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vi I coNTENTS

The General Assembly 176

The Secretariat 176
The Economic and Social Council 177
The Trusteeship Council 178
The International Court of
Justice 178
Maintenance of International Peace
and Security 179
Increased Attention to Conditions Within
States 180
Intervention Within States 184
Economic and Social Questions 185
The Reform Process of the United
Nations 186
Country Level 186
Headquarters Level 187 PART Ill: GLOBAL ISSUES
The European Union and Other Regional
Organizations 188
The Process of European
13:04MJ Global Security, Military Power,
Integration 188 and Terrorism 212
Other Regional Actors: The African Union and John Bayhs, Darryl Howlett, James 0. K1ras, Steven L Lamy, and
the Organization of American States 192 John Masker
The Growth of Global Civil Society 193 Introduction 214
Multinational Corporations 194 What Is ·security"' 215
INGOs as Global Political Actors 197 Mainstream and Critical Approaches to Security 217
Sources of INGO Power 200 Realist and Neorealist Views on Global Security 218
Forms of INGO Power 201 Liberal Institutionalist Views on Global Security 219
Information Politics 201 The Constructivist Approach to Global Security 221
Symbolic Politics 202 The Feminist Approach to Global Security 222
Leverage Politics 202 Marxist and Radical Liberal or Utopian
Accountability Politics 203 Approaches to Security 223
Global Campaign Politics 203 The Changing Character ofWar 224
Celebrity Diplomacy 203 The Nature of War 224
Foundations and Think Tanks 206 The Revolution in Military Affairs 226
Criminal and Terrorist Networks Postmodern War 229
as Global Actors 207 Globalization and New Wars 229
Conclusion 209 New Roles for NATO' 232
FEATURES Nuclear Proliferation and Nonproliferation 233
THEORY IN PRACTICE Neoconservat ives and t he Proliferation Optimism and Pessimism 234
United Nations 183 Nuclear Weapons Effects 235
19.f11111!,JI A Global Campaign: The Baby Milk The Current Nuclear Age 237
Advocacy Network 198 Nuclear Motivations 238
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Nongovernmental Nuclear Capabilities and Intentions 239
Organizat ions and Protecting the Right s of Terrorism and Extremism 240
Children 204 Terrorism: From Domestic to Global Phenomenon 243
THINKINGABOUT GLOBAL POUIICS Who Could Help The Impact of Globalization on Terrorism 245
Tomorrow? Twenty Global Problems and Global Cultural Explanations 248
Issues Networks 211 Economic Explanations 248
 CONTENTS Vii
Religion and •New" Terrorism 249 The Role of the International Community 291
The Current Challenge: The Islamic State 250 Basic Principles 294
Globalization, Technology, and Terrorism 253 Conclusion 295
Proselytizing 253 FE ATURES
Security ofTerrorist Organizations 254 ii£iiili)!ii: A Failed Intervention 279
Mobility 254 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Asian Values 281
Combating Terrorism 255 THEORY IN PRACTICE Gendered Perspective on Human
Counterterrorism Activities 256 Rights 290
Conclusion 257 THINKING ABOUT GlOBAl POLITICS What Should Be
FEATURES Done? National Interests Versus Human
if \jiiiiJ.il US Drone Warfare: A Robotic Revolution Interests 296
in Modern Combat 230
THEORY INPRACTICE The Realist-Theory Perspective
and the War on Terrorism 242
i§!Qhd Global Trade and Finance 298
GlOBAl PERSPECTIVE The Shanghai Cooperation Steven L Lamy and John Masker
Organization: Fighting Terrorism in the Former Introduction 301
Commun ist Bloc 247 The Emergence of a Global Trade and Monetary
THINKING ABOUT GlOBAl POLITICS Perspectives on the System 303
Arms Race 259 Global Trade and Finance Actors in a Globalizing
Economy 308
Cross-Border Transactions 310
83i@h;Q Human Rights and Human Open-BorderTransactions 312
Security 26o Transborder Transactions 315
Amitav Acharya, Alex J. Bellamy, Chris Brown, N1cholas J. Global Trade 317
Wheeler, Steven L lamy, and John Masker Transborder Production 317
Introduction 262 Transborder Products 318
What Are Human Rights> 264 Global Finance 321
The Liberal Account of Rights 264 Global Money 321
Human Rights and State Sovereignty 266 Global Banking 323
International Human Rights Legislation 267 Global Securities 324
The Universal Declaration of Human Global Derivatives 326
Rights 267 Continuity and Change in
Subsequent UN Legislation 269 Economic Globalization 327
Enforcement of Human Rights Legislation 270 Irregular Incidence 327
What Is Human Security? 270 The Persistence of Territory 328
Origin of the Concept 271 The Survival of the State 329
Human Security and Development 272 The Continuance of Nationalism
Human Security and Refugees 272 and Cultural Diversity 330
Common Security 274 Conclusion 331
History of Humanitarian Activism and Intervention 274 FEATUR ES
Intervention and Nonintervention in the THEORY IN PRACTICE Contending Views of
1990s 275 Capitalism 306
Universalism Challenged 278 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Globalization and "America
Humanitarian Dimensions 283 First" 313
Political and Economic Rights and Security 283 if.fiiiliJ,II Southern Debt in Global
Human Rights and Human Security During Finance 325
ConAict 285 THINKING ABOUT GlOBAl POLITICS Globalization : Productive,
Women, ConAict, and Human Security 289 Predatory, or Inconsequential? 332
viii I coNTENTs
'3:0Ah;fl
Poverty, Development, and 831!-@3;f!ol Environmental Issues 364
Hunger 334 John Vogler, Steven L. lamy, and John Masker

Caroline Thomas, St-n l . Lamy, and John Masker Introduction 366

Introduction 336 Environmental Issues on the
Poverty 338 International Agenda: A Brief History 369
Development 340 The Paris Climate Summit 2015 and 2016 373
Post-1945 International Economic Liberalism Bonn 2017 374
and the Orthodox De•elopment Model 341 The Environment and International Relations
The Post-1945 International EconomiC Order: Theory 375
Results 344 The Functions of International Environmental
Economic Development: Orthodox and Alternative Cooperation 380
Evaluations 345 Transboundary Trade and Pollullon Control 380
A Critical Alternative View of Development 347 Norm Creation 382
Democracy, Empowerment, and Development 348 Aid and Capacity Building 384
The Orthodoxy Incorporates Criticisms 350 Scientific Understanding 384
An Appraisal of the Responses of the Orthodox Governing the Commons 385
Approach to Its Critics 353 Environmental Regimes 386
Hunger 354 Climate Change 388
The Orthodox, Nature-Focused Explanation of Conclusion 394
Hunger 356 FEATURES
The Entitlement , Society-Focused Gl OBAL PERSPECTIVE The "Doomsday" Seed Vault 378
Explanation of Hunger 356 THEORI IH PRACTICE Regime Theory and the Montreal
Globalization and Hunger 359 Protocol 379
Conclusion 361 ifiiiiiiHI Common but Differentiated
FEATURES
Responsibilities? 392
lffililiUll ldeas and Development in the Contemporary THINKINGABDUl GLOBAL POllllCS The Environment: Images

Coffee-Produc1ng Sector 343 and Options 395

t•
TH EORY PRACilCE The Terms of Development 349
GlOBAl PERSPECilYE Life in Zimbabwe: Poverty, Hunger, Glossary 398
Development, and Poht1cs 352 References 413
I HIHHIHG ABDUl GLOBAl POllllCS Development Assistance as Credits 423
Foreign Policy Statecraft 362 Index 425
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Amitav Acharya Introduction to Strategic Studies (6th ed. with James

Amitav Achar ya is the UNESCO Chair in Transnational Wirtz and Colin S. Gray; OUP 2018), and The Brit-
Challenges and Governance and Professor of Interna- ish Nuclear Experience: The Role of BeliefS, Culture and
tional Relations at American University, Washington, Identity, (with Kristan Stoddart; OUP 2015).
D.C. His recent books include The End of American
World Order (Polity 2013), Rethinking Power, Institutions, Alex J Bellam y
and Ideas in World Politics: Whose IR? (Routledge 2013); Alex J. Bellamy is Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies
Why Govern? Rethinking Demand and Progress in Global and Director of the Asia Pacific Centre for the Responsi-
Governance, editor (Cambridge 2017) and Human Secu- bility to Protect at The University of Queensland, Austra-
rity: From Concept to Practice, co-editor (World Scien- lia. He is also Senior Adviser at the International Peace
tific 2ou). His articles on international relations theory, Institute, New York. Recent books include Massacres and
norm diffusion, comparative regionalism, and Asian Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Non-Combatant Im-
security have appeared in International Organization,. munity (Oxford, 2012), Responsibility to Protect: A Deftnse
World Politics, International Security, journal of Peace (Oxford, 2015) and East Asia's Other Miracle: Explaining
Research, and International Studies Quarterly. the Decline ofMass Atrocities (Oxford, 2017).

Chris Brown
David Armstrong
Chris Brown is Emeritus Professor of International
David Armstrong is Emeritus Professor of International
Relations at the London School of Economics and
Relations at the University of Exeter. His books include
Political Science and the author of International Re-
Revolutionary Diplomacy (California University Press
lations Theory: New Normative Approaches (Columbia
1977), The Rise ofthe International Organization (Macmil-
1992), Understanding International Relations (Pal-
lan 1981), Revolution and World Order (Clarendon Press
grave Macmillan 1997; 4th ed. 2009). Sovereignty,
1993), International Law and International Relations (co-
authored with Theo Farrell and Helene Lambert; Cam-
Rights and justice (Polity 2002), Practical judgement
bridge University Press 2007), and Routledge Handbook
in International Political Theory (Routledge 2010) and
International Society, Global Polity (Sage, 2015) as well
of International Law (editor; Routledge 2009).
as numerous book chapters and journal articles in
the field of international political theory. He edited
John Baylis Political Restructuring in Europe: Ethical Perspectives
John Baylis is Emeritus Professor at Swansea University. (Routledge 1994) and co-edited (with Terry Nardin
Until his retirement in 2008 he was Professor of Politics and N. J. Rengger) International Relations in Politi-
and International Relations and Pro-Vice-Chancellor at cal Thought: Texts from the Greeks to the First World
the university. His PhD and DLitt are from the Uni- War (Cambr idge 2002) and (with Robyn Eckersley)
versity ofWales. He is the author of more than twenty The Oxford Handbook of International Political Theory
books, the most recent of which are The Globalization (2018). A former Chair of the British International
of World Politics: An Introduction to International Re- Studies Association (1998/99). he was Head of the
lations (8th ed. with Steve Smith and Patricia Owens; Depar tment of International Relations at LSE from
OUP 2019), Strategy in the Contemporary World: An 2004 to 2007.
ix
X I ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Michael Cox has written and edited twelve books, including Inventing
Professor Michael Cox holds a Chair in International International Society: A History of the English School
Relations at the London School of Economics and Po- (Palgrave 1998), Liberal World Orders (co-edited with
litical Science. He is the author, editor, and co-editor of Trine Flockhart, Oxford University Press, in associa-
over twenty books, including Soft Power and US Foreign tion with the British Academy 2013), and The Handbook
Policy (Routledge 2010), The Global 1989 (Cambridge of the Responsibility to Protect (co-edited with Alex J.
University Press 2010), US Foreign Policy (Oxford Uni- Bellamy, Oxford University Press 2016).
versity Press 2008), Tiventieth Century International Re-
lations (eight volumes; Sage 2oo6), E. H. Carr: A Critical Stephen Hobden
Appraisal (Palgrave 2ooo), A Farewell to Arms: Beyond Stephen Hobden is Reader in International Relations
the Good Friday Agreement (2nd ed., Manchester Uni- at the University of East London, where he teaches
versity Press 2oo6), American Democracy Promotion courses on international relations theory. He is cur-
(Oxford University Press 2000), US Foreign Policy after rently working on a research project, together with his
the Cold War: Superpower Without a Mission? (Pinter colleague Erika Cudworth, on complexity theory and
1995), and The Interregnum: Controversies in World Poli- international relations. This has resulted in the publi-
tics, 1989-1999 (Cambridge University Press 1999). His cation of a number of articles, together with the books
work has been translated into several languages, includ- Posthuman International Relations: Complexity, Ecol-
ing Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Ukrainian, German, ogy and Global Politics (Zed, 2on) and The Emancipa-
Italian, French, and Spanish. Formerly Chair of the tory Project of Posthumanism (Routledge, 2017).
European Consortium for Political Research (2oo6-
2009) and Research Fellow at the Norwegian Nobel In- Darryl Howlett
stitute in 2002 and 2007, he is currently Chair of the Darryl Howlett is Senior Lecturer in the Division of
United States Discussion Group at Chatham House, Politics and International Relations at the University
London, and Co-Director of IDEAS, a Centre for the
of Southampton. His most recent publications include
Study of Strategy and Diplomacy at the LS E. NPT Briefing Book (2015 edition with John Simpson,
Devon Curtis Hassan Elbahtimy and Isabelle Anstey; Centre for Sci-
ence and Security Studies, King's College London,
Devon E. A. Curtis is Senior Lecturer in the Depart-
UK, in association with the James Martin Center for
ment of Politics and International Studies at the
Nonproliferation Studies (CNS) at the Middlebury In-
University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Emmanuel
stitute of International Studies at Monterey (MilS),
College. Her main research interests and publications
(US), (with Jeffrey S. Lantis), "Strategic Culture," in
deal with power-sharing and governance arrange-
Strategy in the Contemporary World (John Baylis, James
ments following conflict, UN peace-building, the
Wirtz, Colin S. Gray, editors; 5th ed., Oxford Univer-
"transformation" of rebel movements to political par-
sity Press 2016) and "Cyber Security and the Cr itical
ties in Africa, and critical perspectives on conflict,
National Infrastructure," in Homeland Security in the
peace-building, and development.
UK (Paul Wilkinson, editor; Routledge 2007).
Tim Dunne
Tim Dunne is Executive Dean of the Faculty of Hu- Richard Wyn Jones
manities and Social Sciences at the University of Richard Wyn Jones is Professor of Welsh Politics and
Queensland where he is also Professor of Interna- Director of the Wales Governance Centre at Cardiff
tional Relations in the School of Political Science and University. He has written extensively on Welsh politics,
International Studies. Previously he was Director of devolution, nationalism, and security studies. His book
the Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Pro- Security, Strategy and Critical Theory (Rienner 1999)
tect, where he continues to be a Senior Researcher. He is regarded as an important work in the area of critical
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Xi

theory. His most recent books are Wales Says Yes: The Tony McGrew
20u Referendum and Wdsh Devolution (University of Anthony McGrew is Pro Vice Chancellor and Direc-
Wales Press 2012-with Roger Scully); (in Welsh) ·y tor of the Confucius Institute, La Trobe University,
Blaid FfrJSFPidd yng Nghymru": Plaid Cymru a·r Cyltuddiad Melbourne and Emeritus Professor of Global Policy at
o Ffasgaeth (UniversityofWales Press 2013), and 'liu: Fascist Strathclyde University, Glasgow.
Party in Wales? Plaid Cymru, Welsh Nationalism and the
Accusation of Fascism (University of Wales Press 2014). Patricia Owens
Patricia Owens is Professor and Head of the Depart-
James D. Kiras
ment of International Relations at the University of
James D. Kiras is Professor at the School of Advanced Sussex. She was a Visiting Professor at UCLA and
Air and Space Studies, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala- the University of Sydney, and has held research fel-
bama, where he has directed the School's course of lowships at Harvard, Oxford, Princeton, UC-Berkeley,
instruction on irregular warfare for over a dozen and the University of Southern California. Her most
years. He is a Senior Fellow of the Joint Special Op- recent book, Economy of Forr;e: Counterinsurgency and
erations University, Tampa, Florida, a Fellow of Ir- the Historical Rise of the Social won the 2016 Susan
regular Warfare Studies at the US Air Force Special Strange Prize for the Best Book in international
Operations School, Hurlburt Field, FL, and a found- studies, the 2016 International Studies Association
ing member of the Special Operations Research Asso- Theory Section Best Book Award, and was Runner
ciation and its peer-reviewed publication, the Special up for the 2016 Francesco Guicciardi ni Prize for Best
Operations Journa l. He worked for a number of years Book in Historical International Relations.
in the defense policy and consulting, counterterror-
ism, and special operations, and publishes and lec- Christian Reus-Srnit
tures regu larly on these subjects. His most recent Christian Reus-S mit is a Fellow of the Academy of the
book. co-authored with other contributors. is in its Social Sciences in Australia, and Professor of Inter-
revised second edition: Understanding Modern Warfare national Relations at the University of Queensland.
(Cambridge University Press 2016). Dr. Kiras's first He is author of Individual Rights and the Making of
book was entitled Special Operations and Strategy: From the International System (Cambridge 20tJ). American
World War If ta the War on Terrorism (Routledge 2oo6). Power and World Order (Polity Press 2004) and The
Moral Purpose of the State (Princeton University Press
Steven L Lamy
1999), co-author of Special Responsibilities: Global
Steven L. La my is Professor of International Relations Problems and American Power (Cambridge Univer-
in the School of International Relations at the Univer- sity Press 2012), editor of The Politics of International
sity of Southern California. He is writing a book on the Law (Cambridge University Press 2004), and co-edi-
English School theoretical traditions and the narratives tor of The Oxford Handbook of International Relations
that emerge from these theories and the role they play (Oxford University Press zoo&), Resolving Interna-
in shaping the foreign policies of nation-states. tional Crises of Legitimacy (special issue, International
Politics 2007), and Between Sovereignty and Global
John S Masker Governance (Macmillan 1998).
John S. Masker is Associate Professor of Political Sci-
ence at Temple University, where he teaches interna- Brian Schmidt
tional relations and political theory. He has had visiting Brian C. Schmidt is Associate Professor of Politi-
appointments at Williams College, Mount Holyoke Col- cal Science at Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
lege, and Clark University. Masker has written about He is t he author of The Political Discourse of Anarchy:
nuclear nonproliferation, Russian foreign policy, and A Disciplinary History of International Relations (SUNY
U.S. foreign policy. 1998), Imperialism and Internationalism in the Discipline
xii I ABOUT THE AUTHORS
of International Relations, co-edited with David Long Paul Taylor
(SUNY 2005), and International Relations and the First Paul Taylor is Emeritus Professor of International
Great Debate (Routledge 2012). Relations and, until July 2004, was the Director of the
European Institute at the London School of Econom-
Len Scott ics, where he specialized in international organization
Len Scott is Emeritus Professor of International within the European Uruon and the Uruted Nations
History and Intelligence Studies at Aberystwyth Uru- system. Most recently he has published The End of
versity. His publications include: The Cuban Missile European Integration: Anti-Europea-nism Examined
Crisis: A Critical Reappraisal (London: Routledge, 2015), (Routledge 2oo8), International Organization in the Age
co-edited with R. Gerald Hughes; An International of Globalization (Continuum 2003; paperback version
History of the Cuban Missile Crisis: A 50-~ar Retrospective Jtme 2005), and The Careless State (Bloomsbury 2010).
(London: Routledge, 2014), co-edited with David He is a graduate of the University College of Wales,
Gioe and Christopher Andrew; Intelligence and Aberystwyth, and the London School of Economics.
International Security: New Perspectives and Agendas
(London: Routledge, 2011), co-edited with R. Gerald John Vogler
Hughes and Martin Alexander; The Cuban Missile John Vogler is Professor oflnternational Relations in the
Crisis and the Threat of Nuclear War: Lessons from School of Politics, International Relations and Environ-
History (London: Continuum Books, 2007). ment (SPIRE) at Keele University, UK. He is a member
of the ESRC Centre for Climate Change Economics and
Steve Srruth Policy. His books include The Global Commons: Environ-
Sir Steve Smith is Vice Chancellor, and Professor of mental and Technological Governance (John Wiley 2000)
International Relations, at the University of Exeter. and, with Charlotte Bretherton, The European Union as
He has held Professorships of International Relations a Global Actor (Routledge 2006). He has also edited,
at the Uruversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, and the Uni- with Mark Imber, The Environment and International
versity of East Anglia and has also taught at the State Relations (Routledge 1996) and, with Alan Russell, The
University of New York (Albany) and Huddersfield International Politics of Biotechnology (Manchester Uni-
Polytechnic. He was President of the International versity Press 2000). His latest book is Climate Change in
Studies Association for 2003-2004 and was elected World Politics (Palgravef Macmillan 2016).
to be an Acaderrucian of the Social Sciences (AcSS)
in 2000. He was the editor of the prestigious Cam- Nicholas J Wheeler
bridge University Press f British International Stud- Nicholas J. Wheeler is Professor of International Rela-
ies Association series from 1986 to 2005. In 1999 he tions and Director of the Institute for Conflict, Cooper-
received the Susan Strange Award of the International ation, and Security at the University of Bi rmingham.
Studies Association for the person who has most His publications include: (with Ken Booth) The Se-
challenged the received wisdom in the profession. curity Dilemma: Fear, Cooperation, and Trust in World
He is the author or editor of fifteen books, including Politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2oo8) and
(with the late Professor Martin Hollis) Explaining and Saving Strangers: Huma-nitarian Intervention in In-
Understanding International Relations (Oxford Uruver- ternational Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
sity Press 1989) and (co-edited with Ken Booth and 2ooo). His new book, Trusting Enemies: Interper-
Marysia Zalewski) International Theory: Positivism and sonal Relationships in International Conflict was pub-
Beyond (Cambridge University Press 1995), and some lished by Oxford University Press in March 2018. He
one hundred acaderruc papers and chapters in major is co-editor with Professor Christian Reus-Smit and
journals and edited collections. From 2009 to 2011 he Professor Evelyn Goh of the prestigious Cambridge
was President of Uruversities UK. Series in International Relations.
xiv I MAPS OF THE woRLD

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PREFACE
e have written this ~ition of Introduction to Global Politics with an increas-
W ingly interdependent world in mind. Perhaps the word "globalization" has
become so overplayed that it has not retained much of its original force. Certainly,
recent elections in the United States, the Brexit vote in Great Britain, and elections
across Europe suggest that many citizens fear globalization and have reacted by
demanding more nationalis t and protectionist policies. In some cases this nation-
alism has become both militant and violent, and the victims are the "other"-the
refugee, the immigrant, and the minority. At the same time, there is no unifying
topic more important than globalization, no political trend of the same magnitude.
Even our everyday decisions-those as seemingly trivial and isolated as what food
to eat, what clothes to wear, what books to read, or what movies to see-affect the
quality oflife of everyone around us and of billions of people in distant countries.
Meanwhile, decisions made around the world affect our daily lives. Not only is the
world changing, becoming more complex and interconnected than ever before, but
also the nature of this course is evolving. No matter what it is called-international
relations, world politics, or global politics-the course has transformed in recent
years, asking us to examine not only relations among countries but also a broader
context of global events and issues. In this book, we therefore take a global ap-
proach that fosters an awareness of and appreciation for a variety of worldviews. To
quote the French writer Marcel Proust, we believe that "the real voyage of discovery
consists not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes."

A Global Approach
So what does it mean to take a "global" view of world politics? By this, we mean
two things: First, this textbook brings together academics from around the world,
drawing from a diversity of thought unmatched by other textbooks. Despite
the range of views represented here, all of the contributors teach international
relations courses, and we agree on emphasizing the challenges we all face as
members of a global community. This book thus introduces students not only to
the diversity of th inking in our field but also to its common elements.
Second, we discuss in some detail the various critical actors in global politics.
We explore the role of individual nation-states, as well as international institutions
such as the United Nations and the European Union, and critically important eco-
nomic institutions, including the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organi-
zation. We carefully assess h ow different groups and individuals have shaped these
global institutions, holding different views on how best to govern this world of nearly
two hundred independent nation-states. We also explore the growing number and
significance of nongovernmental actors, both multinational corporations, such
xxii as Nike and Starbucks, and nongovernmental organizations, such as Oxfam and
 PREFACE I xxiii

Doctors Without Borders. The entire world saw how important these actors were as
we experienced several significant events early in the m•enty-first century: the 2008
global economic crisis; the 2011 earthquake, tsunami, :and nuclear crisis in Japan,
estimated to be the most expensive disaster in history; the 2015 terror attacks in
Paris, which demonstrated that the Islamic State is more than just a regional threat;
the 20 15 Paris Climate Change Conference; and the current migrant and refugee
crisis fueled by the ongoing conflicts and violence in Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and
parts of Africa. The field is changing as the world changes. With this fifth edition of
Introduction to Global Politics, we hope to improve on the standard conversation, to
bring the introductory course more in line with today's research and to ask (and try
to answer) the kinds of questions most relevant for students of world politics today.
This textbook will introduce students to the ma instream theoretical tradi-
tions of realism and liberalism and to critical approaches that are often left out
of other tex ts, including constructivism, Marxism, feminism, and utopianism
(Chapter 3). Our goal is to introduce students to all relevant voices so they can
make an informed choice about how best to both explain and understand our
world. We clearly lay out important theories so that they illuminate the actors and
issues we discuss, rather than cloud them in ftuther mystery. In short, we hope
these pages will help each student develop a more informed worldview.

Learning Goals
An important assumption of this text is that theory matters. Every individual sees
the world through theories and uses them to organize, evaluate, and critically review
contending positions in controversial policy areas. Unfortunately, many people take
positions that Jack supporting evidence; they accept a statement or position as true
or valid because it fits with their beliefs or reinforces what they believe to be true.
After completing a course using this text, students will know more about the global
system, the most important global actors, and the issues that shape the priorities and
behavior of states and other actors in that system. This text encourages students to
approach global politics in an informed, well-reasoned, and theoretically grounded
manner. Overall, the chapters in this edition focus on four core learning objectives:

1. To develop a comprehensive understanding of the various theoretical

traditions in global politics and the roles they play.
2. To understand the relationship between theory and policy making or
problem solving in global politics.
3· To appreciate the diversity of worldviews and theoretical assumptions
that may inform political situations.
4 · To develop an understanding of the global system and thereby increase
the capacity to act or participate at various levels within it.

At the beginning of each chapter, we identify specific learning objectives that

stem from these overarching goals. The rev iew questions at the end of the chapter
check that students have met the learning objectives.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Biographia
Epistolaris, Volume 2
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Title: Biographia Epistolaris, Volume 2

Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Editor: Arthur Turnbull

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Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIOGRAPHIA

EPISTOLARIS, VOLUME 2 ***
 Transcriber’s Note

This is the second volume of Biographia Epistolaris. The index refers to both volumes.
However, only those pages in the present volume could be linked to their references.
These include those in the Appendix, but not in the Preface, which appeared in the first
volume.
Volume 1 can be found at Project Gutenberg with the following address:
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8210
There were a number of minor corrections made, which are described in the Notes to be
found at the end of this text.
As described in the end notes, ellipses occasionally are used typographically to elide
names. These have been converted to long dashes: e.g., J——
Footnotes have been gathered at the end of the text, renumbered to be unique, and have
been linked for convenient access.

BIOGRAPHIA
EPISTOLARIS
BEING

THE BIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT OF

COLERIDGE’S BIOGRAPHIA
LITERARIA

WITH ADDITIONAL LETTERS, ETC., EDITED BY

 A. TURNBULL

VOL. II

LONDON
G. BELL AND SONS, LTD.

1911

CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.

TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
 CONTENTS

page

Chapter XI. Malta and Italy II, 1

Letter 130. To J. Tobin. 10 April, 1804 1

Chapter XII. Home Again, Rolling, Rudderless! Theology 8

Letter 131. To Cottle. — — 1807 9
132. ” — — 1807 10
133. ” — June, 1807 13
134. George Fricker. — — 1807 22
135. Cottle. — — 1807 25

Chapter XIII. De Quincey 27

Letter 136. To Cottle. 7 October, 1807 28

Chapter XIV. First Lectures 30

Letter 137. To Humphry Davy. 11 Sept. 1807 30
138. Dr. Andrew Bell. 15 April, 1808 35

Chapter XV. The Friend 38

139. To Wade. — 1807–8 38
140. Humphry Davy. — Dec. 1808 40
141. ” 14 Dec. 1808 41
142. ” 30 Jany. 1809 45
143. —— 1 June, 1809 48
144. Southey. 20 Oct. 1809 52
 145. R. L. 26 Oct. 1809 57
146. “Cantab.” 21 Dec. 1809 63

Chapter XVI. Quarrel With Wordsworth; Lectures, 1811–12 66

Letter 147. To Godwin. 26 Mch. 1811 68
148. ” 29 Mch. 1811 70
149. Dr. Andrew Bell. 30 Nov. 1811 74

Chapter XVII. Daniel Stuart and The Courier 76

Letter 150. To Daniel Stuart. 4 June, 1811 79
151. ” 8 May, 1816 90

Chapter XVIII. Mrs. Coleridge; Last Stay at the Lake District 100

Chapter XIX. Remorse 104

Letter 152. To Poole. 13 Feby. 1813 105

Chapter XX. Cottle’s Dark Chapter 116

Letter 153. To Wade. 8 Dec. 1813 117
Letter 154. Cottle. 5–14 April, 1814 118
155. ” — — 1814 119
156. ” — — 1814 120
157. ” — — 1814 121
158. ” 26 April, 1814 126
159. ” 26 April, 1814 129
160. ” Apl. 1814 130
161. Miss Cottle. 13 May, 1814 131
162. Cottle. 27 May, 1814 132
163. Wade. 26 June,1814 135

Chapter XXI. The Morgans; Bristol and Calne 140

Letter 164. To Cottle. 7 March, 1815 142
 165. Cottle. 10 March, 1815 144

Chapter XXII. Highgate; Lectures of 1818 149

Letter 166. To Gillman. 13 April, 1816 150
167. — — — 1816 153
168. — — — 1816 154
169. — — — 1816 157

Chapter XXIII. Thomas Allsop 158

Letter 170. To Allsop. 28 Jany. 1818 158
171. ” 20 Sept. 1818 160
172. ” 26 Nov. 1818 160
173. ” 2 Dec. 1818 163
174. Mr. Britton. 28 Feby. 1819 166
175. ” Feby.–Mch. 1819 168
176. Allsop. 30 Sept. 1819 169
177. ” 13 Dec. 1819 172
178. Allsop. 20 Mch. 1820 174
179. ” 10 April, 1820 178

Chapter XXIV. Sir Walter Scott 181

Letter 180. To Allsop. 8 or 18 April, 1820 182
181. ” 31 July, 1820 190
182. ” 8 August, 1820 192
183. ” 11 October, 1820 198
184. ” 20 October, 1820 201
185. ” 25 October, 1820 202
186. ” 27 Nov. 1820 203
187. ” January, 1821 204

Chapter XXV. H.C. Robinson 216

Chapter XXVI. Charles Lamb 218
Letter 188. To Allsop. 1 March, 1821 218
189. ” 4 May, 1821 219
190. ” 23 June, 1821 226
191. ” — 1821 227
192. ” 15 Sept. 1821 227
193. ” 24 Sept. 1821 229
194. Mr. Blackwood. — Oct. 1821 232
195. Allsop. 20 Oct. 1821 238
196. ” 2 Nov. 1821 240
197. ” 17 Nov. 1821 244
198. ” — 1821 245
199. ” 25 Jany. 1822 247
200. ” 4 Mch. 1822 249
201. ” 22 Mch. 1822 251
202. ” 18 April, 1822 255

Chapter XXVII. The Gillmans 257

Letter 203. To Allsop. 30 May, 1822 257
204. ” 29 June, 1822 259
205. ” 8 Octr. 1822 261
206. Gillman 28 Octr. 1822 265
207. Allsop 26 Dec. 1822 266
208. ” 10 Dec. 1823 269
209. ” 24 Dec. 1823 270
210. Mrs. Allsop. — 1823 270
211. Mr. and Mrs. Allsop. 8 April, 1824 272
212. To Allsop. 14 April, 1824 274
213. ” 27 April, 1824 274
Chapter XXVIII. The New Academe 278
Letter 214. To Allsop. 20 Mch. 1825 284
215. ” 30 April, 1825 286
216. ” 2 May, 1825 287
217. ” 10 May, 1825 287
218. ” — 1825 290

Chapter XXIX. Alaric Watts 292

Chapter XXX. The Rhine Tour, and Last Collected Editions of 296
the Poems

Letter 219. To Adam S. Kennard. 13 July, 1834 302

Chapter XXXI. Conclusion 305

Appendix and Additional Notes 313

Index 327
BIOGRAPHIA EPISTOLARIS
 CHAPTER XI
MALTA AND ITALY

[Coleridge set sail from Portsmouth in the “Speedwell” on 9th or

10th April 1804. He wrote to J. Tobin on the 10th (Anima Poetae, p.
68):

Letter 130. To J. Tobin

April 10, 1804.
Men who habitually enjoy robust health have, too generally, the
trick, and a very cruel one it is, of imagining that they discover the
secret of all their acquaintances’ ill health in some malpractice or
other; and, sometimes, by gravely asserting this, here, there, and
everywhere (as who likes his penetration hid under a bushel?), they
not only do all they can, without intending it, to deprive the poor
sufferer of that sympathy which is always a comfort and, in some
degree, a support to human nature, but, likewise, too often implant
serious alarm and uneasiness in the minds of the person’s relatives
and his nearest and dearest connections. Indeed (but that I have
known its inutility, that I should be ridiculously sinning against my
own law which I was propounding, and that those who are most
fond of advising are the least able to hear advice from others, as the
passion to command makes men disobedient) I should often have
been on the point of advising you against the two-fold rage of
advising and of discussing character, both the one and the other of
which infallibly generates presumption and blindness to our own
faults. Nay! more particularly where, from whatever cause, there
exists a slowness to understand or an aptitude to mishear and
consequently misunderstand what has been said, it too often
renders an otherwise truly good man a mischief-maker to an extent
of which he is but little aware. Our friends’ reputation should be a
religion to us, and when it is lightly sacrificed to what self-adulation
calls a love of telling the truth (in reality a lust of talking something
seasoned with the cayenne and capsicum of personality), depend
upon it, something in the heart is warped or warping, more or less
according to the greater or lesser power of the counteracting causes.
I confess to you, that being exceedingly low and heart-fallen, I
should have almost sunk under the operation of reproof and
admonition (the whole too, in my conviction, grounded on utter
mistake) at the moment I was quitting, perhaps for ever! my dear
country and all that makes it so dear—but the high esteem which I
cherish towards you, and my sense of your integrity and the reality
of your attachment and concern blows upon me refreshingly as the
sea-breeze on the tropic islander. Show me anyone made better by
blunt advice, and I may abate of my dislike to it, but I have
experienced the good effects of the contrary in Wordsworth’s
conduct toward me; and, in Poole and others, have witnessed
enough of its ill-effects to be convinced that it does little else but
harm both to the adviser and the advisee.[1]

There is some dubiety as to whether the J. Tobin to whom the above

letter was addressed is John Tobin, the dramatist, or his brother
James. But Coleridge had taken up quarters with either of the
brothers in London before sailing for Malta (Dykes Campbell’s Life, p.
141); and the letter is Coleridge’s parting shot for his host’s over
solicitous advice.
On 16th April he was off Oporto, and wrote a description of the
place, as seen from the sea, for Southey (Letters, 469). The
“Speedwell” was convoyed by the “Leviathan,” man-of-war of 74
guns. Lisbon and the rest of the Portuguese coast are described by
Coleridge, and on 19th April the “Speedwell” reached Gibraltar,
where Coleridge landed and scrambled on the rocks among the
monkeys, “our poor relations.” In his note-books he describes more
fully the scene around the Rock of Gibraltar with its multitude and
discordant complexity of associations—the Pillars of Hercules, Calpe,
and Abyla, the realms of Masinissa, Jugurtha, and Syphax; Spain,
Gibraltar, the Dey of Algiers, dusky Moor, and black African. “At its
feet mighty ramparts establishing themselves in the sea, with their
huge artillery, hollow trunks of iron where Death and Thunder sleep,”
and “the abiding things of Nature, great, calm, majestic, and one!”
(Letters, pp. 478–9; Anima Poetae, pp. 70, 74.)
In the voyage between Gibraltar and Malta they were frequently in
long dead calms—“every rope of the whole ship reflected in the
bright soft blue sea”—an Ancient Mariner touch. They reached
Valetta on 18th May, where Coleridge was the guest of John
Stoddart (afterwards Sir John Stoddart), Attorney-General for Malta.
Sir Alexander Ball was then governor of the Island, and was greatly
pleased with Coleridge’s conversation and manners, and appointed
him his private secretary. The public secretary of the Island dying
suddenly in January 1805, Coleridge was made interim Government
secretary until the new nominee should arrive. He held the office for
eight months, from 18th January to 6th September (Letters, 494);
and he acquitted himself well as a business man in the post. What
De Quincey says to the contrary is a tissue of unfounded
conjectures. Dykes Campbell, one of Coleridge’s most painstaking
biographers, admits that there is nothing to show that Coleridge did
not perform the routine work of office well.
While in Malta Coleridge duly entered in his note-books his
impressions of his surroundings and he records his dreamy
introspections of the night watches (Anima Poetae). But Coleridge
did not spend all his time in Malta. Dykes Campbell informs us that
“early in August, the demon of restlessness drove him to Sicily” (Life,
p. 145), which may be rather interpreted that the proximity of the
land of Theocritus was irresistible. He was away from the middle of
August to 7th November 1804. He twice ascended Etna; and,
although Dykes Campbell doubts his having attained to the summit,
according to his own account he looked down the crater (Cottle’s
Rem., 318; Letter, No. 133). Very few of Coleridge’s letters written in
Malta are extant; on account of the precariousness of the mode of
despatch in a time of war some of them never reached their
destination.
In the Spring of 1805 Coleridge was regretting that he had accepted
the Public Secretaryship, saying that his profits would be much less
than if he had employed his time and efforts in his own literary
pursuits (Letters, 491), another way of grumbling against
occupations inferior to the pursuit of the Permanent. To Daniel
Stuart he writes on 20th April 1805: “In my letter, which will
accompany this, I have detailed my health and all that relates to me.
In case, however, that letter should not arrive, I will simply say, that
till within the last two months or ten weeks my health had improved
to the utmost of my hopes, though not without some intrusion of
sickness; but latterly the loss of my letters to England, the almost
entire non-arrival of letters from England, not a single one from Mrs.
Coleridge, or Southey, or you; and only one from the Wordsworths,
and that dated September 1804! my consequent heart-saddening
anxieties, and still, still more, the depths which Captain John
Wordsworth’s[2] death sunk into my heart, and which I heard
abruptly, and in the very painfullest way possible in a public
company—all these joined to my disappointment in my expectation
of returning to England by this convoy, and the quantity and variety
of my public occupations from eight o’clock in the morning to five in
the afternoon, having besides the most anxious duty of writing
public letters and memorials which belongs to my talents rather than
to my pro-tempore office; these and some other causes that I
cannot mention relative to my affairs in England, have produced a
sad change indeed on my health; but, however, I hope all will be
well. It is my present intention to return home by Naples, Ancona,
Trieste, etc., on or about the second of next month” (Letters, 494–
5). To his wife he says, on 21 July 1805: “I have been hoping and
expecting to get away for England for five months past, and Mr.
Chapman[3] not arriving, Sir Alexander’s importunities have always
overpowered me, though my gloom has increased at each
disappointment. I am determined, however, to go in less than a
month. My office, as Public Secretary, the next civil dignitary to the
Governor, is a very, very busy one, and not to involve myself in the
responsibility of the Treasurer I have but half the salary. I oftentimes
subscribe my name 150 times a day—and administer half as many
oaths—besides which I have the public memorials to write, and,
worse than all, constant matters of irritation. Sir A. Ball is indeed
exceedingly kind to me” (Letters, 496–7).
Coleridge did not return by the proposed route of Naples, Ancona,
Trieste, to be continued, to avoid Napoleon’s power, by Vienna,
Berlin, Embden, and Denmark (Letters, 492). He went, on the
contrary, straight to Naples in company with a gentleman unnamed
(Dykes Campbell’s Life, 149). Here he remained till the end of
January 1806; and then proceeded to Rome, where he associated
with the artists resident in the Papal capital. He made the
acquaintance of Baron W. von Humboldt, then Prussian Minister at
the Papal Court; Ludwig Tieck, the German translator of
Shakespeare; Washington Allston, the best American painter of his
day; Canova, and Washington Irving; (Flagg’s Life of Allston, 61).
Various accounts have been given about what Coleridge said
regarding his sojourn in Italy and his flight from it. Gillman (179–
181), Cottle (Rem., 310–313), and Caroline Fox (Journals), all
differing as to particulars. Flagg, the writer of the Life of Allston,
says: “He had intended to go by Switzerland and Germany, but being
somewhat apprehensive of danger on account of the movements of
the French troops, took the precautions to ask the advice of
Ambassador von Humboldt; he advised Coleridge to avoid
Bonaparte, who was meditating the seizure of his person, and had
already sent to Rome an order for his arrest, which was withheld
from execution by the connivance of the good old Pope, Pius VII,
who sent him a passport, and counselled his immediate flight by way
of Leghorn. Accordingly he hastened to that port, where he found an
American vessel ready to sail for England, and embarked. On the
voyage they were chased by a French sail; the captain, becoming
alarmed, commanded Coleridge to throw his papers, including his
notes on Rome, overboard” (Life of Allston, p. 61). This agrees
substantially with what Coleridge says in the Biographia Literaria,
Chapter X. Cottle works the matter up into a romance in his own
facetious way; and the other re-narrators mistake the facts
somewhat. Caroline Fox, for instance, locates the embarkation from
Genoa, saying: “On reaching Genoa, he so delighted an American by
his conversation, who had never heard anything like it since he left
Niagara, that at all risks, and with many subtleties, he got him on
board, and brought him safe to England” (Journals, I, 123).[4]]
 CHAPTER XII
HOME AGAIN, ROLLING, RUDDERLESS!
THEOLOGY

[Coleridge reached England on 17th August 1806 (Letters, 499), and

made for London, intending to write articles once more for Daniel
Stuart. He does not seem, however, to have done anything at this
time for the newspapers.[5] Humphry Davy was endeavouring to get
him to give a course of lectures on the Fine Arts (Dykes Campbell’s
Life, 154). At the close of the year Coleridge was at Coleorton, the
seat of Sir George Beaumont in Leicestershire, where he met William
and Dorothy Wordsworth.[6] Wordsworth read to him the Prelude,
now completed; and Coleridge, after its recital, wrote the well-
known poem to Wordsworth in blank verse, which is as much a dirge
over his own failures as a eulogy of Wordsworth’s poem.
Wordsworth’s view of the great men of all ages, forming an
interconnected scheme of truth slowly being revealed, is a
Coleridgean rather than a Wordsworthian idea (Prelude, Book XIII,
300–311); and Coleridge in his verses to his brother bard hails him
as among the men of the Permanent, among the
Choir of ever-during men.
On 17th February, Coleridge was still at Coleorton (Dykes Campbell’s
Life, 138); but in July, Coleridge and his wife and family were again
at Stowey on a visit to Poole (T. Poole and his Friends, ii, 175–182).
Here Coleridge remained till the end of September. Tom Wedgwood
had died while he was at Malta; and his brother Josiah expected
Coleridge to furnish him with some materials for a Life of Tom. Poole
endeavoured to impress upon him the necessity of complying; but
the task was distasteful to him, at which Josiah Wedgwood, not
unnaturally, was displeased.[7] But Coleridge, after some
procrastination, wrote to Josiah Wedgwood on 27th June 1807,
giving reasons for his delay (Meteyard’s Group of Englishmen, p.
324); and Wedgwood wrote to Poole, “I was truly glad to hear from
him. His letter removed all those feelings of anger which
occasionally, but not permanently, existed in my mind towards him.”
(T. Poole and his Friends, ii, 185.)
Meantime, we find Coleridge again in correspondence with Cottle,
who had heard of his arrival in Stowey. Cottle wrote to him,
expressing the hope that Coleridge’s health would soon allow him to
pay a visit to Bristol (Rem., 305). To this Coleridge replied:

Letter 131. To Cottle

(—— 1807.)
Dear Cottle,
On my return to Bristol, whenever that may be, I will certainly give
you the right hand of old fellowship; but, alas! you will find me the
wretched wreck of what you knew me, rolling, rudderless. My health
is extremely bad. Pain I have enough of, but that is indeed to me, a
mere trifle, but the almost unceasing, overpowering sensations of
wretchedness: achings in my limbs, with an indescribable
restlessness, that makes action to any available purpose, almost
impossible: and worst of all, the sense of blighted utility, regrets, not
remorseless. But enough; yea, more than enough; if these things
produce, or deepen the conviction of the utter powerlessness of
ourselves, and that we either perish, or find aid from something that
passes understanding.
Affectionately,
S. T. C.
Cottle tells us he knew nothing as yet of opium, and was struck with
the interesting narratives Coleridge gave of his Italian experiences
and of his voyage to England. Theology was now in the ascendant
with Coleridge who had now abjured unitarianism and become more
orthodox. The following letters on the Trinity and kindred subjects
attest to the veracity of Cottle’s estimate of Coleridge at this period
(Reminiscences, 306, 325–6):

Letter 132. To Cottle

(1807.)
* * * The declaration that the Deity is “the sole Operant” (Religious
Musings) is indeed far too bold; may easily be misconstrued into
Spinozism; and, therefore, though it is susceptible of a pious and
justifiable interpretation, I should by no means now use such a
phrase. I was very young when I wrote that poem, and my religious
feelings were more settled than my theological notions.[8]
As to eternal punishments, I can only say, that there are many
passages in Scripture, and these not metaphorical, which declare
that all flesh shall be finally saved; that the word aionios is indeed
used sometimes when eternity must be meant, but so is the word
“Ancient of Days,” yet it would be strange reasoning to affirm, that
therefore, the word ancient must always mean eternal. The literal
meaning of aionios is, “through ages;” that is indefinite; beyond the
power of imagination to bound. But as to the effects of such a
doctrine, I say, First,—that it would be more pious to assert nothing
concerning it, one way or the other.
Ezra says well, “My Son, meditate on the rewards of the righteous,
and examine not over-curiously into the fate of the wicked.”(This
apocryphal Ezra is supposed to have been written by some Christian
in the first age of Christianity.) Second,—that however the doctrine is
now broached, and publicly preached by a large and increasing sect,
it is no longer possible to conceal it from such persons as would be
likely to read and understand the Religious Musings. Third.—That if
the offers of eternal blessedness; if the love of God; if gratitude; if
the fear of punishment, unknown indeed as to its kind and duration,
but declared to be unimaginably great; if the possibility, nay, the
probability, that this punishment may be followed by annihilation,
not final happiness, cannot divert men from wickedness to virtue; I
fear there will be no charm in the word Eternal.
Fourth, that it is a certain fact, that scarcely any believe eternal
punishment practically with relation to themselves. They all hope in
God’s mercy, till they make it a presumptuous watch-word for
religious indifference. And this, because there is no medium in their
faith, between blessedness and misery,—infinite in degree and
duration; which latter they do not practically, and with their whole
hearts, believe. It is opposite to their clearest views of the divine
attributes; for God cannot be vindictive, neither therefore can his
punishments be founded on a vindictive principle. They must be,
either for amendment, or warning for others; but eternal
punishment precludes the idea of amendment, and its infliction,
after the day of judgment, when all not so punished shall be divinely
secured from the possibility of falling, renders the notion of warning
to others inapplicable.
The Catholics are far more afraid of, and incomparably more
influenced in their conduct by, the doctrine of purgatory, than
Protestants by that of hell! That the Catholics practise more
superstitions than morals, is the effect of other doctrines.—
Supererogation; invocation of saints; power of relics, etc., etc., and
not of Purgatory, which can only act as a general motive, to what
must depend on other causes.
Fifth, and lastly.—It is a perilous state in which a Christian stands, if
he has gotten no further than to avoid evil from the fear of hell! This
is no part of the Christian religion, but a preparatory awakening of
the soul: a means of dispersing those gross films which render the
eye of the spirit incapable of any religion, much less of such a faith
as that of the love of Christ.
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, but perfect love
shutteth out fear. It is sufficient for the utmost fervour of gratitude
that we are saved from punishments, too great to be conceived; but
our salvation is surely not complete, till by the illumination from
above, we are made to know “the exceeding sinfulness of sin,” and
that horribleness in its nature, which, while it involves all these
frightful consequences, is yet, of itself more affrightful to a
regenerated soul than those consequences. To him who but for a
moment felt the influence of God’s presence, the thought of eternal
exclusion from the sense of that presence, would be the worst hell
his imagination could conceive.
N.B. I admit of no right, no claim of a creature on its Creator. I
speak only of hopes and of faith deduced from inevitable reason, the
gift of the Creator; from his acknowledged attributes. Above all,
immortality is a free gift, which we neither do, nor can deserve. * *
*
S. T. C.

Letter 133. To Cottle

Bristol (June), 1807.
Dear Cottle,
To pursue our last conversation. Christians expect no outward or
sensible miracles from prayer. Its effects, and its fruitions are
spiritual, and accompanied says that true Divine, Archbishop
Leighton, “not by reasons and arguments, but by an inexpressible
kind of evidence, which they only know who have it.”
To this I would add, that even those who, like me I fear, have not
attained it, yet may presume it. First, because reason itself, or rather
mere human nature, in any dispassionate moment, feels the
necessity of religion, but if this be not true there is no religion, no
religation, or binding over again; nothing added to reason, and
therefore Socinianism, misnamed Unitarianism, is not only not
Christianity, it is not even religion, it does not religate; does not bind
anew. The first outward and sensible result of prayer is, a penitent
resolution, joined with a consciousness of weakness in effecting it,
yea even a dread, too well grounded, lest by breaking and falsifying
it, the soul should add guilt to guilt; by the very means it has taken
to escape from guilt; so pitiable is the state of unregenerate man.
Are you familiar with Leighton’s Works? He resigned his
archbishoprick, and retired to voluntary poverty on account of the
persecutions of the Presbyterians, saying, “I should not dare to
introduce Christianity itself with such cruelties, how much less for a
surplice, and the name of a bishop.” If there could be an
intermediate space between inspired, and uninspired writings, that
space would be occupied by Leighton. No show of learning, no
appearance, or ostentatious display of eloquence, and yet both may
be shown in him, conspicuously and holily. There is in him something
that must be felt, even as the Scriptures must be felt.
You ask me my views of the Trinity. I accept the doctrine, not as
deduced from human reason, in its grovelling capacity for
comprehending spiritual things, but as the clear revelation of
Scripture. But perhaps it may be said, the Socinians do not admit
this doctrine as being taught in the Bible. I know enough of their
shifts and quibbles, with their dexterity at explaining away all they
dislike, and that is not a little, but though beguiled once by them, I
happily for my own peace of mind, escaped from their sophistries,
and now hesitate not to affirm, that Socinians would lose all
character for honesty, if they were to explain their neighbour’s will
with the same latitude of interpretation, which they do the
Scriptures.
I have in my head some floating ideas on the Logos, which I hope,
hereafter, to mould into a consistent form; but it is a gross
perversion of the truth, in Socinians, to declare that we believe in
three gods; and they know it to be false. They might, with equal
justice affirm that we believe in three suns. The meanest peasant,
who has acquired the first rudiments of Christianity, would shrink
back from a thing so monstrous. Still the Trinity has its difficulties. It
would be strange if otherwise. A Revelation that revealed nothing,
not within the grasp of human reason!—no religation, no binding
over again, as before said; but these difficulties are shadows,
contrasted with the substantive and insurmountable obstacles, with
which they contend who admit the Divine authority of Scripture, with
the superlative excellence of Christ, and yet undertake to prove that
these Scriptures teach, and that Christ taught his own pure
humanity.
If Jesus Christ was merely a man, if he was not God as well as man,
be it considered, he could not have been even a good man. There is
no medium. The Saviour in that case was absolutely a deceiver! one,
transcendantly unrighteous! in advancing pretensions to miracles, by
the “Finger of God,” which he never performed; and by asserting
claims, (as a man) in the most aggravated sense, blasphemous.
These consequences, Socinians, to be consistent, must allow, and
which impious arrogation of Divinity in Christ, according to their
faith, as well as his false assumption of a community of “glory” with
the Father, “before the world was,” even they will be necessitated
completely to admit the exoneration of the Jews,[9] according to
their law, in crucifying one, who “being a man,” “made himself God!”
But in the Christian, rather than in the Socinian, or Pharisaic view, all
these objections vanish, and harmony succeeds to inexplicable
confusion. If Socinians hesitate in ascribing unrighteousness to
Christ, the inevitable result of their principles, they tremble, as well
they might, at their avowed creed, and virtually renounce what they
profess to uphold.
The Trinity, as Bishop Leighton has well remarked, is “a doctrine of
faith, not of demonstration,” except in a moral sense. If the New
Testament declare it, not in an insulated passage, but through the
whole breadth of its pages, rendering, with any other admission, the
book which is the Christian’s anchor-hold of hope, dark and
contradictory, then it is not to be rejected, but on a penalty that
reduces to an atom, all the sufferings this earth can inflict.
Let the grand question be determined.—Is, or is not the Bible
inspired? No one book has ever been subjected to so rigid an
investigation as the Bible, by minds the most capacious, and in the
result, which has so triumphantly repelled all the assaults of infidels.
In the extensive intercourse which I have had with this class of men,
I have seen their prejudices surpassed only by their ignorance. This
I found particularly the case in Dr. Darwin (Letter 19), the prince of
their fraternity. Without therefore, stopping to contend on what all
dispassionate men must deem, undebatable ground, I may assume
inspiration as admitted; and, equally so, that it would be an insult to
man’s understanding, to suppose any other Revelation from God
than the Christian Scriptures. If these Scriptures, impregnable in
their strength, sustained in their pretensions, by undeniable
prophecies and miracles, and by the experience of the inner man, in
all ages, as well as by a concatenation of arguments, all bearing
upon one point, and extending with miraculous consistency, through
a series of fifteen hundred years; if all this combined proof does not
establish their validity, nothing can be proved under the sun; but the
world and man must be abandoned, with all its consequences, to
one universal scepticism! Under such sanctions, therefore, if these
Scriptures, as a fundamental truth, do inculcate the doctrine of the
Trinity; however surpassing human comprehension; then I say, we
are bound to admit it on the strength of moral demonstration.
The supreme Governor of the world and the Father of our spirits,
has seen fit to disclose to us much of his will, and the whole of his
natural and moral perfections. In some instances he has given his
word only, and demanded our faith; while on other momentous
subjects, instead of bestowing full revelation, like the Via Lactea, he
has furnished a glimpse only, through either the medium of
inspiration, or by the exercise of those rational faculties with which
he has endowed us. I consider the Trinity as substantially resting on
the first proposition, yet deriving support from the last.
I recollect when I stood on the summit of Etna, and darted my gaze
down the crater; the immediate vicinity was discernible, till, lower
down, obscurity gradually terminated in total darkness. Such figures
exemplify many truths revealed in the Bible. We pursue them, until,
from the imperfection of our faculties, we are lost in impenetrable
night. All truths, however, that are essential to faith, honestly
interpreted; all that are important to human conduct, under every
diversity of circumstance, are manifest as a blazing star. The
promises also of felicity to the righteous in the future world, though
the precise nature of that felicity may not be defined, are illustrated
by every image that can swell the imagination; while the misery of
the lost, in its unutterable intensity, though the language that
describes it is all necessarily figurative, is there exhibited as resulting
chiefly, if not wholly, from the withdrawment of the light of God’s
countenance, and a banishment from his presence! best
comprehended in this world by reflecting on the desolations, which
would instantly follow the loss of the sun’s vivifying and universally
diffused warmth.
You, or rather all, should remember that some truths from their
nature, surpass the scope of man’s limited powers, and stand as the
criteria of faith, determining by their rejection, or admission, who
among the sons of men can confide in the veracity of heaven. Those
more ethereal truths, of which the Trinity is conspicuously the chief,
without being circumstantially explained, may be faintly illustrated by
material objects. The eye of man cannot discern the satellites of
Jupiter, nor become sensible of the multitudinous stars, whose rays
have never reached our planet, and consequently garnish not the
canopy of night; yet are they the less real, because their existence
lies beyond man’s unassisted gaze? The tube of the philosopher, and
the celestial telescope,—the unclouded visions of heaven will confirm
the one class of truths, and irradiate the other.
The Trinity is a subject on which analogical reasoning may
advantageously be admitted, as furnishing, at least, a glimpse of
light, and with this, for the present, we must be satisfied. Infinite
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