­driven I/O —Chapter 6
●● Interrupt structures: vectored and prioritized, inter- —Chapter 7
rupt acknowledgment
●● External storage, physical organization, and drives
●● Buses: bus protocols, arbitration, ­direct-​­memory
access (DMA)
●● RAID architectures
Functional Organization ●● Implementation of simple datapaths, including —Chapter 14
(Elective) instruction pipelining, hazard detection, and —Chapter 16
resolution —Chapter 20
●● Control unit: hardwired realization vs. micropro- —Chapter 21
grammed realization
●● Instruction pipelining
●● Introduction to ­instruction-​­level parallelism (ILP)
Multiprocessing and ●● Example SIMD and MIMD instruction sets and —Chapter 12
Alternative Architectures architectures —Chapter 13
(Elective) ●● Interconnection networks —Chapter 17
●● Shared multiprocessor memory systems and memory
consistency
●● Multiprocessor cache coherence
Performance Enhance- ●● Superscalar architecture —Chapter 15
ments (Elective) ●● Branch prediction, Speculative execution, —Chapter 16
­Out-​­of-​­order execution —Chapter 19
●● Prefetching
●● Vector processors and GPUs
●● Hardware support for multithreading
●● Scalability
18  Preface

Objectives 
This book is about the structure and function of computers. Its purpose is to present, as clearly
and completely as possible, the nature and characteristics of ­modern-​­day computer systems.
This task is challenging for several reasons. First, there is a tremendous variety of prod-
ucts that can rightly claim the name of computer, from ­single-​­chip microprocessors costing
a few dollars to supercomputers costing tens of millions of dollars. Variety is exhibited not
only in cost but also in size, performance, and application. Second, the rapid pace of change
that has always characterized computer technology continues with no letup. These changes
cover all aspects of computer technology, from the underlying integrated circuit technology
used to construct computer components to the increasing use of parallel organization con-
cepts in combining those components.
In spite of the variety and pace of change in the computer field, certain fundamental
concepts apply consistently throughout. The application of these concepts depends on the
current state of the technology and the price/performance objectives of the designer. The
intent of this book is to provide a thorough discussion of the fundamentals of computer
organization and architecture and to relate these to contemporary design issues.
The subtitle suggests the theme and the approach taken in this book. It has always
been important to design computer systems to achieve high performance, but never has
this requirement been stronger or more difficult to satisfy than today. All of the basic per-
formance characteristics of computer systems, including processor speed, memory speed,
memory capacity, and interconnection data rates, are increasing rapidly. Moreover, they are
increasing at different rates. This makes it difficult to design a balanced system that maxi-
mizes the performance and utilization of all elements. Thus, computer design increasingly
becomes a game of changing the structure or function in one area to compensate for a per-
formance mismatch in another area. We will see this game played out in numerous design
decisions throughout the book.
A computer system, like any system, consists of an interrelated set of components.
The system is best characterized in terms of ­structure—​­the way in which components are
interconnected, and ­function—​­the operation of the individual components. Furthermore, a
computer’s organization is hierarchical. Each major component can be further described by
decomposing it into its major subcomponents and describing their structure and function.
For clarity and ease of understanding, this hierarchical organization is described in this book
from the top down:
■■ Computer system: Major components are processor, memory, I/O.
■■ Processor: Major components are control unit, registers, ALU, and instruction execu-
tion unit.
■■ Control unit: Provides control signals for the operation and coordination of all proces-

sor components. Traditionally, a microprogramming implementation has been used, in

which major components are control memory, microinstruction sequencing logic, and
registers. More recently, microprogramming has been less prominent but remains an
important implementation technique.
The objective is to present the material in a fashion that keeps new material in a clear
context. This should minimize the chance that the reader will get lost and should provide
better motivation than a ­bottom-​­up approach.
 Preface  19

Throughout the discussion, aspects of the system are viewed from the points of view of
both architecture (those attributes of a system visible to a machine language programmer) and
organization (the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architecture).

Example Systems 
This text is intended to acquaint the reader with the design principles and implementation
issues of contemporary operating systems. Accordingly, a purely conceptual or theoretical
treatment would be inadequate. To illustrate the concepts and to tie them to ­real-​­world design
choices that must be made, two processor families have been chosen as running examples:
■■ Intel x86 architecture: The x86 architecture is the most widely used for nonembedded com-
puter systems. The x86 is essentially a complex instruction set computer (CISC) with some
RISC features. Recent members of the x86 family make use of superscalar and multicore
design principles. The evolution of features in the x86 architecture provides a unique case-
study of the evolution of most of the design principles in computer architecture.
■■ ARM: The ARM architecture is arguably the most widely used embedded processor,

used in cell phones, iPods, remote sensor equipment, and many other devices. The ARM
is essentially a reduced instruction set computer (RISC). Recent members of the ARM
family make use of superscalar and multicore design principles.
Many, but by no means all, of the examples in this book are drawn from these two computer
families. Numerous other systems, both contemporary and historical, provide examples of
important computer architecture design features.

Plan of the Text

The book is organized into six parts:
■■ Overview
■■ The computer system

■■ Arithmetic and logic

■■ The central processing unit

■■ Parallel organization, including multicore

■■ The control unit

The book includes a number of pedagogic features, including the use of interactive sim-
ulations and numerous figures and tables to clarify the discussion. Each chapter includes a list
of key words, review questions, homework problems, and suggestions for further reading. The
book also includes an extensive glossary, a list of frequently used acronyms, and a bibliography.

Instructor Support Materials 

Support materials for instructors are available at the Instructor Resource Center (IRC) for this
textbook, which can be reached through the publisher’s Web site www.pearsonglobaleditions
.com/stallings or by clicking on the link labeled “Pearson Resources for Instructors” at this
20  Preface

book’s Companion Web site at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/stallings. To gain access

to the IRC, please contact your local Pearson sales representative. The IRC provides the
following materials:
■■ Projects manual: Project resources including documents and portable software, plus
suggested project assignments for all of the project categories listed subsequently in this
Preface.
■■ Solutions manual: Solutions to ­end-​­of-​­chapter Review Questions and Problems.

■■ PowerPoint slides: A set of slides covering all chapters, suitable for use in lecturing.

■■ PDF files: Copies of all figures and tables from the book.

■■ Test bank: A ­chapter-​­by-​­chapter set of questions.

■■ Sample syllabuses: The text contains more material than can be conveniently covered

in one semester. Accordingly, instructors are provided with several sample syllabuses
that guide the use of the text within limited time. These samples are based on ­real-​­world
experience by professors with the first edition.
The Companion Web site, at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/stallings (click on
Instructor Resources link) includes the following:
■■ Links to Web sites for other courses being taught using this book.
■■ ­Sign-​­up information for an Internet mailing list for instructors using this book to
exchange information, suggestions, and questions with each other and with the author.

Student Resources 
For this new edition, a tremendous amount of original supporting material for
students has been made available online, at two Web locations. The ­Companion
Web Site, at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/stallings (click on Student
Resources link), includes a list of relevant links organized by chapter and an
errata sheet for the book.
Purchasing this textbook new grants the reader six months of access to the Premium
Content Site, which includes the following materials:
■■ Online chapters: To limit the size and cost of the book, two chapters of the book are
provided in PDF format. The chapters are listed in this book’s table of contents.
■■ Online appendices: There are numerous interesting topics that support material found

in the text but whose inclusion is not warranted in the printed text. A total of 13 appen-
dices cover these topics for the interested student. The appendices are listed in this
book’s table of contents.
■■ Homework problems and solutions: To aid the student in understanding the material, a

separate set of homework problems with solutions are available. Students can enhance
their understanding of the material by working out the solutions to these problems and
then checking their answers.
 Preface  21

To access the Premium Content site, click on the Premium Content link
at the Companion Web site or at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/stallings and
enter the student access code found on the card in the front of the book.
Finally, I maintain the Computer Science Student Resource Site at
­WilliamStallings.com/StudentSupport.html.

Projects and Other Student Exercises 

For many instructors, an important component of a computer organization and architec-
ture course is a project or set of projects by which the student gets ­hands-​­on experience to
reinforce concepts from the text. This book provides an unparalleled degree of support for
including a projects component in the course. The instructor’s support materials available
through Prentice Hall not only includes guidance on how to assign and structure the projects
but also includes a set of user’s manuals for various project types plus specific assignments,
all written especially for this book. Instructors can assign work in the following areas:
■■ Interactive simulation assignments: Described subsequently.
■■ Research projects: A series of research assignments that instruct the student to research

a particular topic on the Internet and write a report.

■■ Simulation projects: The IRC provides support for the use of the two simulation pack-

ages: SimpleScalar can be used to explore computer organization and architecture

design issues. SMPCache provides a powerful educational tool for examining cache
design issues for symmetric multiprocessors.
■■ Assembly language projects: A simplified assembly language, CodeBlue, is used and

assignments based on the popular Core Wars concept are provided.

■■ Reading/report assignments: A list of papers in the literature, one or more for each

chapter, that can be assigned for the student to read and then write a short report.
■■ Writing assignments: A list of writing assignments to facilitate learning the material.

■■ Test bank: Includes T/F, multiple choice, and ­fill-​­in-​­the-​­blank questions and answers.

This diverse set of projects and other student exercises enables the instructor to use
the book as one component in a rich and varied learning experience and to tailor a course
plan to meet the specific needs of the instructor and students. See Appendix A in this book
for details.

Interactive Simulations 
An important feature in this edition is the incorporation of interactive simulations. These
simulations provide a powerful tool for understanding the complex design features of a
modern computer system. A total of 20 interactive simulations are used to illustrate key
functions and algorithms in computer organization and architecture design. At the relevant
point in the book, an icon indicates that a relevant interactive simulation is available online
for student use. Because the animations enable the user to set initial conditions, they can
22  Preface

serve as the basis for student assignments. The instructor’s supplement includes a set of
assignments, one for each of the animations. Each assignment includes several specific prob-
lems that can be assigned to students.
For access to the animations, click on the rotating globe at this book’s Web site at
www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/stallings.

Acknowledgments 
This new edition has benefited from review by a number of people, who gave generously
of their time and expertise. The following professors and instructors reviewed all or a large
part of the manuscript: Molisa Derk (Dickinson State University), Yaohang Li (Old Domin-
ion University), Dwayne Ockel (Regis University), Nelson Luiz Passos (Midwestern State
University), Mohammad Abdus Salam (Southern University), and Vladimir Zwass (Fair-
leigh Dickinson University).
Thanks also to the many people who provided detailed technical reviews of one or
more chapters: Rekai Gonzalez Alberquilla, Allen Baum, Jalil Boukhobza, Dmitry Bufistov,
Humberto Calderón, Jesus Carretero, Ashkan Eghbal, Peter Glaskowsky, Ram Huggahalli,
Chris Jesshope, Athanasios Kakarountas, Isil Oz, Mitchell Poplingher, Roger Shepherd,
Jigar Savla, Karl Stevens, Siri Uppalapati, Dr. Sriram Vajapeyam, Kugan Vivekanandara-
jah, Pooria M. Yaghini, and Peter Zeno,
Peter Zeno also contributed Chapter 19 on GPGPUs.
Professor Cindy Norris of Appalachian State University, Professor Bin Mu of the Uni-
versity of New Brunswick, and Professor Kenrick Mock of the University of Alaska kindly
supplied homework problems.
Aswin Sreedhar of the University of Massachusetts developed the interactive simula-
tion assignments and also wrote the test bank.
Professor Miguel Angel Vega Rodriguez, Professor Dr. Juan Manuel Sánchez Pérez,
and Professor Dr. Juan Antonio Gómez Pulido, all of University of Extremadura, Spain,
prepared the SMPCache problems in the instructor’s manual and authored the SMPCache
User’s Guide.
Todd Bezenek of the University of Wisconsin and James Stine of Lehigh University
prepared the SimpleScalar problems in the instructor’s manual, and Todd also authored the
SimpleScalar User’s Guide.
Finally, I would like to thank the many people responsible for the publication of the
book, all of whom did their usual excellent job. This includes the staff at Pearson, par-
ticularly my editor Tracy Johnson, her assistant Kelsey Loanes, program manager Carole
­Snyder, and production manager Bob Engelhardt. I also thank Mahalatchoumy Saravanan
and the production staff at Jouve India for another excellent and rapid job. Thanks also to
the marketing and sales staffs at Pearson, without whose efforts this book would not be in
front of you.
Pearson would like to thank and acknowledge Mohit Tahiliani, NITK Surathkal, for
contributing to the Global Edition, and Arup Kumar Bhattacharjee, RCC Institute of Infor-
mation Technology, Soumen Mukherjee, RCC Institute of Information Technology, Chetan
Venkatesh, MS Ramaiah Institute of Technology, and Chitra Dhawale, P.R. Pote College of
Engineering and Management, for reviewing the Global Edition.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
glad would my soul be to help you to love Him! But amongst us all,
we could not love Him enough. He is the Son of the Father's love,
and God's delight; the Father's love lieth all upon Him. Oh, if all
mankind would fetch all their love and lay it upon Him! Invite Him,
and take Him home to your houses, in the exercise of prayer
morning and evening, as I often desired you; especially now, let Him
not want lodging in your houses, nor lie in the fields, when He is
shut out of pulpits and kirks. If ye will be content to take heaven by
violence and the wind on your face for Christ and His cross, I am
here one who hath some trial of Christ's cross, and I can say, that
Christ was ever kind to me, but He overcometh Himself (if I may
speak so) in kindness while I suffer for Him. I give you my word for
it, Christ's cross is not so evil as they call it; it is sweet, light, and
comfortable. I would not want the visitations of love, and the very
breathings of Christ's mouth when He kisseth, and my Lord's
delightsome smiles and love-embracements under my sufferings for
Him, for a mountain of gold, or for all the honours, court, and
grandeur of velvet kirkmen.[341] Christ hath the yoke and heart of my
love. "I am my Beloved's, and my Well-beloved is mine."
Oh that ye were all hand-fasted to Christ! O my dearly-beloved in
the Lord, I would I could change my voice, and had a tongue tuned
by the hands of my Lord, and had the art of speaking of Christ, that
I might point out to you the worth, and highness, and greatness,
and excellency of that fairest and renowned Bridegroom! I beseech
you by the mercies of the Lord, by the sighs, tears, and heart's-
blood of our Lord Jesus, by the salvation of your poor and precious
souls, set up the mountain, that ye and I may meet before the
Lamb's throne amongst the congregation of the first-born. Lord
grant that that may be the trysting-place! that ye and I may put up
our hands together, and pluck and eat the apples off the tree of life,
and that we may feast together, and drink together of that pure river
of the water of life, that cometh out from the throne of God and of
the Lamb. Oh, how little is your hand-breadth and span-length of
days here! Your inch of time is less than when ye and I parted.
Eternity, eternity is coming, posting on with wings; then shall every
man's blacks and whites be brought to light. Oh, how low will your
thoughts be of this fair-skinned but heart-rotten apple, the vain,
vain, feckless world, when the worms shall make them houses in
your eye-holes, and shall eat off the flesh from the balls of your
cheeks, and shall make that body a number of dry bones! Think not
that the common gate of serving God, as neighbours and others do,
will bring you to heaven. Few, few are saved. The devil's court is
thick and many; he hath the greatest number of mankind for his
vassals. I know this world is a forest of thorns in your way to
heaven; but you must go through it. Acquaint yourselves with the
Lord: hold fast Christ; hear His voice only. Bless His name; sanctify
and keep holy His day; keep the new commandment, "Love one
another;" let the Holy Spirit dwell in your bodies; and be clean and
holy. Love not the world: lie not, love and follow truth: learn to know
God. Keep in mind what I taught you; for God will seek an account
of it, when I am far from you. Abstain from all evil, and all
appearance of evil: follow good carefully, and seek peace and follow
after it: honour your king, and pray for him. Remember me to God in
your prayers; I dow not forget you. I told you often while I was with
you, and now I write it again, heavy, sad, and sore is that stroke of
the Lord's wrath that is coming upon Scotland. Wo, wo, wo to this
harlot-land! for they shall take the cup of God's wrath from His
hands, and drink, and spue, and fall, and not rise again. In, in, in
with speed to your stronghold, ye prisoners of hope, and hide you
there whill the anger of the Lord pass! Follow not the pastors of this
land, for the sun is gone down upon them. As the Lord liveth, they
lead you from Christ, and from the good old way. Yet the Lord will
keep the holy city, and make this withered kirk to bud again like a
rose, and a field blessed of the Lord.
The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. The prayers and
blessings of a prisoner of Christ, in bonds for Him, and for you, be
with you all. Amen.
Your lawful and loving pastor,
S. R.
Aberdeen, July 13, 1637.
 CCXXVI.—To the Lady Kilconquhar.
[Lady Kilconquhar, whose maiden name was Helen Murray, being
the third daughter of Sir Archibald Murray of Blackbarony, was
the wife of Sir John Carstairs of Kilconquhar, in the county of
Fife. Her mother, Margaret Maule, was of the family of Panmure.
Their youngest daughter, Bethia, in 1656, married Thomas Rigg
of Athernie. The house of Kilconquhar (called Kinneucher by the
people) is near the loch and the village, with Elie not far off on
one side, and Balcarras on the other. The loch with its swans,
the woods, and the sea so near, make it a pleasant spot.]

(THE INTERESTS OF THE SOUL MOST URGENT

—FOLLY OF THE WORLD—CHRIST
ALTOGETHER LOVELY—HIS PEN FAILS TO SET
FORTH CHRIST'S UNSPEAKABLE BEAUTY.)
ISTRESS,—Grace, mercy, and peace be to you.—I am glad to
hear that ye have your face homewards towards your Father's
house, now when so many are for a home nearer hand. But your
Lord calleth you to another life and glory than is to be found
hereaway; and, therefore, I would counsel you to make sure the
charters and rights which ye have to salvation. You came to this life
about a necessary and weighty business, to tryste with Christ anent
your precious soul, and the eternal salvation of it. This is the most
necessary business ye have in this life; and your other adoes beside
this are but toys, and feathers, and dreams, and fancies. This is in
the greatest haste, and should be done first. Means are used in the
Gospel to draw on a meeting betwixt Christ and you. If ye neglect
your part of it, it is as if ye would tear the contract before Christ's
eyes, and give up the match, that there may be no more communing
about that business. I know that other lovers beside Christ are in
suit of you, and your soul hath many wooers; but I pray you to
make a chaste virgin of your soul, and let it love but one. Most
worthy is Christ alone of all your soul's love, howbeit your love were
higher than the heaven, and deeper than the lowest of this earth,
and broader than this world. Many, alas! too many, make a common
strumpet of their soul for every lover that cometh to the house.
Marriage with Christ would put your love and your heart by the gate,
out of the way, and out of the eye of all other unlawful suitors; and
then you have a ready answer for all others, "I am already promised
away to Christ; the match is concluded, my soul hath a husband
already, and it cannot have two husbands." Oh, if the world did but
know what a smell the ointments of Christ cast, and how ravishing
His beauty (even the beauty of the fairest of the sons of men) is,
and how sweet and powerful His voice is, the voice of that one Well-
beloved! Certainly, where Christ cometh, He runneth away with the
soul's love, so that it cannot be commanded. I would far rather look
but through the hole of Christ's door, to see but the one half of His
fairest and most comely face (for He looketh like heaven!), suppose
I should never win in to see His excellency and glory to the full, than
enjoy the flower, the bloom, and the chiefest excellency of the glory
and riches of ten worlds. Lord, send me, for my part, but the
meanest share of Christ that can be given to any of the indwellers of
the New Jerusalem. But I know my Lord is no niggard: He can, and
it becometh Him well to give more than my narrow soul can receive.
If there were ten thousand thousand millions of worlds, and as many
heavens full of men and angels, Christ would not be pinched to
supply all our wants, and to fill us all. Christ is a well of life; but who
knoweth how deep it is to the bottom? This soul of ours hath love,
and cannot but love some fair one. And oh, what a fair One, what an
only One, what an excellent, lovely, ravishing One, is Jesus! Put the
beauty of ten thousand thousand worlds of paradises, like the
garden of Eden in one; put all trees, all flowers, all smells, all
colours, all tastes, all joys, all sweetness, all loveliness, in one: oh,
what a fair and excellent thing would that be! And yet it would be
less to that fair and dearest Well-beloved, Christ, than one drop of
rain to the whole seas, rivers, lakes, and fountains of ten thousand
earths. Oh, but Christ is heaven's wonder, and earth's wonder! What
marvel that His bride saith (Cant. v. 16), "He is altogether lovely!"
Oh that black souls will not come and fetch all their love to this fair
One! Oh, if I could invite and persuade thousands, and ten thousand
times ten thousand of Adam's sons, to flock about my Lord Jesus,
and to come and take their fill of love! Oh, pity for evermore, that
there should be such a one as Christ Jesus, so boundless, so
bottomless, and so incomparable in infinite excellency and
sweetness, and so few to take Him! Oh, oh, ye poor, dry, and dead
souls, why will ye not come hither with your toom vessels, and your
empty souls, to this huge, and fair, and deep, and sweet well of life,
and fill all your toom vessels? Oh that Christ should be so large in
sweetness and worth, and we so narrow, so pinched, so ebb, and so
void of all happiness. And yet men will not take Him! They lose their
love miserably, who will not bestow it upon this lovely One. Alas!
these five thousand years, Adam's fools, his waster (Prov. xviii. 9)
heirs, have been wasting and lavishing out their love and their
affections upon black lovers, and black harlots, upon bits of dead
creatures, and broken idols, upon this and that feckless creature;
and have not brought their love and their heart to Jesus. Oh, pity,
that Fairness hath so few lovers! Oh, wo, wo to the fools of this
world, who run by Christ to other lovers! Oh, misery, misery, misery,
that comeliness can scarce get three or four hearts in a town or
country! Oh that there is so much spoken, and so much written, and
so much thought of creature vanity; and so little spoken, so little
written, and so little thought of my great, and incomprehensible, and
never enough wondered at Lord Jesus! Why should I not curse this
forlorn and wretched world, that suffereth my Lord Jesus to lie His
lone? O damned souls! O miskenning world! O blind, O beggarly and
poor souls! O bewitched fools! what aileth you at Christ, that you
run so from Him? I dare not challenge providence, that there are so
few buyers, and so little sale for such an excellent one as Christ. (O
the depth, and, O the height of my Lord's ways, that pass finding
out!) But oh, if men would once be wise, and not fall so in love with
their own hell as to pass by Christ, and misken Him! But let us come
near, and fill ourselves with Christ, and let His friends drink, and be
drunken, and satisfy our hollow and deep desires with Jesus. Oh,
come all and drink at this living well; come, drink and live for
evermore; come, drink and welcome! "Welcome," saith our fairest
Bridegroom. No man getteth Christ with ill will; no man cometh and
is not welcome. No man cometh and rueth his voyage; all men
speak well of Christ who have been at Him: men and angels who
know Him will say more than I dow do, and think more of Him than
they can say. Oh, if I were misted and bewildered in my Lord's love!
Oh, if I were fettered and chained to it! Oh, sweet pain, to be pained
for a sight of Him! Oh, living death, oh, good death, oh, lovely
death, to die for love of Jesus! Oh that I should have a sore heart,
and a pained soul, for the want of this and that idol! Wo, wo to the
mistakings of my miscarrying heart, that gapeth and crieth for
creatures, and is not pained, and cut, and tortured, and in sorrow,
for the want of a soul's-fill of the love of Christ! Oh that Thou
wouldst come near, my Beloved! O my fairest One why standeth
Thou afar! Come hither, that I may be satiated with Thy excellent
love. Oh for a union! oh for a fellowship with Jesus! Oh that I could
buy with a price that lovely One, even suppose that hell's torments
for a while were the price! I cannot believe but Christ will rue upon
His pained lovers, and come and ease sick hearts, who sigh and
swoon for want of Christ. Who dow bide Christ's love to be nice?
What heaven can be there liker to hell, than to lust, and green, and
dwine, and fall a swoon for Christ's love, and to want it? Is not this
hell and heaven woven through-other? Is not this pain and joy,
sweetness and sadness, to be in one web, the one the weft, the
other the warp? Therefore, I would that Christ would let us meet
and join together, the soul and Christ in each other's arms. Oh what
meeting is like this, to see blackness and beauty, contemptibleness
and glory, highness and baseness, even a soul and Christ, kiss each
other! Nay, but when all is done, I may be wearied in speaking and
writing; but, oh, how far am I from the right expression of Christ or
His love? I can neither speak nor write feeling, nor tasting, nor
smelling: come feel, and smell, and taste Christ and His love, and ye
shall call it more than can be spoken. To write how sweet the
honeycomb is, is not so lovely as to eat and suck the honeycomb.
One night's rest in a bed of love with Christ will say more than heart
can think, or tongue can utter. Neither need we fear crosses, nor
sigh nor be sad for anything that is on this side of heaven, if we
have Christ. Our crosses will never draw blood of the joy of the Holy
Ghost, and peace of conscience. Our joy is laid up in such a high
place, as temptations cannot climb up to take it down. This world
may bost Christ, but they dare not strike; or, if they strike, they
break their arm in fetching a stroke upon a rock. Oh that we could
put our treasures in Christ's hand, and give him our gold to keep,
and our crown. Strive, Mistress, to thring through the thorns of this
life, to be at Christ. Tine not sight of Him in this cloudy and dark
day. Sleep with Him in your heart in the night. Learn not at the
world to serve Christ, but speer at Himself the way; the world is a
false copy, and a lying guide to follow.
Remember my love to your husband. I wish all to him that I have
written here. The sweet presence, the long-lasting good-will of our
God, the warmly and lovely comforts of our Lord Jesus, be with you.
Help me His prisoner in your prayers; for I remember you.
Yours, in his sweet Lord Jesus,
S. R.
Aberdeen, August 8, 1637
 CCXXVII.—To my Lord Craighall.
(STANDING FOR CHRIST—DANGER FROM
FEAR, OR PROMISES OF MEN—CHRIST'S
REQUITALS—SIN AGAINST THE HOLY SPIRIT.)
Y LORD,—I received one letter of your Lordship's from C., and
another of late from A. B., wherein I find your Lordship in
perplexity what to do. But let me entreat your Lordship not to cause
yourself to mistake Truth and Christ, because they seem to
encounter with your peace and ease. My Lord, remember that a
prisoner hath written this to you, that, "as the Lord liveth, if ye put
to your hand with other apostates in this land, to pull down the
sometime beautiful tabernacle of Christ in this land, and join hands
with them in one hair-breadth to welcome Antichrist to Scotland,
there is wrath gone out from the Lord against you and your house."
If the terror of a king hath overtaken you, and your Lordship looketh
to sleep in your nest in peace, and to take the nearest shore, there
are many ways (too, too many ways) how to shift Christ with some
ill-washen and foul distinctions. But assure yourself, suppose a king
should assure you that he would be your god (as shall never be) for
that piece of service, your clay god shall die. And your carnal
counsellors, when your conscience shall storm against you, and ye
complain to them, will say, "What is this to us?" Believe not that
Christ is weak, or that He is not able to save. Of two fires that you
cannot pass, take the least. Some few years will bring us all out in
our blacks and whites before our Judge. Eternity is nearer to you
than you are aware of. To go on in a course of defection, when an
enlightened conscience is stirring, and looking you in the face, and
crying within you, "That you are going in an evil way," is a step to
the sin against the Holy Ghost. Either many of this land are near that
sin, or else I know not what it is. And if this, for which I now suffer,
be not the way of peace and the King's highway to salvation, I
believe there is not a way at all. There is not such breadth and
elbow-room in the way to heaven as men believe.
Howbeit this day be not Christ's, the morrow shall be His. I believe
assuredly that our Lord will repair the old waste places and His
ruined houses in Scotland; and that this wilderness shall yet blossom
as the rose. My very worthy and dear Lord, wait upon Him who
hideth His face from the house of Jacob, and look for Him. Wait
patiently a little upon the Bridegroom's return again, that your soul
may live, and that ye may rejoice with the Lord's inheritance. I dare
pawn my soul and life for it, that if ye take this storm with borne-
down Christ, your sky shall quickly clear, and your fair morning
dawn. Think (as the truth is) that Christ is just now saying, "And will
ye also leave Me?" Ye have a fair occasion to gratify Christ now, if ye
will stay with Him, and want the night's sleep with your suffering
Saviour one hour, now when Scotland hath fallen asleep, and leaveth
Christ to fend for Himself. I profess myself but a weak, feeble man.
When I came first to Christ's camp, I had nothing to maintain this
war, or to bear me out in this encounter; and I am little better yet.
But since I find furniture, armour, and strength from the consecrated
Captain, the Prince of our salvation, who was perfected through
suffering, I esteem suffering for Christ a king's life. I find that our
wants qualify us for Christ. And, howbeit your Lordship write that ye
despair to attain to such a communion and fellowship (which I would
not have you to think), yet, would ye nobly and courageously
venture to make over to Christ, for His honour now lying at the
stake, your estate, place, and honour, He would lovingly and largely
requite you, and give you a king's word for a recompense. Venture
upon Christ's "Come," and I dare swear ye will say, "I bless the Lord
who gave me counsel" (Ps. xvi. 7). My very worthy Lord, many eyes,
in both the kingdoms, are upon you now, and the eye of our Lord is
upon you. Acquit yourself manfully for Christ; spill not this good play.
Subscribe a blank submission, and put it into Christ's hands. Win,
win the blessings and prayers of your sighing and sorrowful mother-
church seeking your help: win Christ's bond (who is a King of His
word), for a hundredfold more even in this life.
If a weak man[342] hath passed a promise to a king, to make slip to
Christ (if we look to flesh and blood, I wonder not of it; possibly I
might have done worse myself), add not further guiltiness to go on
in such a scandalous and foul way. Remember that there is a wo, wo
to him by whom offences come. This wo came out of Christ's mouth,
and it is heavier than the wo of the law. It is the Mediator's
vengeance, and that is two vengeances to those who are
enlightened. Free yourself from unlawful anguish, about advising
and resolving. When the truth is come to your hand, hold it fast; go
not again to make a new search and inquiry for truth. It is easy to
cause conscience to believe as ye will, not as ye know. It is easy for
you to cast your light into prison, and detain God's truth in
unrighteousness: but that prisoner will break ward, to your
incomparable torture. Fear your light, and stand in awe of it: for it is
from God. Think what honour it is in this life also to be enrolled to
the succeeding ages amongst Christ's witnesses, standing against
the re-entry of Antichrist. I know certainly that your light, looking to
two ways, and to the two sides, crieth shame upon the course that
they would counsel you to follow. The way that is halver and
copartner with the smoke of this fat world (Ps. xxxvii. 20), and wit
and ease, smelleth strong of a foul and false way.
The Prince of peace, He who brought again from the dead the great
Shepherd of His sheep, by the blood of the eternal covenant,
establish you, and give you sound light, and counsel you to follow
Christ. Remember my obliged service to my Lord your father, and
mother, and your lady.
Grace be with you.
Your Lordship's, at all obliged obedience, in his sweet Lord Jesus,
S. R.
Aberdeen, August 10, 1637.
 CCXXVIII.—To Mr. James Fleming.
[James Fleming was minister of Abbey St. Bathans, now called
Yester, a parish in the Presbytery of Haddington, East Lothian.
He had previously lived some time in England, and is described
by Livingstone as "an ingenuous, single-hearted man."
Livingstone was related to him, having been married to the
eldest daughter of his brother, Bartholomew Fleming, merchant
in Edinburgh, and was present with him at his "gracious death."
Fleming was opposed to Prelacy, and the ceremonies which
James VI. and Charles I. were so zealous in attempting to
impose on the Church of Scotland. In the controversy
occasioned by the Public Resolutions, he took the side of the
party favourable to them. He was first married to Martha, eldest
daughter of John Knox, the celebrated Scottish Reformer. He
married a second wife, by whom he had the well-known Robert
Fleming, the author of the "Fulfilling of the Scriptures," who was
minister of Cambuslang, and afterwards of the Scottish
congregation in Rotterdam, whither he retired some years after
his ejection for nonconformity, on the restoration of Charles II.]

(GLORY GAINED TO CHRIST—SPIRITUAL

DEADNESS—HELP TO PRAISE HIM—THE
MINISTRY.)
EVEREND AND WELL-BELOVED IN OUR LORD,—Grace, mercy,
and peace be to you.—I received your letter, which hath
refreshed me in my bonds. I cannot but testify unto you, my dear
brother, what sweetness I find in our Master's cross; but, alas, what
can I either do or suffer for Him! If I my lone had as many lives as
there have been drops of rain since the creation, I would think them
too little for that lovely One, our Well-beloved; but my pain and my
sorrow is above my sufferings, that I find not ways to set out the
praises of His love to others. I am not able, by tongue, pen, or
sufferings, to provoke many to fall in love with Him: but He
knoweth, whom I love to serve in the Spirit, what I would do and
suffer by His own strength, so being that I might make my Lord
Jesus lovely and sweet to many thousands in this land. I think it
amongst God's wonders, that He will take any praise or glory, or any
testimony to His honourable cause, from such a forlorn sinner as I
am. But when Christ worketh, He needeth not ask the question, by
whom He will be glorious. I know (seeing His glory at the beginning
did shine out of poor nothing, to set up such a fair house for men
and angels, and so many glorious creatures, to proclaim His
goodness, power, and wisdom) that, if I were burnt to ashes, out of
the smoke and powder of my dissolved body He could raise glory to
Himself. His glory is His end: oh that I could join with Him to make it
my end! I would think that fellowship with Him sweet and glorious.
But, alas! few know the guiltiness that is on my part: it is a wonder,
that this good cause hath not been marred and spilled in my foul
hands. But I rejoice in this, that my sweet Lord Jesus hath found
something ado, even a ready market for His free grace and
incomparable and matchless mercy, in my wants. Only my loathsome
wretchedness and my wants have qualified me for Christ, and the
riches of His glorious grace. He behoved to take me for nothing, or
else to want me. Few know the unseen and private reckonings
betwixt Christ and me; yet His love, His boundless love would not
bide away, nor stay at home with Himself. And yet I do not make it
welcome as I ought, when it is come unsent-for and without hire.
How joyful is my heart, that ye write that ye are desirous to join with
me in praising; for it is a charity to help a dyvour to pay his debts.
But when all have helped me, my name shall stand in His account-
book under ten thousand thousands of sums unpaid. But it easeth
my heart that His dear servants will but speak of my debts to such a
sweet Creditor. I desire that He may lay me in His own balance and
weigh me, if I would not fain have a feast of His boundless love
made to my own soul, and to many others. One thing I know, that
we shall not at all be able to come near His excellency with eye,
heart, or tongue; for He is above all created thoughts. All nations
before Him are as nothing, and less than nothing: He sitteth in the
circuit of heaven, and the inhabitants of the earth are as
grasshoppers before Him. Oh that men would praise Him!
Ye complain of your private case. Alas! I am not the man to speak to
such an one as ye are. Any sweet presence which I have had in this
town, is, I know, for this cause, that I might express and make it
known to others. But I never find myself nearer Christ, that royal
and princely One, than after a great weight and sense of deadness
and gracelessness. I think that the sense of our wants, when withal
we have a restlessness and a sort of spiritual impatience under them
and can make a din, because we want Him whom our soul loveth, is
that which maketh an open door to Christ. And when we think we
are going backward, because we feel deadness, we are going
forward; for the more sense, the more life; and no sense argueth no
life. There is no sweeter fellowship with Christ than to bring our
wounds and our sores to Him. But for myself, I am ashamed of
Christ's goodness and love, since the time of my bonds; for He hath
been pleased to open up new treasures of love and felt sweetness,
and give visitations of love and access to Himself, in this strange
land. I would think a fill of His love young and green heaven. And
when He is pleased to come, and the tide is in, and the sea full, and
the King and a poor prisoner together in the house-of-wine, the
black tree of the cross is not so heavy as a feather. I cannot, I dow
not, but give Christ an honourable and glorious testimony.
I see that the Lord can ride through His enemies' bands, and
triumph in the sufferings of His own; and that this blind world seeth
not that sufferings are Christ's armour, wherein He is victorious. And
they who contend with Zion see not what He is doing, when they are
set to work, as under-smiths and servants, to the work of refining
the saints. Satan's hand also, by them, is at the melting of the Lord's
vessels of mercy, and their office in God's house is to scour and
cleanse vessels for the King's table. I marvel not to see them
triumph, and sit at ease in Zion; for our Father must lay up His rods,
and keep them carefully for His own use. Our Lord cannot want fire
in His house: His furnace is in Zion, and His fire in Jerusalem. But
little know the adversaries the counsel and the thoughts of the Lord.
And for your complaints of your ministry. I now think all I do too
little. Plainness, freedom, watchfulness, fidelity, shall swell upon you,
in exceeding large comforts, in your sufferings. The feeding of
Christ's lambs in private visitations and catechising, in painful
preaching, and fair, honest, and free warning of the flock, is a
sufferer's garland. Oh, ten thousand times blessed are they, who are
honoured of Christ to be faithful and painful in wooing a bride to
Christ! My dear brother, I know that ye think more on this than I can
write; and I rejoice that your purpose is, in the Lord's strength, to
back your wronged Master; and to come out, and call yourself
Christ's man, when so many are now denying Him, as fearing that
Christ cannot do for Himself and them. I am a lost man for ever, or
this, this is the way to salvation, even this way, which they call
heresy, that men now do mock and scoff at. I am confirmed now
that Christ will accept of His servant's sufferings as good service to
Him at the day of His Appearance; and that, ere it be long, He will
be upon us all, and men in their blacks and whites shall be brought
out before God, angels, and men. Our Master is not far off. Oh, if we
could wait on and be faithful! The good-will of Him who dwelt in The
Bush, the tender favour and love, the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ,
be with you.
Help me with your prayers; and desire, from me, other brethren to
take courage for their Master.
Yours, in his sweet Lord Jesus,
S. R.
Aberdeen, August 15, 1637.
 CCXXIX.—To Mr. Hugh Mackail of
Irvine.
(THE LAW—THIS WORLD UNDER CHRIST'S
CONTROL FOR THE BELIEVER.)
Y VERY DEAR BROTHER,—Ye know that men may take their
sweet fill of the sour Law, in Grace's ground, and betwixt the
Mediator's breasts. And this is the sinner's safest way; for there is a
bed for wearied sinners to rest them in, in the New Covenant,
though no bed of Christ's making to sleep in. The Law shall never be
my doomster, by Christ's grace. If I get no more good of it (I shall
find a sore enough doom in the Gospel to humble, and to cast me
down), it is, I grant, a good rough friend to follow a traitor to the
bar, and to back him till he come to Christ. We may blame ourselves,
who cause the Law to crave well-paid debt, to scare us away from
Jesus, and dispute about a righteousness of our own, a world in the
moon, a chimera, and a night-dream that pride is father and mother
to. There cannot be a more humble soul than a believer; it is no
pride for a drowning man to catch hold of a rock.
I rejoice that the wheels of this confused world are rolled, and
cogged, and driven according as our Lord willeth. Out of whatever
airth the wind blow, it will blow us on our Lord. No wind can blow
our sails overboard; because Christ's skill, and honour of His
wisdom, are empawned and laid down at the stake for the sea-
passengers, that He shall put them safe off His hand on the shore, in
His Father's known bounds, our native home ground.
My dear brother, scaur not at the cross of Christ. It is not seen yet
what Christ will do for you, when it cometh to the worst: He will
keep His grace till ye be at a strait, and then bring forth the decreed
birth for your salvation (Zeph. ii. 2). Ye are an arrow of His own
making; let Him shoot you against a wall of brass, your point shall
keep whole. I cannot, for multitude of letters and distraction of
friends, prepare what I would for the times: I have not one hour of
spare time, suppose the day were forty hours long.
Remember me in prayer. Grace be with you.
Yours, in his sweet Lord Jesus,
S. R.
Aberdeen, Sept. 5, 1637.
 CCXXX.—To the Right Honourable
and Christian Lady, my Lady Kenmure.
(BELIEVER SAFE THOUGH TRIED—DELIGHT IN
CHRIST'S TRUTH.)
ADAM,—Grace, mercy, and peace be to your Ladyship.—God
be thanked ye are yet in possession of Christ, and that sweet
child. I pray God that the former may be a sure heritage, and the
latter a loan for your comfort, while ye do good to His poor, afflicted,
withered Mount Zion. And who knoweth but our Lord hath comforts
laid up in store for her and you! I am persuaded that Christ hath
bought you past the devil, and hell, and sin, so that they have no
claim to you; and that is a rich and invaluable mercy. Long since, ye
were half challenging death's cold kindness, in being so slow and
sweer to come to loose a tired prisoner; but ye stand in need of all
the crosses, losses, changes, and sad hearts that befell you since
that time. Christ knoweth that the body of sin unsubdued will take
them all, and more: we know that Paul had need of the devil's
service, to buffet him; and far more we. But, my dear and
honourable Lady, spend your sand-glass well. I am sure that you
have law to raise a suspension against all that devils, men, friends,
worlds, losses, hell, or sin, can decree against you. It is good that
your crosses will but convoy you to heaven's gates: in, they cannot
go; the gates shall be closed upon them, when ye shall be admitted
to the throne. Time standeth not still, eternity is hard at our door.
Oh, what is laid up for you! therefore, harden your face against the
wind. And the Lamb, your Husband, is making ready for you. The
Bridegroom would fain have that day, as gladly as your Honour
would wish to have it. He hath not forgotten you.
I have heard a rumour of the prelates' purpose to banish me. But let
it come, if God so will: the other side of the sea is my Father's
ground, as well as this side. I owe bowing to God, but no servile
bowing to crosses: I have been but too soft in that. I am comforted
that[343] I am persuaded fully, that Christ is halfer with me in this
well-born and honest cross; and if He claim right to the best half of
my troubles (as I know He doth to the whole), I shall remit over to
Christ what I shall do in this case. I know certainly, that my Lord
Jesus will not mar nor spill my sufferings; He hath use for them in
His house.
Oh, what it worketh on me to remember that a stranger, who
cometh not in by the door, shall build hay and stubble upon the
golden foundation which I laid amongst that people at Anwoth! But I
know that Providence looketh not asquint, but looketh straight out,
and through all men's darkness. Oh that I could wait upon the Lord!
I had but one eye, one joy, one delight, even to preach Christ; and
my mother's sons were angry at me, and have put out the poor
man's one eye, and what have I behind? I am sure that this sour
world hath lost my heart deservedly; but oh that there were a
daysman to lay his hands upon us both, and determine upon my
part of it. Alas, that innocent and lovely truth should be sold! My
tears are little worth, but yet for this thing I weep. I weep, alas, that
my fair and lovely Lord Jesus should be miskent in His own house! It
reckoneth little of five hundred the like of me; yet the water goeth
not over faith's breath.[344] Yet our King liveth.
I write the prisoner's blessings: the good-will, and long-lasting
kindness, with the comforts of the very God of peace, be to your
Ladyship, and to your sweet child. Grace, grace be with you.
Your Honour's, at all obedience, in his sweet Lord Jesus,
S. R.
Aberdeen, Sept. 5, 1637.
CCXXXI.—To the Right Honourable
my Lord Lindsay.
[John, tenth Lord Lindsay, resided at Byres, a house near
Balgonie, which in old charters is mentioned along with Pitcruvie
as belonging to the Lindsays. He was the son of Robert, ninth
Lord Lindsay, by his wife Lady Christian Hamilton, eldest
daughter of Thomas, first Earl of Haddington. (See Letter
LXXVII.) He was born about 1596, and was created Earl of
Lindsay, 8th May 1633. On the 23rd of July 1644 he was
constituted Lord High Treasurer of Scotland; and on the
forfeiture of Ludovick, Earl of Crawford, he had the title and
estate of that nobleman conferred on him by Act of Parliament,
26th July the same year, so that he was thereafter designed Earl
of Crawford and Lindsay. Having entered with zeal into the
"Engagement" for raising an army to attempt the rescue of the
King in 1648, he was deprived of his offices by the Act of
Classes, and excluded from Parliament till King Charles II. came
to Scotland in 1650, when a coalition of parties took place. For
the same reason, he fell under a censure of the church; but was
restored in July 1650. On the Restoration, he was reinstated in
his offices of High Treasurer of Scotland and Extraordinary Lord
of Session. He warmly opposed the Act Rescissory, annulling all
the Parliaments since 1633, as a terrible precedent, destroying
the whole security of government. In 1633, scrupling to take the
declaration, he resigned his situation as Lord High Treasurer for
Scotland. Next year he gave up his place of Extraordinary Lord
of Session, and retired to his country seat. "He was a man of
great virtue, of good abilities, and of an exemplary life in all
respects. He died at Tyninghame in 1676, aged about eighty"
(Douglas' "Peerage"). Rutherford's treatise, entitled "A
 Peaceable and Temperate Plea for Paul's Presbytery in Scotland,
printed at London in 1642," is dedicated to this nobleman.]

(THE CHURCH'S DESOLATIONS—THE END OF

THE WORLD, AND CHRIST'S COMING—HIS
ATTRACTIVENESS.)
IGHT HONOURABLE AND MY VERY GOOD LORD,—Grace,
mercy, and peace be to your Lordship.—Pardon my boldness
to express myself to your Lordship at this so needful a time, when
your wearied and friendless mother-kirk is looking round about her,
to see if any of her sons doth really bemoan her desolation.
Therefore, my dear and worthy Lord, I beseech you in the bowels of
Christ, pity that widow-like sister and spouse of Christ. I know that
her Husband is not dead, but He seemeth to be in another country,
and seeth well, and beholdeth who are His true and tender-hearted
friends, who dare venture under the water to bring out to dry land
sinking truth; and who of the nobles will cast up their arm, to ward a
blow off the crowned head of our royal Lawgiver who reigneth in
Zion, who will plead and contend for Jacob in the day of his
controversy.
It is now time, my worthy and noble Lord, for you who are the little
nurse-fathers, under our sovereign prince, to put on courage for the
Lord Jesus, and to take up a fallen orphan, speaking out of the dust,
and to embrace in your arms Christ's Bride. He hath no more in
Scotland that is the delight of His eyes, than that one little sister,
whose breasts were once well-fashioned. She once ravished her
Well-beloved with her eyes, and overcame Him with her beauty:
"She looked forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun,
terrible as an army with banners: her stature was like the palm-tree,
and her breasts like clusters of grapes, and she held the King in the
galleries" (Cant. iv. 9; vi. 10; vii. 5, 7). But now the crown is fallen
from her head, and her gold waxed dim, and our white Nazarites are
become black as the coal. Blessed are they who will come out and
help Christ against the mighty! The shields of the earth and the
nobles are debtors to Christ for their honour, and should bring their
glory and honour to the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 24). Alas, that
great men should be so far from subjecting themselves to the sweet
yoke of Christ, that they burst His bonds asunder, and think they
dow not go on foot when Christ is on horseback, and that every nod
of Christ, commanding as King, is a load like a mountain of iron.
And, therefore, they say, "This man shall not reign over us; we must
have another king than Christ in His own house." Therefore, kneel to
Christ, and kiss the Son, and let Him have your Lordship's vote, as
your alone Lawgiver. I am sure that when you leave the old waste
inn of this perishing life, and shall reckon with your host, and depart
hence, and take shipping, and make over for eternity, which is the
yonder side of time (and a sand-glass of threescore short years is
running out), to look over your shoulder then to that which ye have
done, spoken, and suffered for Christ, His dear Bride that He
ransomed with that blood which is more precious than gold, and for
truth, and the freedom of Christ's kingdom, your accounts will more
sweetly smile and laugh upon you than if you had two worlds of gold
to leave to your posterity. O my dear Lord, consider that our Master,
eternity, and judgment, and the Last Reckoning, will be upon us in
the twinkling of an eye. The blast of the last trumpet, now hard at
hand, will cry down all Acts of Parliament, all the determinations of
pretended assemblies, against Christ our Lawgiver. There will be
shortly a proclamation by One standing in the clouds, "that time
shall be no more," and that courts with kings of clay shall be no
more; and prisons, confinements, forfeitures of nobles, wrath of
kings, hazard of lands, houses, and name, for Christ, shall be no
more. This world's span-length of time is drawn now to less than
half an inch, and to the point of the evening of the day of this old
gray-haired world. And, therefore, be fixed and fast for Christ and
His truth for a time; and fear not him whose life goeth out at his
nostrils, who shall die as a man. I am persuaded Christ is responsal
and law-biding, to make recompense for anything that is hazarded
or given out for Him. Losses for Christ are but our goods given out in
bank, in Christ's hand. Kings earthly are well-favoured little clay-
gods, time's idols; but a sight of our invisible King shall decry and
darken all the glory of this world. At the day of Christ, truth shall be
truth, and not treason. Alas! it is pitiful that silence, when the thatch
of our Lord's house hath taken fire, is now the flower and bloom of
court and state wisdom; and to cast a covering over a good
profession (as if it blushed at the light), is thought a canny and sure
way through this life. But the safest way, I am persuaded, is to tine
and win with Christ, and to hazard fairly for Him; for heaven is but a
company of noble venturers for Christ. I dare hazard my soul, that
Christ will grow green, and blossom like the Rose of Sharon yet in
Scotland, howbeit now His leaf seemeth to wither, and His root to
dry up.
Your noble ancestors have been enrolled amongst the worthies of
this nation, as the sure friends of the Bridegroom, and valiant for
Christ: I hope that you will follow on to come to the streets for the
same Lord. The world is still at yea and nay with Christ. It shall be
your glory, and the sure foundation of your house (now when
houses are tumbling down, and birds building their nests, and thorns
and briers are growing up, where nobles did spread a table), if you
engage your estate and nobility for this noble King Jesus, with whom
the created powers of the world are still in tops. All the world shall
fall before Him, and (as God liveth!) every arm lifted up to take the
crown off His royal head, or that refuseth to hold it on His head,
shall be broken from the shoulder-blade. The eyes that behold Christ
weep in sackcloth, and wallow in His blood, and will not help, even
these eyes shall rot away in their eye-holes. Oh, if ye and the nobles
of this land saw the beauty of that world's wonder, Jesus our King,
and the glory of Him who is angels' wonder, and heaven's wonder
for excellency! Oh, what would men count of clay estates, of time-
eaten life, of worm-eaten and moth-eaten worldly glory, in
comparison of that fairest, fairest of God's creation, the Son of the
Father's delights! I have but small experience of suffering for Him;
but let my Judge and Witness in heaven lay my soul in the balance
of justice, if I find not a young heaven, and a little paradise of
glorious comforts and soul-delighting love-kisses of Christ, here
beneath the moon, in suffering for Him and His truth; and that the
glory, joy, and peace, and fire of love, which I thought had been
kept whill supper-time, when we shall get leisure to feast our fill
upon Christ, I have felt in glorious beginnings, in my bonds for this
princely Lord Jesus. Oh! it is my sorrow, my daily pain, that men will
not come and see. I would now be ashamed to believe that it should
be possible for any soul to think that he could be a loser for Christ,
suppose he should lend Christ the Lordship of Lindsay, or some such
great worldly estate. Therefore, my worthy and dear Lord, set now
your face against the opposites of Jesus, and let your soul take
courage to come under His banner, to appear, as His soldier, for Him;
and the blessings of a falling kirk, the prayers of the prisoners of
hope who wait for Zion's joy, and the good-will of Him who dwelt in
The Bush, and it burned not, shall be with you.
To His saving grace I recommend your Lordship and your house; and
am still Christ's prisoner, and your Lordship's obliged servant, in his
sweet Lord Jesus.
S. R.
Aberdeen, Sept. 7, 1637.
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about testbank and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebooksecure.com