Data Abstraction and Problem Solving with Java

Walls and Mirrors 3rd Edition Prichard Test Bank

download

https://testbankdeal.com/product/data-abstraction-and-problem-
solving-with-java-walls-and-mirrors-3rd-edition-prichard-test-
bank/

Explore and download more test bank or solution manual

at testbankdeal.com
We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit testbankdeal.com
for more options!.

Data Abstraction And Problem Solving With C++ Walls And

Mirrors 6th Edition Carrano Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/data-abstraction-and-problem-solving-
with-c-walls-and-mirrors-6th-edition-carrano-test-bank/

Data Abstraction and Problem Solving with C++ Walls and

Mirrors 7th Edition Carrano Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/data-abstraction-and-problem-solving-
with-c-walls-and-mirrors-7th-edition-carrano-test-bank/

Data Abstraction And Problem Solving With C++ Walls And

Mirrors 6th Edition Carrano Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/data-abstraction-and-problem-solving-
with-c-walls-and-mirrors-6th-edition-carrano-solutions-manual/

Handbook of Informatics for Nurses and Healthcare

Professionals 5th Edition Hebda Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/handbook-of-informatics-for-nurses-
and-healthcare-professionals-5th-edition-hebda-test-bank/
Business Statistics For Contemporary Decision Making 8th
Edition Black Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/business-statistics-for-contemporary-
decision-making-8th-edition-black-test-bank/

College Accounting 14th Edition Price Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-accounting-14th-edition-
price-solutions-manual/

Managerial Accounting Decision Making and Motivating

Performance 1st Edition Datar Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/managerial-accounting-decision-
making-and-motivating-performance-1st-edition-datar-solutions-manual/

Animal Diversity 7th Edition Hickman Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/animal-diversity-7th-edition-hickman-
solutions-manual/

BUSN 9th Edition Kelly Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/busn-9th-edition-kelly-test-bank/
Personal Finance Canadian Canadian 6th Edition Kapoor Test
Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/personal-finance-canadian-
canadian-6th-edition-kapoor-test-bank/
Chapter 7: Stacks

Multiple Choice Questions:

1) What is the corrected input if the following line is typed on a keyboard:

yww←dshr←←wd←e
(where ← represents the backspace character)?
a) ywdswe
b) ywwdwde
c) ywdshwe
d) ywdswd
Answer: a.

2) If the array:
6, 2, 7, 13, 5, 4
is added to a stack, in the order given, which number will be the first number to be removed from the stack?
a) 6
b) 2
c) 5
d) 4
Answer: d.

3) The item that is removed first from a stack is called the ______ of the stack.
a) front
b) top
c) base
d) prime
Answer: b.

4) If the array:
6, 21, 35, 3, 6, 2, 13
is added to a stack, in the order given, which of the following is the top of the stack?
a) 2
b) 6
c) 3
d) 13
e) 35
Answer: d.

5) If the array:
6, 2, 7, 13, 5, 4
is added to a queue, in the order given, which number will be the first number to be removed from the queue?
a) 6
b) 2
c) 5
d) 4
Answer: a.

6) The last-in, first-out (LIFO) property is found in the ADT ______.

a) list
b) stack
c) queue
d) tree
Answer: b.
7) The first in, first out (FIFO) property is found in the ADT ______.
a) list
b) stack
c) queue
d) tree
Answer: c.

8) The ______ method of the ADT stack adds an item to the top of the stack.
a) createStack
b) push
c) pop
d) peek
Answer: b.

9) The ______ method of the ADT stack retrieves and then removes the top of the stack.
a) createStack
b) push
c) pop
d) peek
Answer: c.

10) The ______ method of the ADT stack retrieves the top of the stack, but does not change the stack.
a) createStack
b) push
c) pop
d) peek
Answer: d.

11) Which of the following methods of the ADT stack accepts a parameter?
a) push
b) pop
c) createStack
d) peek
Answer: a.

12) Which of the following strings contains balanced braces?

a) ab{cde{fg}hi{jkl}
b) ab{cde{fghi}j}kl}
c) {abc{de}{fg}hij}kl
d) {ab{cde{fgh}ijkl}
Answer: c.

13) If a stack is used by an algorithm to check for balanced braces, which of the following is true once the end of
the string is reached?
a) the stack is empty
b) the stack has one “{”
c) the stack has one “}”
d) the stack has one “{” and one “}”
Answer: a.

14) Which of the following operations of the ADT stack does not throw a StackException?
a) push
b) pop
c) popAll
d) peek
Answer: c.
15) The pop operation throws a StackException when it tries to ______.
a) add an item to an empty stack
b) add an item to an array-based implementation of a stack that is already full
c) delete an item from an array-based implementation of a stack that is already full
d) delete an item from an empty stack
Answer: d.

16) The push operation throws a StackException when it tries to ______.

a) add an item to an empty stack
b) add an item to an array-based implementation of a stack that is already full
c) delete an item from an array-based implementation of a stack that is already full
d) delete an item from an empty stack
Answer: b.

17) Given the language L, where:

L = {w$w’ : w is a possibly empty string of characters other than $,
w’ = reverse(w) }
which of the following strings is NOT in L?
a) XY$YX
b) Z$Z
c) $
d) XYZ$ZXY
Answer: D.

18) In the StackInterface class, the pop method returns an item that is an instance of ______.
a) Integer
b) Double
c) String
d) Object
Answer: d.

19) In the StackInterface class, the push method accepts as its parameter an item that is an instance of
______.
a) Integer
b) Double
c) String
d) Object
Answer: d.

20) StackInterface provides the specifications for ______.

a) only the array-based implementation of a stack
b) only the reference-based implementation of a stack
c) only an implementation of a stack that uses the ADT list
d) all the implementations of a stack
Answer: d.

21) Which of the following is NOT true about converting infix expressions to postfix expressions?
a) the operands always stay in the same order with respect to one another
b) the operators always stay in the same order with respect to one another
c) an operator will move only “to the right” with respect to the operands
d) all parentheses are removed
Answer: b.
22) Which of the following is the postfix form of the infix expression: (a + b) * c / d
a) a b + c * d /
b) a b * c / d +
c) a + b * c / d
d) a b + c d * /
Answer: a.

23) What is the value of the following postfix expression: 5 2 – 8 4 + *?

a) -9
b) 28
c) 35
d) 36
Answer: d.

24) In a graph that represents the flight map for the HPAir problem, if a flight exists from city C 1 to city C2, then C2
is said to be ______ C1.
a) adjacent to
b) similar to
c) related to
d) bordering
Answer: a.

25) In a graph that represents the flight map for the HPAir problem, if a flight exists from city C 1 to city C2, then the
path from C1 to C2 is called a _______.
a) relation
b) neighborhood
c) directed path
d) connecting path
Answer: c.

26) ______ are considered when choosing the next city to visit in a stack-based nonrecursive solution to the HPAir
problem.
a) All cities
b) All unvisited cities adjacent to the destination city
c) All cities adjacent to the city on the top of the stack
d) All unvisited cities adjacent to the city on the top of the stack
Answer: d.

27) An algorithm that uses a stack to implement a nonrecursive solution to the HPAir problem reaches the
conclusion that there is no path from an origin city to a destination city only after ______.
a) the algorithm has backtracked to the origin
b) the algorithm has backtracked to the origin and there remain no unvisited cities to fly to from the
origin
c) the algorithm has reached a city and there remain no unvisited cities to fly to from that city
d) the algorithm has reached the destination and there remain no unvisited cities to fly to from the
destination
Answer: b.

28) Which of the following methods is NOT called by the nonrecursive stack version of the isPath method?
a) insertAdjacent
b) unvisitAll
c) markVisited
d) getNextCity
Answer: a.
29) Typically, ______ are used by a compiler to implement recursive methods.
a) linked-lists
b) arrays
c) stacks
d) queues
Answer: c.

30) When a recursive call to a method occurs, the compiler’s implementation must remember all of the following
information EXCEPT ______.
a) values of parameters
b) values of local variables
c) values of global variables
d) a reference to the point from which the recursive call was made
Answer: c.

True/False Questions:

1) If 5 items are added to a stack, the first item to be removed from the stack is the first item that was added to
the stack.
Answer: False.

2) A stack has a first in, first out property.

Answer: False.

3) The peek operation of the ADT stack changes the stack.

Answer: False.

4) A program can use the operations of the ADT stack without knowing how the operations are implemented.
Answer: True.

5) The push operation of the ADT stack can throw a StackException.

Answer: True.

6) Calls to methods that throw StackException must be enclosed in try blocks.

Answer: False.

7) In a reference-based implementation of a stack, it is necessary to call the isFull method before calling
the push method.
Answer: False.

8) A client can access all the elements of a stack.

Answer: False.

9) In a reference-based implementation of a stack, the stack can grow and shrink dynamically.
Answer: True.

10) When infix expressions are converted to postfix expressions, the operands always stay in the same order
with respect to one another.
Answer: True.
Short Answer Questions:

1) What is meant by the last-in, first-out (LIFO) property?

Answer: The LIFO property is a property of a stack whereby the last item placed on the stack will be the first item
removed from it.

2) What is meant by the first in, first out (FIFO) property?

Answer: The FIFO property is a property of a queue whereby the removal and retrieval operations access the item
that was inserted first (earliest).

3) What is the difference between the stack pop and peek operations?
Answer: The pop operation retrieves and then removes the top of the stack. The peek operation retrieves the top of
the stack, but does not remove it.

4) Write the axiom for specifying that the last item inserted into a stack is the first item to be removed.
Answer: (stack.push(newItem)).pop() = stack

5) How can the condition, when you reach the end of the string, you have matched each “{”, be verified in a
program that uses a stack to check for balanced braces?
Answer: This condition can be verified by checking if the stack is empty when the end of the string is reached.

6) When does the push operation throw a StackException?

Answer: The push operation throws a StackException in an array-based implementation of a stack when a
fixed-size array is used and becomes full.

7) How can a StackException be avoided in an array-based implementation of a stack when a fixed-size

array is used?
Answer: A StackException can be avoided by providing a method isFull that determines whether the stack
is full and calling isFull before push is called.

8) What is the restriction that the array-based implementation of a stack places on the push operation?
Answer: The restriction that is placed by the array-based implementation of a stack is that it prevents the push
operation from adding an item to the stack if the stack’s size limit, which is the size of the array, has been reached.

9) What is the advantage of an implementation of a stack that uses the ADT list over an implementation that
uses a linked list?
Answer: The advantage of an implementation that uses the ADT list is that this approach is much simpler to write
than an implementation that uses a linked list.

10) What are the three facts about converting from infix expressions to postfix expressions?
Answer: The three facts are:
• The operands always stay in the same order with respect to one another.
• An operator will move only “to the right” with respect to the operands.
• All parentheses are removed.

11) What are the factors which determine the placement of operators when an infix expression is converted to a
postfix expression?
Answer: The factors which determine the placement of operators are parentheses, operator precedence, and left-to-
right association.

12) What is a directed path?

Answer: A directed path is a sequence of directed edges that begins at one vertex and ends at another vertex in a
directed graph.
 13) What is an exhaustive search?
Answer: An exhaustive search is a search strategy that must examine every item in a collection of items before it can
determine that the item sought does not exist.

14) If a stack is used in a nonrecursive solution to the HPAir problem, when is it necessary to backtrack from a
city?
Answer: It is necessary to backtrack from a city whenever there are no more unvisited cities to fly to from that city.

15) What is an activation record?

Answer: An activation record is a record that contains a method’s local environment at the time of and as a result of
the call to the method.

16) Explain how a stack can be used to determine if an infix expression is correctly parenthesized.
Answer: Each time we read a ‘(‘ character, we push it on the stack. Each time we read a ‘)’ character, we perform a
pop. Other characters in the expression are ignored. If, while reading the expression, we try to pop an
empty stack, we halt and reject the input string. Otherwise, once we are finished reading the expression,
we check to see if the stack is empty. If it is, the expression is good; otherwise it is not.

17) Suppose we begin with an empty stack, and perform the following operations: push 7, push 2, push 9, push
6, pop, pop, peek, push 1, push 3, peek, push 8, pop, peek, pop, pop, push 5, push 4, pop, pop, pop, push 8.
What is contained on the stack when we are done? Write out the contents from top to bottom.
Answer: Just 2 values in the stack: 8 on top, 7 on bottom.

18) Why does the ADT stack not define a get( ) method?
Answer: The philosophy of the stack is that we are only interested in the “top” of the stack: which value was most
recently added. Stacks are used in applications where we would never be interested in retrieving an
arbitrary element from the interior of the collection.

19) Describe an example of a game in which the logic of the game makes use of a stack.
Answer: (Many possible answers) In gin rummy, when a player discards, the card goes on top of a stack of discards.
Cards underneath are concealed by the one on top. A similar situation occurs in solitaire, where the player
can deal cards, and any cards that are not able to be played go onto a stack.

20) Suppose an infix expression contains parentheses as grouping symbols. Is it still possible to convert this
expression into postfix notation?
Answer: Yes. The algorithm takes parentheses into account.
Other documents randomly have
different content
part is below sea level and therefore flooded by the marine waters of
Puget Sound. The most prominent feature of this area is Puget
Sound. This is a glacially-carved and drowned river valley, studded
with islands, peninsulas, fjords and bays that all possess a general
north-south orientation resulting from the direction of ice movement.
Puget Sound is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Strait of
Juan De Fuca, a wide channel separating the state of Washington
and Vancouver Island.
The San Juan Islands represent the glaciated remnants of mountains
that, in preglacial time, may have connected the mountains on
Vancouver Island with the Cascades of Washington. The San Juan
Islands lie at the junction of Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and
the Strait of Juan De Fuca. As a result of a boundary dispute and
subsequent arbitration, the islands were apportioned, on the basis of
the deepest channel separating them, between Canada and the
United States. The American portion includes more than 400 islands.
These vary in size from mere rocks above high tide to Orcas Island,
60 square miles in area.
The Olympic Peninsula, or Olympic Province, lies between Puget
Sound and the Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Juan De Fuca separates
this peninsula from Vancouver Island on the north. In the south the
valley of the Chehalis River is a convenient boundary for the
province. The central portion of the peninsula is occupied by the
Olympic Mountain Range. This range is nearly oblong in shape,
measuring some 70 miles east to west by 45 miles north to south.
The mountains are extremely rough and jagged. They rise from sea
level to above 6,000 feet. The highest peak, Mount Olympus, is
8,150 feet in elevation.
South of the Olympic Province and west of the Puget Sound Trough
is an area of low, rough hills. Culver called it the Willapa Hills
Province.
The northern third of the land east of the Cascade Mountains, or
northeastern Washington, is termed the Okanogan Highland
Province by Culver. Its southern boundary is set at the east-west
flow of the Spokane and Columbia rivers. The outstanding
physiographic feature of this area is its division into north-south
trending areas of lowland with intervening highlands and mountain
ranges. The rivers are, from east to west, the Clark Fork, Colville,
Columbia, Kettle, San Poil and Okanogan. Not all intervening
highlands are separately designated as mountains. Among these
named are the Pend Oreille, Huckleberry, Kettle River, and Okanogan
ranges.
The part of eastern Washington south of the Okanogan Highland
Province, save the extreme southeastern corner of the state,
constitutes the Columbia Lava Province. This is an extensive,
relatively level plateau that lies mainly below 2,000 feet elevation.
The plateau consists of gently folded lava flows that reach a depth of
4,000 feet in some places (Russell, 1893) and slope inward from the
east, north, and, in part, the west (Flint, 1938). These horizontal
layers of basalt are extremely resistant to erosion by other than
large rivers. Two great gashes cross the Plateau diagonally from the
northeast to the southwest; these are Moses Coulee and the Grand
Coulee. These old coulees are the former valleys of the Columbia
River, and were formed at the time when the course of the river was
successively blocked by the advance of Pleistocene ice. The Snake
River crosses the southern edge of the Columbia Lava Province and
separates the plateau proper from an area of similar land to the
southward.
 Fig. 2. Columbia River one mile west of Kellers
Ferry, Washington, elevation 1,060 feet, April 16,
1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
B. Scheffer, No. 933.)

The Blue Mountains Province is an area of relatively small extent in

the extreme southeastern corner of the state of Washington. There,
the province concerned constitutes, as it were, a northward
extension of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The mountains rise to
only 5,000 feet elevation in the Washington part of the Blue
Mountains Province.
 DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS
The physiographic provinces are areas of land form. The form of the
land has a considerable effect on the temperature, humidity,
drainage, weathering, soil, and other non-organic features that
combine to produce the various life-zones and influence the
distribution of mammals. One might therefore expect a close
correlation of mammalian distributional areas with physiographic
provinces. Although there is a correlation, it is not exact because the
distribution of mammals is influenced also by certain other factors.
Among these are historical factors and isolation by geographic
barriers.
 Fig. 3. Mammalian distributional areas of
Washington. A. Western Washington. B. Cascade
Mountains. C. Northeastern Washington. D. Blue
Mountains. E. Southeastern Washington. F.
Yakima Valley. G. Columbian Plateau.

The Cascade Mountains Province of Culver includes the Yakima

Valley Area. This province contains two completely different
mammalian distributional areas. The higher mountains possess a
boreal, alpine fauna; the Cascade Range itself is called the Cascade
Area in this report. The Yakima Valley Area possesses a desert fauna
derived from the desert of eastern Oregon.
The land west of the Cascades is separated into three physiographic
provinces, the Puget Sound, Willapa Hills, and Olympic Mountains
Province. The differences between the mammalian faunas of the
Puget Sound and Willapa Hills provinces are slight. The Olympic
Mountains possess a few species not found in the lower areas. The
similarities of the faunas of the three provinces far outnumber their
differences, and it seems best to consider them subdivisions of one
distributional area.

Fig. 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National

Forest, looking southwest at Straight Ridge;
Cataract Creek (Methow watershed) at left.
(Forest Service photo. No. 4260.)
The Okanogan Highland Province extends, from a physiographic
point of view, west of the Okanogan River Valley. This valley,
however, is a fairly efficient barrier to mammals. Thus the part of the
state east of the Okanogan Valley and north of the east-west flow of
the Spokane and Columbia rivers may be called the Northeastern
Washington Distributional Area.
The Columbia Lava Province includes the land both north and south
of the Snake River. Since the Snake River serves as a barrier to some
species, it seems better to term the area north of the Snake River
the Columbian Plateau Area and that to the south the Southeastern
Washington Distributional Area.
The Blue Mountains Province and the Blue Mountains Distributional
Area are the same.
Fig. 5. Yakima Park (or Sunrise Park), elevation
6,000 feet, Mount Rainier, August 29, 1932.
(Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington
National Guard, No. 014-36A-116.)
Fig. 6. Columbia River at Hunters Ferry, Stevens
County, Washington, April 15, 1940. (Fish and
Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No.
932.)
 Fig. 7. Blue Mountains, Umatilla National Forest,
Washington, looking north-northeast across Al
Williams Ridge to Tucannon River; 1933. (Forest
Service photo, No. 4437.)

Physiographic Provinces Distributional Areas

{ Cascade Mountains
Cascade Mountains
{ Yakima Valley
Puget Sound }
Willapa Hills } Western Washington
Olympic Mountains }
Okanogan Highlands Northeastern Washington
{ Columbian Plateau
Columbia Lava
{ Southeastern Washington
Blue Mountains Blue Mountains
 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
The life-zone theory of plant and animal distribution was proposed
by Merriam (1892). Merriam's life-zones have been severely criticized
by many authors, especially because an error was made in
computing some of the data on temperature. However, zonation of
vegetation and animals is obvious in Washington, and the life-zone
concept has been employed in Washington by numerous botanists
and zoölogists. Among them are: Piper (1906), Taylor and Shaw
(1927), Jones (1936, 1938) and St. John (1937).
The higher parts of the Cascade Mountains are in the Arctic-alpine
Life-zone. This is the area of wind-swept ridges, living glaciers, and
permanent snow fields.
Trees are absent but a few shrubs are present; these include:
Juniperus sibirica, Salix cascadensis, Salix nivalis, Gaultheria
humifusa, Empetrum nigrum, and the heathers, Phyllodoce
glanduliflora, Cassiope mertensiana and Cassiope stelleriana. Jones
(1938) lists a total of 98 species of plants from the Arctic-alpine Life-
zone of Mount Rainier. Many of these plants are most abundant in
the next life-zone lower, and are of but incidental occurrence in the
Arctic-alpine Life-zone. No mammalian species is resident but
individuals of several species regularly visit and occasionally breed
there.
Below the Arctic-alpine the Hudsonian Life-zone stretches the entire
length of the Cascades. Temperatures are low, especially in winter;
then the thermometer does not rise above zero for weeks at a time.
The average annual temperature at Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier,
is 38.6° (all temperatures given here are in degrees Fahrenheit).
Snowfall is heavy. The average yearly snowfall, for four years, at Mt.
Baker Lodge, at 4200 feet elevation, Whatcom County, was 478
inches; at Goat Lake, 2900 feet, Snohomish County, 261 inches; Tye,
Stevens Pass, 3010 feet, King County, 398 inches; Paradise, 5500
feet, Mt. Rainier, 587 inches. The deepest snow recorded at Paradise
was 27 feet, 2 inches on April 2, 1917. Following the spring thaws
the mountain passes are opened to travel, usually in April or May,
although nightly temperatures in April and May are still below zero.
Spring precipitation is heavy, the monthly average for a twelve-year
period at Paradise being 6.78 inches in April and 5.5 inches in May.
Summer temperatures are high in the daytime, when the sun beats
down through the rarefied atmosphere, but cool at night when
accumulated heat is lost through the thin atmospheric blanket. In
summer precipitation is light, averaging, at Paradise, 3.46 inches in
June, .9 inches in July, and 3.44 inches in August. In the autumn the
temperature, both daily and nightly, drops somewhat, and rain and
cloudiness are the rule. At Paradise the average precipitation in
September is 8.29 inches and in October 10.02 inches. The winter
snows usually arrive by the middle of November.
 Fig. 8. North side of Mount Rainier, 14,408 feet,
with Mount Adams at left and Mount St. Helens
at right. June 19, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo
Section, Washington National Guard, No. 011-
36A-116.)

Trees that are characteristic of parts of the Hudsonian Life-zone

include the alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana), Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and
white-barked pine (Pinus albicaulis). The following shrubs are listed
by Jones (1938) as common in the Hudsonian Life-zone on Mt.
Rainier: Salix barclayi, Salix commutata, Juniperus sibirica, Alnus
sinuata, Ribes howellii, Lutkea pectinata, Potentilla fruticosa, Sorbus
occidentalis, Spiraea densiflora, Pachistima myrsinites,
Arctostaphylos nevadensis, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Cassiope
mertensiana, Cassiope stelleriana, Phyllodoce empetriformis,
Rhododendron albiflorum and Gaultheria ovalifolia.
There are extensive coniferous forests in the Canadian Life-zone, still
lower on the mountain slopes. This is an area of lesser temperature
extremes than is the Hudsonian Life-zone. The average annual
temperature at Longmire, 2761 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 43.8°. The
average temperature for the winter months, however, is below
freezing. In July and August the temperatures are high, especially in
the daytime. The eighteen year average for Longmire during these
months is 60.6°. Snow is regular but the fall is lighter than in the
Hudsonian Life-zone. The annual average, over a period of nineteen
years, is 184.4 inches at Longmire. Precipitation is similar to that in
the Hudsonian Life-zone, averaging perhaps slightly less.
In the Cascades the typical feature of the Canadian Life-zone is the
extensive coniferous forest that extends, almost without a break, the
entire length of the Cascades on both sides of the main crest. In
addition to Douglas fir, the following trees occur in this forest:
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), amabalis fir (Abies amabalis),
white pine (Pinus monticola) and noble fir (Abies nobilis). Other
plants include Vaccinnium ovalifolium, Vaccinnium membranaceum,
Menziesia ferruginea, Alnus sinuata, Acer circinatum, Sorbus
cascadensis, Cornus canadensis, Clintonia uniflora, Stenauthium
occidentale, Galium oreganum, and Prenanthes lessingii.
Saprophytes abundant in, if not confined to, this zone are listed by
Jones as: Monotropa uniflora, Monotropa hypopitys, Allotropa
virguta, Newberrya congesta, Pterospora andromedea, Corallorrhiza
maculata, Corallorrhiza mertensiana and Corallorrhiza striata.
West of the Canadian Life-zone in the western Cascades, the
coniferous forests merge with the lowland forests of western
Washington. To the east of the Canadian Life-zone in the eastern
Cascades, there is a distinct change to a more arid climate and flora.
At Leavenworth, 1167 feet, Chelan County, the annual average
precipitation is but 19.5 inches and at Cle Elum, 1930 feet, but 23.23
inches. Temperatures are higher, the annual average of the above
two localities being 47.2° and 45.4° respectively. The winter months
are cold, with the average temperature in January and February
below freezing. In summer the averages in July and August at
Leavenworth are 68.8° and 68.0°, with the average maximum being
87.5° and 86.1°. Snowfall is heavy, the yearly average at
Leavenworth being 98.5 inches and at Cle Elum 86.3 inches. The
effect of this more arid climate is seen in the vegetation. The dense
Douglas fir forest, is replaced by more open forests of yellow pine
(Pinus ponderosus). Groves of oak (Quercus garryana) are found
near streams. The open forests give way to the extensive grasslands
bordering the desert. The transition of vegetation is similar to that
occurring in the Yakima Valley Area.
In the Yakima Valley Area, arid conditions prevail. The average
yearly precipitation at Yakima is 6.67 inches. Only in November,
December and January may more than one inch of precipitation be
expected monthly. Snow may be expected in the winter months and
the yearly average snowfall is 22.1 inches. Winter temperatures are
low, the average for December and January being but slightly above
freezing. Summer temperatures are extreme; the July average is
73.1° and the average maximum for the same month is 89°. The
highest temperature recorded is 111°.
The open pine forests of the eastern Cascades give way to
grasslands. Grasses of several species are common but the
bunchgrass (Agropyron spicatum) is most important. Other plants
include the primrose (Oenothera pallida), lupines (Lupinus), and
Mertensia. In ravines and near watercourses such shrubs as
hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii), service-berry (Amelanchier cusickii,
Amelanchier utahensis), aspen (Populus tremuloides), syringa
(Philadelphus lewisii), snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), choke-
berry (Prunus melanocarpa) and elderberry (Sambucus caerulae)
form thickets. Lower in the valley the vegetation is xerophytic,
similar to that of the Columbian Plateau. Sagebrush (Artemisiae
tridentata) is dominant. Other shrubs include rabbit brush
(Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), hop sage
(Grayia spinosa), black sage (Purshia tridentata) and greasewood
(Sarcobatus vermiculatus).
 Fig. 9. Mount Rainier. Washington: Cowlitz
Chimneys from base of Dege Peak, July 19, 1933.
(Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
Scheffer, No. 859.)

Climatic conditions in the Olympic Mountains are, in general, similar

to those of the higher Cascade Mountains. There is a limited area of
Arctic-alpine Life-zone on Mount Olympus. The principal life-zone is
the Hudsonian. The Canadian merges with the lowland Humid-
Transition and is difficult to ascertain as a separate zone. In the
Hudsonian Life-zone the average temperatures are low. Winter
climate is bitter and the snow lies deep. In the absence of
government weather stations in the Olympics, detailed descriptions
of climatic conditions can not be given. Vegetation of the Hudsonian
Life-zone of the Olympic Mountains is, in general, similar to that of
the same life-zone of the Cascades (see Jones, 1936, Botanical
Survey of the Olympic Peninsula).
The lowlands of western Washington have a cool, humid climate.
The average annual temperature of the area varies little from 50°. In
winter the temperature, especially in January and February,
commonly drops below the freezing point at night. Summer
temperatures are moderate, rarely reaching 90°. Snowfall is light,
averaging about 10 inches. The prevailing winds are from the west
and are moisture-laden. They rise over the Olympic Mountains and
loose heavy rains along the coastal area of the lowlands. The
average annual precipitation at La Push, Clallam County, is 97.9
inches; at Clearwater, Jefferson County, 124.98 inches; at Aberdeen,
Grays Harbor County, 81.58 inches; at South Bend, Pacific County,
83.35 inches. In contrast, the more inland areas receive less than
half as much precipitation. The yearly average at Bellingham is 31.09
inches; at Seattle, 30.07 inches; at Tacoma, 39.53 inches; at
Vancouver, Clark County, 37.24 inches.
The outstanding feature of the vegetation of western Washington is
the coniferous forest. Previous to the logging activities a dense cover
of Douglas fir, western hemlock and red cedar spread almost
unbroken over the area. The openings in the forest and the marshy
ravines and river valleys supported growths of underbrush and
deciduous trees so dense and luxuriant as to compare with a tropical
jungle. In the dense rain forests along the coast, mosses and lichens
develop an understory vegetation many inches deep and clothe the
branches of the forest trees. The mild temperature and excessive
rainfall cause some species that usually are of bush or shrub size to
reach the proportions of small trees. In some places one can climb
twenty feet from the ground in a huckleberry tree, the trunk of
which is five inches in diameter. The coniferous forest is made up of
several species of trees. Most important among these are the
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
taxifolia), and red cedar (Thuja plicata). Locally the western yew
(Taxus brevifolia), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and spruce (Picea
sitchensis) may be common. Deciduous trees are numerous and
include several willows (Salix sp.), aspen (Populus tremuloides),
hazel (Corylus californica), alder (Alnus oregona), oak (Quercus
garryana), broadleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), vine maple (Acer
circinatum), and flowering dogwood (Cornus nuttallii). Mosses and
ferns are abundant. The sword fern (Polystichum munitum) and
bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) are especially common. Space
prevents listing all but a fraction of the typical shrubs but these
include huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium, Vaccinium ovatum),
Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa), salal (Gaultheria shallon), rose
(Rosa gymnocarpa), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), salmonberry
(Rubus spectabilis), blackcap raspberry (Rubus leucodermis) and
wild blackberry (Rubus macropetalus).
The higher parts of some of the ranges of northeastern Washington
are in the Hudsonian Life-zone, but most of the mountains are in the
Canadian Life-zone. The valleys are in the Transition Life-zone.
Climatic conditions are similar to those of the eastern slopes of the
Cascades. Winter temperatures are low, the average for December,
January and February being below freezing. Summer temperatures
are high, the July average for Colville being 67.2° and the July
average maximum being 87.4°. Vegetation consists principally of
coniferous forests in the mountains and deciduous woods in the
valleys. Among the interesting features of the vegetation are the
extensive stands of almost pure larch (Larix occidentalis). In most
respects the flora closely resembles that of the Blue Mountains.
The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington differ from other
ranges in Washington in their relative aridity. There are few streams
and a single river drains the area. There are no government weather
stations in the Blue Mountains. The winter temperatures are low and
the snow deep and lasting. Summer temperatures are high and
humidity and precipitation low. Coniferous forests of the type of arid
regions form the principal tree cover. Typical plant species include
the white fir (Abies grandis), alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), larch (Larix
occidentalis), spruce (Picea columbiana), and such shrubs as fool
huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea), Pachystima myrsinites, dogwood
(Cornus canadensis), wild current (Ribes petiolare), mountain
mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), spirea (Spiraea sp.), lupines
(Lupinus) of several species, maple (Acer douglasii), buckbrush
(Ceanothus sanguineus), sticky brush (Ceanothus velutinus), and
huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum).

Fig. 10. A "pothole" being crowded by drifting

sand, ten miles south of Moses Lake,
Washington, March 23, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife
Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 925.)

The Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington present desert

conditions. At Odessa, 1590 feet, Lincoln County, the average annual
precipitation is only 9.38 inches, and only in the winter may more
than one inch of precipitation per month be expected. The average
temperature is 48.5°. In the winter the average is below freezing but
in July it is 71.3°. The average maximum for July is 90° and an
extreme of 111° is recorded. Walla Walla, 991 feet, has a higher
annual precipitation (16.66 inches) but higher temperature (yearly
average 53.5°, July average 75.0°, average July maximum 88.6°,
extreme 113°). Winter temperatures on the Columbian Plateau are
low. The January average at Odessa is 25.3° and at Walla Walla
32.4° The average yearly snowfall at Odessa is 19.4 inches and at
Walla Walla 23.5 inches. Vegetation of the Columbian Plateau and
southeastern Washington is of the desert type. A few pines and
junipers grow in favored places. Along streams the cottonwood
(Populus hastata) and willow (Salix) of several species are common.
Most typical are grasses and shrubs such as the bunch grass
(Agropyron inerme, Agropyron spictatum), foxtail (Alopecurus
aequalis), cheat grass (Bromus tectorum), saltbrush (Atriplex
truncata), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) mustard (Arabis
sp., Brassica sp.), sagebrush (Artemisia rigida, Artemisia tridentata),
rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Chrysothamnus
viscidiflorus) and cactus (Opuntia polyacantha). The arid climate of
the Columbian Plateau affects, to some extent, surrounding areas.
Thus the Yakima Valley Area, the Columbia Valley, where it borders
the Plateau, and the Okanogan Valley possess vegetation typical of
the Columbia Plateau.
 LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY
The Transition Life-zone is the principal life-zone in Washington. It is
divisible into three subdivisions: Humid, Arid-timbered and Arid-
grasslands (Fig. 11) subdivisions. The Humid and Arid-timbered
subdivisions of the Transition life-zone are closely related in some
respects but different in others. They are separated by the Cascade
Mountains. All of the Transition Life-zone west of the Cascades
belongs to the Humid subdivision and the timbered Transition Life-
zone east of the Cascades belongs to the Arid-timbered subdivision.
 Fig. 11. Life-zones of Washington. Arctic-alpine
not shaded. A. Hudsonian and Canadian (mapped
together). B. Forested Transition (Humid and Arid
subdivisions). C. Arid-grasslands of the
Transition. D. Upper Sonoran.

The Arid-grasslands are of minor geographic extent. Although this

subdivision is relatively distinct as concerns the distribution of plants,
insects and birds, it is of little importance as concerns the
distribution of mammals. For the most part, the mammals occupying
it are more representative of surrounding areas. Large parts of the
Arid-grasslands have been taken over for agriculture, especially
wheat raising. Perhaps the greatest extent of the Arid-grasslands
existing in a natural state is along the eastern Cascade Mountains
and along the eastern side of the Columbian Plateau. These are truly
transition areas, situated where the arid pine forests are replaced by
open, sagebrush desert.

Fig. 12. Arctic-alpine Life-zone, Mount Rainier,

Washington: Cowlitz Glacier from elevation of
9,500 feet. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
Victor B. Scheffer. No. 900.)

The Upper Sonoran Life-zone includes the desert areas of

Washington (figure 11 D). Its principal extent is the central
Columbian Plateau. From the central Columbian Plateau, fingerlike
projections of desert extend along the principal valleys.
The Arctic-alpine Life-zone occurs in the high Olympic Mountains and
on the higher peaks of the Cascades. This is shown on the life-zone
map, Fig. 11, as white, unshaded areas.
The mammalian faunas of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones
resemble each other closely. The boundary between them is too
complex to permit separating them on a small-scale map.
Consequently they are mapped together on Fig. 11 as A.

The Humid Subdivision of the Transition Life-zone

This subdivision is remarkably uniform in composition over western
Washington. The greatest difference is in precipitation. Rainfall along
the coast is heavier than that in the interior. Consequently vegetation
is more dense and luxuriant along the coast.
Four habitats may be distinguished in the Humid subdivision and
further subdivision is possible. The dominant and most extensive
habitat is the forest. Dominant mammalian species include:
Peromyscus maniculatus, Sorex trowbridgii, Sorex obscurus,
Tamiasciurus douglasii, Clethrionomys californicus, Aplodontia rufa,
Glaucomys sabrinus and Odocoileus hemionus. Mammals are scarce
and nocturnal forms prevail. As a rule, a line of mouse traps set in a
forest habitat will take principally Peromyscus maniculatus with a
few Sorex trowbridgii and Sorex obscurus and rarely a Clethrionomys
californicus. In some places, especially where the moss is deep, a
line of mouse traps will catch only shrews.
 Fig. 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-
zone, Headley's Marsh, five miles east of Granite
Falls, Washington, June 4, 1938. (Fish and
Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
60.)

A second important habitat is the deciduous jungle. This differs from

the forest habitat in that the dominant trees are of the deciduous
type and in that understory vegetation, such as shrubs and annuals,
is dense. The jungle habitat occurs in ravines and in valleys of
streams and rivers and, in general, covers the lower, poorly drained
portions of the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone.
Mammals are abundant and varied in the jungle habitat. The deer
mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) is the most common mammal but
a line of mouse traps might also catch: Neurotrichus gibbsii,
Scapanus orarius, Sorex vagrans, Microtus oregoni, or Zapus p.
trinotatus. The mountain beaver, snowshoe rabbit, and Townsend
chipmunk also occur there.
The prairies form a third habitat. These areas of native grasslands
are of minor extent but are the principal home of several races of
gophers and the Townsend mole (Scapanus townsendii). Deer and
elk also browse on the prairies.

Fig. 14. Timbered arid subdivision of the

Transition Life-zone, Kettle Falls on the Columbia
River (now beneath Coulee Dam backwater),
Stevens County, Washington, June 15, 1938.
(Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
Scheffer, No. 72.)

A fourth habitat is the marsh. In it there is here included the

sphagnum bogs and marshy shores of lakes and streams. This
habitat is characterized by damp ground, standing water, and dense
vegetation. Typical mammalian species include the water shrew
(Sorex bendirii), Townsend meadow mouse, muskrat and mink.
Other habitats, such as aerial for the bats and aquatic for the beaver
and otter, might be listed.
 The Arid Timbered Subdivision of the Transition
Life-zone
In Washington the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-
zone is the open, pine forest. Because of the aridity of this habitat,
marshes and streamside thickets are uncommon, but where habitats
of this kind do occur they have a fauna distinct from that of other
habitats.
The pine forest habitat includes many diurnal species, such as the
red squirrel, yellow-pine chipmunk, and Columbian ground squirrel.
The white-tailed deer occurs here and, for most of the year, the
mule deer. Snowshoe rabbits are usually present. Near rocks the
bushy-tailed wood rat is common. Mice are scarce, probably because
of the open nature of the surface of the ground. A night's trapping
usually yields only a few Peromyscus maniculatus.
The mammalian fauna of the marshes and streamside thickets is
similar. Shrews including Sorex vagrans and Sorex obscurus are
uncommon. Meadow mice, including Microtus pennsylvanicus,
Microtus longicaudus, and more rarely Microtus montanus, are
taken.

The Arid Grasslands Subdivision of the Transition

Life-zone
This subdivision is so much utilized by man where it occupies any
considerable areas, and is of such a transitional nature elsewhere,
that it is important for only a few native wild mammals. The
sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus) seems to be confined to the arid
grasslands. The white-tailed jack rabbit is now found principally in
the arid grasslands, but its confinement there has resulted probably
from competition with the black-tailed jack rabbit. The montane
meadow mouse (Microtus montanus) is the only common,
representative species. Many species from the Upper Sonoran Life-
zone extend into the arid grasslands where conditions are suitable.
These include Reithrodontomys megalotis, Perognathus parvus,
Citellus washingtoni and Marmota flaviventris. A few species more
typical of the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone
stray onto the arid grasslands. Citellus columbianus and Microtus
longicaudus may be included here.

The Upper Sonoran Life-zone

The sagebrush desert in Washington is relatively uniform in nature.
Several different habitats may be distinguished, such as sandy areas,
open sage, dense sage, stony ground, and talus. Qualitatively,
however, the mammalian fauna of these areas is surprisingly similar.
Quantitatively, there are great differences. For example, the
grasshopper mouse is rare in the open sage areas with hard, claylike
soil but common on drifted sand. The harvest mouse is common in
dense sage but rare in open sage or in open, sandy areas. Mammals
are abundant on the sagebrush desert and typical species include:
the black-tailed jack rabbit, Nuttall cottontail, Ord kangaroo rat,
Great Basin pocket mouse, Townsend ground squirrel, Washington
ground squirrel.
Marshes are not uncommon on the Columbian Plateau and
elsewhere in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in Washington. They do
not possess a fauna that is strictly Upper Sonoran but instead
contain species more typical of the Arid-timbered subdivision of the
Transition Life-zone. Meadow mice found in desert marshes include
Microtus montanus and Microtus pennsylvanicus. The only shrew we
have found is Sorex vagrans. The harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys
megalotis) is often abundant in marshes.
 Fig. 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone, sand and
basalt cliffs along the east bank of the Columbia
River, at Vantage, Washington, 1930. (Fish and
Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
848.)

The Canadian Life-zone

The Canadian Life-zone is a relatively uniform area in which the
forest habitat is most important. Talus and swift, cold streams bring
some typical mammalian species into the Canadian Life-zone from
the Hudsonian. Mammals are usually common; they are abundant
only in the upper portion of the Life-zone. Arboreal species and
forms adapted to life beneath the forest cover are dominant. The
Douglas squirrel, red squirrel, northern flying squirrel and Townsend
chipmunk are typical arboreal species. Traps set beneath the trees
might catch Peromyscus maniculatus, Clethrionomys gapperi,
Neotoma cinerea, Sorex obscurus, or Sorex trowbridgii.
Fig. 16. Canadian Life-zone forest on Mount
Rainier, Washington, elevation 2,800 feet,
September 14, 1934. Western hemlock, Douglas
fir, western red cedar, and grand fir. (Fish and
Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
325.)
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

testbankdeal.com