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Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-1

Chapter 6
Looping

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
Chapter 6 covers looping structures. Students will learn to create definite and indefinite
loops using the while statement. Next, they will learn to use Java’s accumulating and
incrementing operators. Students will use for loops to create a definite loop and
do…while loops for use when a posttest loop is required. Finally, students will learn
how to create nested loops and how to improve loop efficiency.

Objectives
• Learn about the loop structure
• Create while loops
• Use shortcut arithmetic operators
• Create for loops
• Create do…while loops
• Nest loops
• Improve loop performance

Teaching Tips
Learning About the Loop Structure
1. Define a loop as a structure that allows repeated execution of a block of statements. The
loop body contains the block of statements.

2. Explain the purpose of a loop. Briefly introduce the three loop statements used in Java
that are listed on page 300.

3. Describe scenarios when looping is useful. If possible, equate the loop to a game or
real-life situation.

Teaching Repetition structures are the third and final type of program control structure
Tip along with sequence and decision.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 300.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-3

Creating while Loops

1. Define a while loop. Discuss that the loop body will continue to execute as long as the
Boolean expression that controls the loop is true.

2. Define a definite loop and an indefinite loop. Explain when each is useful in a
program.

Writing a Definite while Loop

1. Note that a while loop can be used to create a definite loop—one that repeats a
predetermined number of times. A definite loop is controlled by a loop control
variable.

2. Review the flowchart and program statements in Figure 6-2 and Figure 6-4.

3. If practical, code a definite while loop during your lecture.

Teaching Note that the flowchart symbol for a decision—a diamond—is also used in a
Tip loop flowchart.

4. Explain the concept of an infinite loop, as shown in Figure 6-3. Note that it is easy to
make a mistake when programming a loop that results in an infinite loop.

5. Describe the steps to avoid an infinite loop listed on page 302.

Pitfall: Failing to Alter the Loop Control Variable Within the Loop Body

1. Discuss the importance of altering the loop control variable within the body of a loop.

2. Using the code in Figure 6-5, demonstrate the pitfall of forgetting to insert curly braces
around the loop body.

Teaching Remind students that they should attempt to terminate a program that they
Tip believe contains an infinite loop.

Pitfall: Creating a Loop with an Empty Body

1. Using Figure 6-6, point out that a loop can have an empty body. Suggest to your
students that this should be avoided.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-4

Altering a Definite Loop’s Control Variable

1. Definite loops are sometimes called counter-controlled loops. The loop control
variable must be changed to avoid an infinite loop.

2. Introduce the terms incrementing and decrementing. Figure 6-7 shows a loop
statement in which the loop control variable is decremented each time the loop
executes.

3. Students often think that increments or decrements can only be in steps of 1.

Demonstrate that loops can increment by 1, 2, 3, .5, or whatever value change is
needed.

Teaching It is more common for a loop control variable to be incremented than

Tip decremented.

Writing an Indefinite while Loop

1. Describe an indefinite loop. This type of loop is an event-controlled loop, often

controlled by user input, as seen in the program in Figure 6-8.

2. Note that indefinite loops are also commonly used to validate data. An example is seen
in Figure 6-10.

3. If practical, code an event-controlled loop during your lecture.

Validating Data

1. Define the term validating data. Provide a really good example of why validating data
is important.

2. Examine the shaded loop in Figure 6-10. Be sure to discuss with your class how this
loop functions. Point out that the loop continues to execute while the data is invalid.
The test in validating loops should check for invalid data, not valid data.

3. Code several data validating loops during your lecture.

Teaching Validating data should be a very important topic in your lectures. Students
Tip should get into the habit of validating every input.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 310.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-5

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 310–311 to create a Java
application that uses a loop to validate data entries.

Quick Quiz 1
1. True or False: Within a looping structure, a floating-point expression is evaluated.
Answer: False

2. A(n) ____ loop is one in which the loop-controlling Boolean expression is the first
statement in the loop.
Answer: while

3. To write a definite loop, you initialize a(n) ____, a variable whose value determines
whether loop execution continues.
Answer: loop control variable

4. A loop controlled by the user is a type of ____ loop because you don’t know how many
times it will eventually loop.
Answer: indefinite

5. Verifying user data through a loop is the definition of ____.

Answer: validating data

Using Shortcut Arithmetic Operators

1. Define the terms counting and accumulating.

2. Introduce the shortcut operators used to increment and accumulate values:

add and assign operator +=
subtract and assign operator -=
multiply and assign operator *=
divide and assign operator /=
remainder and assign operator %=

Teaching Ask students to write several equivalent arithmetic statements using the normal
Tip and accumulating operators.

3. Introduce the prefix and postfix increment operators and decrement operators.
Review the program in Figure 6-13 to discuss the use of these operators.

4. Write code during your lectures that uses several of the operators presented in this
section.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-6

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 315.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 315–317 to create a Java
application that uses the prefix and postfix increment operators.

Teaching
Stress the difference between the prefix and postfix operators.
Tip

Creating a for Loop

1. Define a for loop. Emphasize that the for loop is a definite loop. Discuss when the
for loop is appropriate in code. Contrast the for loop with the counter-controlled
definite while loop.

2. Using Figure 6-18, describe the program statements used in a for loop. The three
sections of a for loop are described on page 317. Discuss the different ways these
three sections may be used (listing on pages 318–319).

3. Point out that a for loop with an empty body is not infinite, and can be used to create a
brief pause in your program.

Teaching Remind students that a variable declared within a for loop is only accessible
Tip within the loop and goes out of scope when the loop exits.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 320.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 320–321 to create a Java
application that uses a definite loop.

Learning How and When to Use a do…while Loop

1. Explain that in both of the loop structures introduced in the chapter, while and for,
the body of the loop may not execute because the loop condition is checked before
entering the loop. This is known as a pretest loop.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-7

2. In contrast, the body of a do…while loop will always execute at least once before the
loop condition is checked. This type of loop is called a posttest loop.

Teaching Provide examples of a situation for which it is desirable to use a pretest loop and
Tip one for which it is desirable to use a posttest loop.

3. Review the flowchart in Figure 6-20 and the program code in Figure 6-21.

4. Note that even though it is not required, it is a good idea to always enclose a single loop
statement within a block.

5. Revisit data validation. Point out that the code in Figure 6-10 asks for input both before
the loop and within the loop. The first input is called a priming input.

6. Recode the shaded portion of Figure 6-10 using a do…while loop. The use of the
do…while loop removes the need for the priming input. Code several other data
validation loops during your lecture.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 324.

Quick Quiz 2
1. The statement count ____1; is identical in meaning to count = count + 1.
Answer: +=

2. The prefix and postfix increment operators are ____ operators because you use them
with one value.
Answer: unary

3. The three elements within the for loop are used to ____, ____, and ____ the loop
control variable.
Answer: initialize, test, update

4. A while loop is a(n) ____ loop—one in which the loop control variable is tested
before the loop body executes.
Answer: pretest

5. The do…while loop is a(n) ____ loop—one in which the loop control variable is
tested after the loop body executes.
Answer: posttest
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-8

Learning About Nested Loops

1. Note that like decision structures, loop structures can be nested inside other loops. This
is shown in a flowchart in Figure 6-23.

2. Make sure that students understand the terms inner loop and outer loop. Also, stress
that any type of loop can be nested within any other type (i.e., a for loop inside a
while loop).

3. An example of a program with nested loops is shown in Figure 6-24.

4. Use the code on page 327 to discuss the importance of placing the inner and outer loops
correctly.

5. Discuss the performance issues involved with using nested loops.

6. Code a nested loop with your class. A classic example is generating a multiplication
table.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 327.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 328–329 to create a Java
application that uses nested loops to print a list of positive divisors.

Loop performance is very important on mobile devices. Improving the

Teaching
performance of a loop will make code execute faster on mobile devices, and
Tip
draw less power.

Improving Loop Performance

1. Discuss simple ways to improve loop performance by using the techniques listed on
page 329.

Avoiding Unnecessary Operations

1. Describe the inefficiency of making a calculation within a loop test expression. An

example of what not to do and how to fix it is shown on page 330.

Considering the Order of Evaluation of Short-Circuit Operators

1. Remind students that when a logical expression such as AND or OR is used, the
expression is only evaluated as far as necessary to determine the true or false
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-9

outcome. It is important to place the condition most likely to terminate the loop first,
especially with an inner loop. An example is shown on page 330.

Comparing to Zero

1. Note that it is faster to perform a comparison to 0 than to another value.

2. The example in Figure 6-27 creates and times two sets of nested do-nothing loops. The
second set of loops will execute faster than the first set of loops.

3. If time permits, execute the code in Figure 6-27 during your lecture.

Employing Loop Fusion

1. Explain the concept of loop fusion, as shown on page 332.

Using Prefix Incrementing Rather than Postfix Incrementing

1. Using prefix incrementing is slightly faster than using postfix incrementing. The code
shown in Figure 6-29 times two do-nothing loops that loop 1 billion times. The first
loop uses postfix loops; the second uses prefix loops.

2. Figure 6-30 proves that over the 1 billion loops, the prefix loop executes about one-
tenth of a second faster.

Figure 6-30 will result in different times depending on your system. The numbers
will likely not impress your students. To make the numbers relevant, calculate
Teaching
the time saved if this code is executed 1,000 times in a day. This saves 100
Tip
seconds, or nearly 3 minutes of processing time per day, or over 1,000 minutes
per year.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 334.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 335–336 to create a Java
application that compares execution times for different loop techniques.

Don’t Do It
1. Review this section, discussing each point with the class.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-10

Quick Quiz 3
1. When loops are ____, each pair contains an inner loop and an outer loop.
Answer: nested

2. True or False: When you use a loop within a loop, you should always think of the inner
loop as the all-encompassing loop.
Answer: False

3. True or False: Whether you decide to use a while, for, or do…while loop in an
application, you can improve loop performance by making sure the loop does not
include unnecessary operations or statements.
Answer: True

4. Combining loops to improve performance is referred to as ____.

Answer: loop fusion

Class Discussion Topics

1. Under what circumstances would you use a for loop rather than a while loop?

2. Why do you think the Java language provides three different types of loops if all loops
can be written using the while statement?

3. Modern processors run at over 3 GHz and have several cores. Given the speed of
modern computers, why is it still important to discuss performance issues?

Additional Projects
1. Create a Java program that uses nested loops to print out the following:

*
**
***
****
*****

2. A new variation on the for loop called the for each loop was introduced in Java 5.
Using the Internet, find a description of this loop and explain how it is different from a
standard for loop.

3. Create a Java application that prints a checkerboard using nested loops.

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Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-11

Additional Resources
1. The while and do-while Statements:
http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/while.html

2. The for Statement:

http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/for.html

3. Multiple Choice Java Looping Quiz:

http://mathbits.com/mathbits/java/Looping/MCLooping.htm

4. The For-Each Loop:

http://download.oracle.com/javase/1.5.0/docs/guide/language/foreach.html

5. Java program to demonstrate looping:

www.java2s.com/Code/Java/Language-Basics/Javaprogramtodemonstratelooping.htm

Key Terms
 Accumulating: the process of repeatedly increasing a value by some amount to produce
a total.
 Add and assign operator ( += ): alters the value of the operand on the left by adding
the operand on the right to it.
 Counter-controlled loop: a definite loop.
 Counting: the process of continually incrementing a variable to keep track of the
number of occurrences of some event.
 Decrementing: reducing the value of a variable by 1.
 Definite loop: a loop that executes a specific number of times; also called a counted
loop.
 Divide and assign operator ( /= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
dividing the operand on the right into it.
 do…while loop: executes a loop body at least one time; it checks the loop control
variable at the bottom of the loop after one repetition has occurred.
 Do-nothing loop: one that performs no actions other than looping.
 Empty body: a block with no statements in it.
 Event-controlled loop: an indefinite loop.
 for loop: a special loop that can be used when a definite number of loop iterations is
required.
 Incrementing: adding 1 to the value of a variable.
 Indefinite loop: one in which the final number of loops is unknown.
 Infinite loop: a loop that never ends.
 Inner loop: contained entirely within another loop.
 Iteration: one loop execution.
 Loop: a structure that allows repeated execution of a block of statements.
 Loop body: the block of statements that executes when the Boolean expression that
controls the loop is true.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-12

 Loop control variable: a variable whose value determines whether loop execution
continues.
 Loop fusion: the technique of combining two loops into one.
 Multiply and assign operator ( *= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
multiplying the operand on the right by it.
 Outer loop: contains another loop.
 Postfix ++: evaluates a variable and then adds 1 to it.
 Postfix increment operator: another name for postfix ++.
 Posttest loop: one in which the loop control variable is tested after the loop body
executes.
 Prefix ++: adds 1 to a variable and then evaluates it.
 Prefix and postfix decrement operators: subtract 1 from a variable. For example, if b
= 4; and c = b--;, 4 is assigned to c, and then after the assignment, b is decreased
and takes the value 3. If b = 4; and c = --b;, b is decreased to 3, and 3 is
assigned to c.
 Prefix increment operator: another name for prefix ++.
 Pretest loop: one in which the loop control variable is tested before the loop body
executes.
 Priming input: another name for a priming read.
 Priming read: the first input statement prior to a loop that will execute subsequent
input statements for the same variable.
 Remainder and assign operator ( %= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
assigning the remainder when the left operand is divided by the right operand.
 Subtract and assign operator ( –= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
subtracting the operand on the right from it.
 Validating data: the process of ensuring that a value falls within a specified range.
 while loop: executes a body of statements continually as long as the Boolean
expression that controls entry into the loop continues to be true.
Other documents randomly have
different content
literature. In 1566 King Sigismund Augustus granted Benedict Levita,
of Cracow, the monopoly of importing into Poland Jewish books from
abroad. Again, in 1578, Stephen Batory bestowed on a certain
Kalman the right of printing Jewish books in Lublin, owing to the
difficulty of importing them from abroad. One of the causes of this
intensified typographic activity in Poland was the papal censorship of
the Talmud, which was established in Italy in 1564. From that time
the printing-offices of Cracow and Lublin competed successfully with
the technically perfected printing-presses of Venice and Prague, and
the Polish book-market, as a result, was more and more dominated
by local editions.
4. Secular Sciences, Philosophy, Cabala, and Apologetics
The Talmudic and Rabbinic science of law, absorbing as it did the
best mental energies of Polish Jewry, left but little room for the other
branches of literary endeavor. Among the daring "swimmers in the
Talmudic ocean," contending for mastery in erudition and dialectic
skill, there were but few with deeper spiritual longings who evinced
an interest in questions of philosophy and natural science. The only
exceptions were the physicians, who, on account of their profession,
received a secular education at the universities of that period.
Originally the Jewish physicians of Poland were natives either of
Spain, whence they had been expelled in 1492, or of Italy, being in
the latter case graduates of the Catholic University of Padua. Several
of these foreign medical men became the body-physicians of Polish
kings, such as Isaac Hispanus under John Albrecht and Alexander;
Solomon Ashkenazi (who subsequently was physician and diplomat
at the court of the Turkish Sultan Selim II.) under King Sigismund
Augustus; Solomon Calahora under Stephen Batory, and others. But
as early as the first part of the sixteenth century these foreigners
were rivaled by native Jewish physicians, who traveled from Poland
to Padua for the special purpose of receiving a medical training.
Such was, for example, the case in 1530 with Moses Fishel, of
Cracow, who was at once rabbi and physician. These trips to Italy
became very frequent in the second part of the sixteenth century,
and the number of Polish Jewish students in Padua was on the
increase down to the eighteenth century. It is characteristic that the
Christian Poles studying in Padua refused to enter their Jewish
compatriots upon their "national register," in order, as is stated in
their statutes, "not to mar the memory of so many celebrated men
by the name of an infidel" (1654). In the university registers the
Jewish students appeared as Hebraei Poloni.
As for religious philosophy, which was then on the wane in Western
Europe, it formed in Poland merely the object of amateurish
exercises on the part of several representatives of Rabbinic learning.
Moses Isserles and Mordecai Jaffe commented, as was pointed out
above, on the "Guide" of Maimonides in a superficial manner,
fighting shy of its inconvenient rationalistic deductions. The favorite
book of the theologians of that period was Ikkarim ("Principles"), the
system of dogmatic Judaism formulated by the conservative
Sephardic thinker Joseph Albo. Commentaries to this book were
written by Jacob Koppelman, of Brest-Kuyavsk[105] (Ohel Ya`kob,
"Tent of Jacob,"[106] Cracow, 1599), and Gedaliah Lifshitz, of Lublin
(Etz Shathul, "Planted Tree,"[107] 1618). The former, a lover of
mathematics, loaded his commentary with geometrical and
astronomical arguments, being of the opinion that it was possible in
this way to prove scientifically the existence of God and the
correlation of all phenomena. The latter was more inclined towards
metaphysics and morals. How far this commentator was from
grasping the true meaning of the original may be seen from his
annotations to the introductory theses of the book. Commenting on
the passage in which Albo states that "the happiness of man
depends on the perfection of his thought and conduct," Lifshitz
makes the following observation: "By human happiness is
understood the life beyond the grave, for the goal of man in this
world consists only in the attainment of eternal bliss after death."
In this way the Polish rabbis fashioned philosophy after their own
pattern, and thereby rendered it "harmless." Free research was
impossible, and perhaps not unattended by danger in an
environment where tradition reigned supreme. The Chief Rabbi of
Cracow, the above-mentioned Joel Sirkis, expressed the view that
philosophy was the mother of all heresies, and that it was the
"harlot" of which the wise king had said, "None that go unto her
return again" (Proverbs ii. 19). He who becomes infatuated with
philosophy and neglects the secret wisdom of the Cabala is liable, in
Sirkis' opinion, to excommunication, and has no place among the
faithful. The well-known mathematician and philosopher Joseph
Solomon Delmedigo (called in abbreviated form "YaSHaR of Candia"
[108]) who spent nearly four years in Poland and Lithuania (1620-
1624), arraigns the Polish Jews for their opposition to the secular
sciences:
Behold—he says in Biblical phraseology[109]—darkness
covereth the earth, and the ignorant are numerous. For
the breadth of thy land is full of yeshibahs and houses of
Talmud study.... [The Jews of Poland] are opposed to the
sciences,... saying, The Lord hath no delight in the
sharpened arrows of the grammarians, poets, and
logicians, nor in the measurements of the mathematicians
and the calculations of the astronomers.
The Cabala, which might be designated as an Orthodox counter-
philosophy, made constant progress in Poland. The founder of the
Polish Cabala was Mattathiah Delacruta, a native of Italy, who lived
in Cracow. In 1594 he published in that city the system of Theoretic
Cabala, entitled "Gates of Light" (Sha`are Ora), by a Sephardic
writer of the fourteenth century, Joseph Gicatilla, accompanying it by
an elaborate commentary of his own. Delacruta was, as far as the
subject of the "hidden science" was concerned, the teacher of the
versatile Rabbi Mordecai Jaffe, who, in turn, wrote a
supercommentary to the mystical Bible commentary by the Italian
Menahem Recanati.
Beginning with the seventeenth century, the old Theoretic Cabala is
gradually superseded in Poland by the Practical Cabala,[110] taught
by the new school of ARI[111] and Vital.[112] The Cabalist Isaiah
Horowitz, author of the famous work on ascetic morals called
SHeLoH,[113] had been trained in the yeshibahs of Cracow and
Lemberg, and for several years (1600-1606) occupied the post of
rabbi in Volhynia. His son, Sheftel Horowitz, who was rabbi in Posen
(1641-1658), published the mystical work of his father, adding from
his own pen a moralist treatise under the title Vave ha-`Amudim.
[114] Nathan Spira, preacher and rector of the Talmudic academy in
Cracow (1585-1633), made a specialty of the Practical Cabala. His
more ingenious than thoughtful book, "Discovering Deep Things"
[115] (Megalle `Amukoth, Cracow, 1637), contains an exposition in
two hundred and fifty-two different ways of Moses' plea before God
for permission to enter the Promised Land (Deuteronomy iii. 23). It
consists of an endless chain of Cabalistic word-combinations and
obscure symbolic allusions, yielding some inconceivable deductions,
such as that Moses prayed to God concerning the appearance of the
two Messiahs of the house of Joseph and David, or that Moses
endeavored to eliminate the power of evil and to expiate in advance
all the sins that would ever be committed by the Jewish people.
Nathan Spira applied to the Cabala the method of the Rabbinical
pilpul, and created a new variety of dialectic mysticism, which was
just as far removed from sound theology as the scholastic
speculations of the pilpulists were from scientific thinking.
More wholesome and more closely related to life was the trend of
the Jewish apologetic literature which sprang up in Poland in the last
quarter of the sixteenth century. The religious unrest which had
been engendered by the Reformation gave rise to several
rationalistic sects with radical, anti-ecclesiastic tendencies. Nearest
of all to the tenets of Judaism was the sect of the Anti-Trinitarians
(called Unitarians, Arians, or Socinians[116]), who denied the dogma
of the Trinity and the divine nature of Jesus, but recognized the
religious and moral teachings of the Gospels. Among the Anti-
Trinitarian leaders were the theologian Simon Budny, of Vilna, and
Martin Chekhovich, of Lublin. Stung by the fact that the Catholic
clergy applied to them the contemptuous appellation of "Judaizers,"
or semi-Jews, the sectarians were anxious to demonstrate to the
world that their doctrine had nothing in common with Judaism. For
this purpose they carried on oral disputes with the rabbis, and tried
to expose the "Jewish falsehoods" in their works.
Martin Chekhovich was particularly zealous in holding theological
disputations, both in Lublin and in other cities, "with genuine as well
as pseudo-Jews." The results of these disputations are embodied in
several chapters of his books entitled "Christian Dialogues" (1575)
and "Catechism" (1580). One of his Jewish opponents, Jacob
(Nahman) of Belzhytz,[117] found it necessary to answer him in
public in a little book written in the Polish language (Odpis na
dyalogi Czechowicza, "Retort to the Dialogues of Chekhovich,"
1581). Jacob of Belzhytz defends the simple dogmas of Judaism, and
accuses his antagonists of desiring to arouse hostility to the Jewish
people. The following observation of Jacob is interesting as showing
the methods of disputation then in vogue:
It often happens that a Christian puts a question to me
from Holy Writ, to which I reply also from Holy Writ, and I
try to argue it properly. But suddenly he will pick out
another passage [from the Bible], saying: "How do you
understand this?" and thus he does not finish the first
question, on which it would be necessary to dwell longer.
This is exactly what happens when the hunter's dogs are
hounding the rabbit which flees from the road into a by-
path, and, while the dogs are trying to catch it, slips away
into the bushes. For this reason the Jew too has to
interrupt the Christian in the midst of his speech, lest the
latter escape like the rabbit as soon as he has finished
speaking.
Chekhovich replied to Jacob's pamphlet in print in the same year.
While defending his "Dialogues," he criticized the errors of the
Talmud, and made sport of several Jewish customs, such as the use
of tefillin, mezuza, and tzitzith.
A serious retort to the Christian theologians came from Isaac Troki, a
cultured Karaite,[118] who died in 1594. He argued with Catholics,
Lutherans, and Arians in Poland, not as a dilettante, but as a
profound student of the Gospels and of Christian theology. About
1593 he wrote his remarkable apologetic treatise under the title
Hizzuk Emuna ("Fortification of the Faith"). In the first part of his
book, the author defends Judaism against the attacks of the
Christian theologians, while in the second he takes the offensive and
criticizes the teachings of the Church. He detects a whole series of
contradictions in the texts of the Synoptic Gospels, pointing out the
radical deviations of the New Testament from the Old and the
departure of the later dogmatism of the Church from the New
Testament itself. With calmness and assurance he proves the logical
and historical impossibility of the interpretations of the well-known
Biblical prophecies which serve as the substructure of the Christian
dogma.
For a long time no one was bold enough to print this "dreadful
treatise," and it was circulated in manuscript both in the Hebrew
original and in a Spanish and German version. The Hebrew original,
accompanied by a Latin translation, was printed for the first time
from a defective copy by the German scholar Wagenseil, Professor of
Law in Bavaria. Wagenseil published the treatise Hizzuk Emuna in his
collection of anti-Christian writings, to which he gave the awe-
inspiring title "The Fiery Arrows of Satan" (Tela Ignea Satanae,
1681), and which were published for missionary purposes, "in order
that the Christians may refute this book, which may otherwise fortify
the Jews in their errors." The pious German professor could not
foresee that his edition would he subsequently employed by men of
the type of Voltaire and the French encyclopedists of the eighteenth
century as a weapon to attack the doctrine of the Church. Voltaire
commented on the book of Isaac Troki in these words: "Not even the
most decided opponents of religion have brought forward any
arguments which could not be found in the 'Fortification of the Faith'
by Rabbi Isaac." In modern times the Hizzuk Emuna has been
reprinted from more accurate copies, and has been translated into
several European languages.[119]

FOOTNOTES:
[65] See pp. 72 and 73.
[66] [Unanimi voto et consensu are the exact words of the
document. See Bersohn, Dyplomatariusz (Collection of ancient
Polish enactments relating to Jews), p. 51.]
[67] [Literally, By-Kahals.]
[68] [a = short German a. In Hebrew ‫ועד‬.]
[69] [Great Poland, Little Poland, Red Russia, and Volhynia.
Volhynia at first formed part of the Lithuanian Duchy, but was
ceded to the Crown, in 1569, by the Union of Lublin.]
[70] In the middle of the seventeenth century their number was
six.
[71] Nathan Hannover, in his Yeven Metzula [see p. 157, n. 1],
ed. Venice, 1653, p. 12.
[72] [A Hebrew term designating public-spirited Jews who defend
the interests of their coreligionists before the Government. In
Polish official documents they are referred to as "General
Syndics." In Poland the shtadlans were regular officials
maintained by the Jewish community. Comp. the article by L.
Lewin, Der Schtadlan im Posener Ghetto, in Festschrift published
in honor of Dr. Wolf Feilchenfeld (1907), pp. 31 et seq.]
[73] Towards the end of the sixteenth century Warsaw, instead of
Cracow, became the residence of the Polish kings. The Jews had
no right of domicile in Warsaw, and were permitted only to visit it
temporarily. [See p. 85.]
[74] [See p. 93, n. 1.]
[75] [See p. 76, n. 1.]
[76] [The so-called Jüdisch-Deutsch, which was by the Jews
brought from Germany to Poland and Lithuania. It was only in the
latter part of the seventeenth century that the dialect of Polish-
Lithuanian Jewry began to depart from the Jüdisch-Deutsch as
spoken by the German Jews, thus laying the foundation for
modern Yiddish. See Dubnow's article "On the Spoken Dialect and
the Popular Literature of the Polish and Lithuanian Jews in the
Sixteenth and the First Half of the Seventeenth Century," in the
periodical Yevreyskaya Starina, i. (1909), pp. 1 et seq.]
[77] [I. e. Red Russia, or Galicia.]
[78] Yeven Metzula [see p. 157, n. 1], towards the end.
[79] [Literally, "our teacher," a title bestowed since the Middle
Ages on every ordained rabbi.]
[80] [Literally, "companion," "colleague," a title conferred upon
men who, without being ordained, have attained a high degree of
scholarship.]
[81] [Abbreviation for Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (d. 1105), a
famous French rabbi, whose commentaries on the Bible and the
Talmud are marked by wonderful lucidity.]
[82] [A school of Talmudic authorities, mostly of French origin,
who, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, wrote Tosafoth
(literally, "Additions"), critical and exegetical annotations,
distinguished for their ingenuity.]
[83] [Hebrew for "Rows," with reference to the four rows of
precious stones in the garment of the high priest (Ex. xxviii., 17)
—title of a code of laws composed by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher
(died at Toledo ab. 1340). It is divided into four parts, dealing
respectively with ritual, dietary, domestic, and civil laws. The
Turim was the forerunner of the Shulhan Arukh, for which it
served as a model.]
[84] [Isaac ben Jacob al-Fasi (i. e. from Fez in North Africa) (died
1103), author of a famous Talmudic compendium.]
[85] ‫עמודי שש‬, ed. Lemberg, 1865, pp. 18b, 61b.
[86] It has been conjectured that the same scholar occupied,
some time between 1503 and 1520, the post of rector in Poland
itself, being at the head of the yeshibah in Cracow.
[87] [Two of his Responsa were published in Cracow, ab. 1540.
See Zedner, Catalogue British Museum, p. 695. A new edition
appeared in Husiatyn, in 1904, together with Hiddushe Aaron
Halevi.]
[88] ‫[ רמ״א‬initials of Rabbi Moses I(‫=א‬o)sserles].
[89] [See p. 118, n. 1.]
[90] Popularly, however, Isserles' supplements are called
Haggahoth ("Annotations").
[91] ‫[ רש״ל‬initials of Rabbi SHelomo Luria].
[92] [See p. 117, n. 4.]
[93] [Allusion to I Kings vii. 23-26.]
[94] [Allusion to Lev. vi. 2.]
[95] [See p. 118, n. 1.]
[96] [The titles of the various parts of his work are all composed
of the word Lebush ("Raiment") and some additional epithet,
borrowed, with reference to the author's name, from the
description of Mordecai's garments, in Esther viii. 15.]
[97] [The Shulhan Arukh, following the arrangement of the Turim
(see above, p. 118, n. 1), is divided into four parts, the fourth of
which, dealing with civil law, is called Hoshen Mishpat,
"Breastplate of Judgment," with reference to Ex. xxviii. 15.]
[98] [Allusion to Ps. xix. 9.]
[99] See pp. 111 and 112.
[100] ‫[ מהר״ם‬initials of Morenu (see p. 117, n. 1) Ha-rab (the
rabbi) Rabbi Meïr.]
[101] ‫[ מהרש״א‬initials of Morenu Ha-rab Rabbi SHemuel
E(‫=א‬o)dels. Comp. the preceding note].
[102] [Literally, "Teaching Knowledge" (from Isaiah xxviii. 9), the
title of the second part of the Shulhan Arukh. See above, p. 128,
n. 1.]
[103] ["Rows of Gold," allusion to the Turim (see above, p. 118,
n. 1), with a clever play on the similarly sounding words in Cant.
i. 11.—Subsequently David Halevi extended his commentary to
the other parts of the Shulhan Arukh.]
[104] [Allusion to Mal. ii. 7.—Later Sabbatai extended his
commentary to the civil section of the Shulhan Arukh, called
Hoshen Mishpat (see p. 128, n. 1).]
[105] [See p. 75, n. 2.]
[106] [Allusion to Gen. xxv. 27.]
[107] [Allusion to Ps. i. 3.]
[108] ‫[ ישר מקנדיא‬initials of Yosef SHelomo Rofe (physician)].
[109] [In his book Ma`yan Gannim ("Fountain of Gardens,"
allusion to Cant. iv. 15), Introduction.]
[110] [Kabbalah ma`asith, a phase of the Cabala which
endeavors to influence the course of nature by Cabalistic
practices, in other words, by performing miracles.]
[111] [Initials of Ashkenazi Rabbi Isaac [Luria]; he died at Safed
in Palestine in 1572.]
[112] [Hayyim Vital, also of Safed, died 1620.]
[113] [Abbreviation of SHne Luhoth Ha-brith, "The Two Tables of
the Covenant" (Deut. ix. 15).]
[114] ["Hooks of the Pillars," allusion to Ex. xxvii. 11.]
[115] [Allusion to Job xii. 22.]
[116] [See above, p. 91, n. 1. There were, however, considerable
differences of opinion among the various factions.]
[117] [A town in the province of Lublin. Jacob became
subsequently court physician of Sigismund III.; see Kraushar,
Historyja Zydów w Polsce, ii. 268, n. 1. On his name, see Geiger's
Nachgelassene Schriften, iii. 213.]
[118] Some deny that he was a Karaite.
[119] [An English translation by Moses Mocatta appeared in
London in 1851 under the title "Faith Strengthened."]
 CHAPTER V
THE AUTONOMOUS CENTER IN
POLAND DURING ITS DECLINE
(1648-1772)
1. Economic and National Antagonism in the Ukraina
The Jewish center in Poland, marked by compactness of numbers
and a widespread autonomous organization, seemed, down to the
end of the seventeenth century, to be the only secure nest of the
Jewish people and the legitimate seat of its national hegemony,
which was slipping out of the hands of German Jewry. But in 1648
this comparatively peaceful nest was visited by a storm, which made
the Jews of Eastern Europe speedily realize that they would have to
tread the same sorrowful path, strewn with the bodies of martyrs,
that had been traversed by their Western European brethren in the
Middle Ages. The factors underlying this crisis were three: an acute
economic class struggle, racial and religious antagonism, and the
appearance upon the horizon of Jewish history of a new power of
darkness—the semi-barbarous masses of Southern Russia.
In the central provinces of Poland the position of the Jews, as was
pointed out previously, was determined by the interaction of class
and economic forces on the one hand, and religious and political
interests on the other, changing in accordance with the different
combinations of the opposing factions. While the kings and the great
nobles, prompted by fiscal and agrarian considerations, in most
cases encouraged the commercial activities of the Jews, the urban
estates, the trade and merchant guilds, from motives of competition,
tried to hinder them. As for the Catholic clergy, it was on general
principles ever on the alert to oppress the "infidels."
As far as economic rivalry and social oppression are concerned, the
Jews were able to resist them, either by influencing the Polish
governing circles, or by combining their own forces and uniting them
in a firmly-organized scheme of self-government, which had been
conceded to them in so large a measure. At any rate, it was a
cultural struggle between two elements: the Polish and the Jewish
population, the Christian and the Jewish estates, or the Church and
the Synagogue. This struggle was vastly complicated in the
southeastern border provinces of Poland, the so-called Ukraina,[120]
by the presence of a third element, which was foreign to the Poles
no less than to the Jews—the local native population which was
Russian by race and Greek Orthodox in religion, and was engaged
principally in agriculture.
The vast region around the southern basin of the Dnieper, the whole
territory comprising the provinces of Kiev, Poltava, and Chernigov,
and including parts of Podolia and Volhynia, was subject to the
political power of the Polish kings and the economic dominion of the
Polish magnates. Enormous estates, comprising a large number of
villages populated by Russian peasants, were here in the hands of
wealthy Polish landlords, who enjoyed all the rights of feudal
owners. The enthralled peasants, or khlops, as they were
contemptuously nicknamed by the Polish nobles, were strange to
their masters in point of religion and nationality. In the eyes of the
Catholics, particularly in those of the clergy, the Greek Orthodox
faith was a "religion of khlops," and they endeavored to eradicate it
by forcing upon it compulsory church unions[121] or by persecuting
the "dissidents." The Poles looked upon the Russian populace as an
inferior race, which belonged more to Asia than to Europe. In these
circumstances, the economic struggle between the feudal landlord
and his serfs, unmitigated by the feeling of common nationality and
religion, was bound to assume acute forms. Apart from the
oppressive agricultural labor, which the peasants had to give
regularly and gratuitously to the landlord, they were burdened with a
multitude of minor imposts and taxes, levied on pastures, mills,
hives, etc. The Polish magnates lived, as a rule, far away from their
Ukrainian possessions, leaving the management of the latter in the
hands of stewards and arendars.
Among these rural arendars there were many Jews, who principally
leased from the pans the right of "propination," or the sale of
spirituous liquors. These leases had the effect of transferring to the
Jews some of the powers over the Russian serfs which were wielded
by the noble landowners. The Jewish arendar endeavored to derive
as much profit from the nobleman's estate as the owner himself
would have derived had he lived there. But under the prevailing
conditions of serfdom these profits could be extracted only by a
relentless exploitation of the peasants. Moreover, the contemptuous
attitude of the Shlakhta and the Catholic clergy towards the "religion
of khlops," and their endeavors to force the Greek Orthodox serfs
into Catholicism, by imposing upon them an ecclesiastic union, gave
a sharp religious coloring to this economic antagonism. The
oppressed peasantry reacted to this treatment with ominous
murmurings and agrarian disturbances in several places. The
enslaved South Russian muzhik hated the Polish pan in his capacity
as landlord, Catholic, and Lakh.[122] No less intensely did he hate
the Jewish arendar, with whom he came in daily contact, and whom
he regarded both as a steward of the pan and an "infidel," entirely
foreign to him on account of his religious customs and habits of life.
Thus the Ukrainian Jew found himself between hammer and anvil:
between the pan and the khlop, between the Catholic and the Greek
Orthodox, between the Pole and the Russian. Three classes, three
religions, and three nationalities, clashed on a soil which contained
in its bowels terrible volcanic forces—and a catastrophe was bound
to follow.
The South Russian population, though politically and agriculturally
dependent upon the Poles, was far from being that patient "beast of
burden" into which the rule of serfdom tried to transform it. Many
circumstances combined to foster a warlike spirit in this population.
The proximity of the New Russian steppes and the Khanate of the
Crimea, whence hordes of Tatars often burst forth to swoop down
like birds of prey upon the eastern provinces of Poland, compelled
the inhabitants of the Ukraina to organize themselves into warlike
companies, or Cossacks,[123] to fight off the invaders. The Polish
Government, acting through its local governors or starostas,
encouraged the formation of these companies for the defense of the
borders of the Empire. In this way Ukrainian Cossackdom, a semi-
military, semi-agricultural caste, came into being, with an
autonomous organization and its own hetman[124] at the head.
Apart from the Ukrainian Cossacks, who were subject to the Polish
Government, there were also the so-called Zaporozhian[125]
Cossacks, a completely independent military organization which lived
beyond the Falls of the Dnieper, in the steppes of so-called New
Russia, the present Governments of Yekaterinoslav and Kherson, and
indulged in frequent raids upon the Turks and in constant warfare
with the Tatars of the Crimea. This military camp, or syech,[126]
beyond the Falls of the Dnieper attracted many khlops from the
Ukraina, who preferred a free, unrestricted military life to the dreary
existence of laboring slaves. The syech represented a primitive
military republic, where daring, pluck, and knightly exploits were
valued above all. It was a semi-barbarous Tatar horde, except that it
professed the Greek Orthodox faith, and was of Russian origin,
though, by the way, with a considerable admixture of Mongolian
blood. The Ukrainian and Zaporozhian Cossacks were in constant
relations with each other. The peasants of the Ukraina looked up
with pride and hope to this their national guard, which sooner or
later was bound to free them from the rule of the Poles and Jews.
The Polish Government failed to perceive that on the eastern borders
of the Empire a mass of explosives was constantly accumulating,
which threatened to wreck the whole Polish Republic.
Nor could the Jews foresee that this terrible force would be directed
against them, and would stain with blood many pages of their
history, serving as a terrible omen for the future. The first warning
was sounded in 1637, when the Cossack leader Pavluk suddenly
appeared from beyond the Falls in the province of Poltava, inciting
the peasants to rise against the pans and the Jews. The rebels
demolished several synagogues in the town of Lubny and in
neighboring places, and killed about two hundred Jews. The real
catastrophe, however, came ten years later. The mutiny of the
Cossacks and the Ukrainian peasants in 1648 inaugurates in the
history of the Jews of Eastern Europe the era of pogroms, which
Southern Russia bequeathed to future generations down to the
beginning of the twentieth century.
2. The Pogroms and Massacres of 1648-1649
In the spring of 1648, while King Vladislav IV. still sat on the throne
of Poland, one of the popular Cossack leaders, Bogdan Khmelnitzki,
from the town of Chigirin, in the province of Kiev, unfurled the
banner of rebellion in the Ukraina and in the region beyond the
Dnieper Falls. Infuriated by the conduct of the Polish authorities of
his native place,[127] Khmelnitzki began to incite the Ukrainian
Cossacks to armed resistance. They elected him secretly their
hetman, and empowered him to conduct negotiations with the
Zaporozhians. Having arrived in the region beyond the Dnieper Falls,
he organized military companies, and concluded an alliance with the
Khan of the Crimea, who entered into a compact to send large
troops of Tatars to the aid of the rebels.
In April, 1648, the combined hosts of the Cossacks and Tatars
moved from beyond the Falls of the Dnieper to the borders of the
Ukraina. In the neighborhood of the Yellow Waters and Korsun they
inflicted a severe defeat on the Polish army under the command of
Pototzki and Kalinovski (May 6-15), and this defeat served as a
signal for the whole region on the eastern banks of the Dnieper to
rise in rebellion. The Russian peasants and town dwellers left their
homes, and, organizing themselves into bands, devastated the
estates of the pans, slaying their owners as well as the stewards and
Jewish arendars. In the towns of Pereyaslav, Piryatin, Lokhvitz,
Lubny, and the surrounding country, thousands of Jews were
barbarously killed, and their property was either destroyed or
pillaged. The rebels allowed only those to survive who embraced the
Greek Orthodox faith. The Jews of several cities of the Kiev region,
in order to escape from the hands of the Cossacks, fled into the
camp of the Tatars, and gave themselves up voluntarily as prisoners
of war. They knew that the Tatars refrained as a rule from killing
them, and transported them instead into Turkey, where they were
sold as slaves, and had a chance of being ransomed by their Turkish
coreligionists.
At that juncture, in the month of May, King Vladislav IV. died, and an
interregnum ensued, which, marked by political unrest, lasted six
months. The flame of rebellion seized the whole of the Ukraina, as
well as Volhynia and Podolia. Bands composed of Cossacks and
Russian peasants led by Khmelnitzki's accomplices, savage
Zaporozhian Cossacks, dispersed in all directions, and began to
exterminate Poles and Jews. To quote a Russian historian:
 Killing was accompanied by barbarous tortures; the
victims were flayed alive, split asunder, clubbed to death,
roasted on coals, or scalded with boiling water. Even
infants at the breast were not spared. The most terrible
cruelty, however, was shown towards the Jews. They were
destined to utter annihilation, and the slightest pity shown
to them was looked upon as treason. Scrolls of the Law
were taken out of the synagogues by the Cossacks, who
danced on them while drinking whiskey. After this Jews
were laid down upon them, and butchered without mercy.
Thousands of Jewish infants were thrown into wells, or
buried alive.
Contemporary Jewish chroniclers add that these human beasts
purposely refrained from finishing their victims, so as to be able to
torture them longer. They cut off their hands and feet, split the
children asunder, "fish-like," or roasted them on fire. They opened
the bowels of women, inserted live cats, and then sewed up the
wounds. The unbridled bestiality of intoxicated savages found
expression in these frightful tortures, of which even the Tatars were
incapable.
Particularly tragic was the fate of those Jews who, in the hope of
greater safety, had fled from the villages and townlets to the fortified
cities. Having learned that several thousand Jews had taken refuge
in the town of Niemirov in Podolia, Khmelnitzki dispatched thither a
detachment of Cossacks under the command of the Zaporozhian
Gania. Finding it difficult to take the city by storm, the Cossacks
resorted to a trick. They drew nigh to Niemirov, carrying aloft the
Polish banners and requesting admission into the city. The Jews,
fooled into believing that it was a Polish army that had come to their
rescue, opened the gates (Sivan 20 = June 10, 1648). The Cossacks,
in conjunction with the local Russian inhabitants, fell upon the Jews
and massacred them; the women and girls were violated. The Rabbi
and Rosh-Yeshibah of Niemirov, Jehiel Michael ben Eliezer, hid
himself in the cemetery with his mother, hoping in this wise at least
to be buried after death. There he was seized by one of the rioters,
a shoemaker, who began to club him. His aged mother begged the
murderer to kill her instead of her son, but the inhuman shoemaker
killed first the rabbi and then the aged woman.
The young Jewish women were frequently allowed to live, the
Cossacks and peasants forcing them into baptism and taking them
for wives. One beautiful Jewish girl who had been kidnaped for this
purpose by a Cossack managed to convince him that she was able to
throw a spell over bullets. She asked him to shoot at her, so as to
prove to him that the bullet would glide off without causing her any
injury. The Cossack discharged his gun, and the girl fell down,
mortally wounded, yet happy in the knowledge that she was saved
from a worse fate. Another Jewish girl, whom a Cossack was on the
point of marrying, threw herself from the bridge into the water, while
the wedding procession was marching to the church. Altogether
about six thousand Jews perished in the city of Niemirov.
Those who escaped death fled to the fortified Podolian town of
Tulchyn. Here an even more terrible tragedy was enacted. A large
horde of Cossacks and peasants laid siege to the fortress, which
contained several hundred Poles and some fifteen hundred Jews.
The Poles and Jews took an oath not to betray one another and to
defend the city to their last breath. The Jews, stationed on the walls
of the fortress, shot at the besiegers, keeping them off from the city.
After a long and unsuccessful siege the Cossacks conceived a
treacherous plan. They informed the Poles of Tulchyn that they were
aiming solely at the Jews, and, as soon as the latter were delivered
into their hands, they would leave the Poles in peace. The Polish
pans, headed by Count Chetvertinski, forgot their oath, and decided
to sacrifice their Jewish allies to secure their own safety. When the
Jews discovered this treacherous intention, they immediately
resolved to dispose of the Poles, whom they excelled in numbers.
But the Rosh-Yeshibah of Tulchyn, Rabbi Aaron, implored them not
to touch the pans, on the ground that such action might draw upon
the Jews all over the Empire the hatred of the Polish population. "Let
us rather perish," he exclaimed, "as did our brethren in Niemirov,
and let us not endanger the lives of our brethren in all the places of
their dispersion." The Jews yielded. They turned over all their
property to Chetvertinski, asking him to offer it to the Cossacks as a
ransom for their lives.
After entering the city, the Cossacks first took possession of the
property of the Jews, and then drove them together into a garden,
where they put up a banner and declared, "Let those who are willing
to accept baptism station themselves under this banner, and we will
spare their lives." The rabbis exhorted the people to accept
martyrdom for the sake of their religion and their people. Not a
single Jew was willing to become a traitor, and fifteen hundred
victims were murdered in a most barbarous fashion. Nor did the
perfidious Poles escape their fate. Another detachment of Cossacks,
which entered Tulchyn later, slew all the Catholics, among them
Count Chetvertinski. Treachery avenged treachery.
From Podolia the rebel bands penetrated into Volhynia. Here the
massacres continued in the course of the whole summer and
autumn of 1648. In the town of Polonnoye ten thousand Jews met
their death at the hands of the Cossacks, or were taken captive by
the Tatars. Among the victims was the Cabalist Samson of Ostropol,
who was greatly revered by the people. This Cabalist, and three
hundred pious fellow-Jews who followed him, put on their funeral
garments, the shrouds and prayer shawls, and offered up fervent
prayers in the synagogue, awaiting death in the sacred place, where
the murderers subsequently killed them one by one. Similar
massacres took place in Zaslav, Ostrog, Constantinov, Narol,
Kremenetz, Bar, and many other cities. The Ukraina as well as
Volhynia and Podolia were turned into one big slaughter-house.
The Polish troops, particularly those under the brave command of
Count Jeremiah Vishniovetzki, succeeded in subduing the Cossacks
and peasants in several places, annihilating some of their bands with
the same cruelty that the Cossacks had displayed towards the Poles
and the Jews. The Jews fled to these troops for their safety, and
they were welcomed by Vishniovetzki, who admitted the
unfortunates into the baggage train, and, to use the expression of a
Jewish chronicler, took care of them "as a father of his children."
After the catastrophe of Niemirov he entered the city with his army,
and executed the local rioters who had participated in the murder of
the Jewish inhabitants. However, standing all alone, he was unable
to extinguish the flame of the Cossack rebellion. For the
commanders-in-chief of the Polish army did not display the proper
energy at this critical moment, and Khmelnitzki was right in dubbing
them contemptuously "featherbeds," "youngsters," and "Latins"
("bookworms").
From the Ukraina bands of rebellious peasants, or haidamacks,
penetrated into the nearest towns of White Russia and Lithuania.
From Chernigov and Starodub, where the Jewish inhabitants had
been exterminated, the murderers moved towards the city of Homel
(July or August). A contemporary gives the following description of
the Homel massacre:
The rebels managed to bribe the head of the city, who
delivered the Jews into their hands. The Greeks [Yevanim,
i. e. the Greek Orthodox Russians] surrounded them with
drawn swords, and with daggers and spears, exclaiming:
"Why do you believe in your God, who has no pity on His
suffering people, and does not save it from our hands?
Reject your God, and you shall be masters! But if you will
cling to the faith of your fathers, you shall all perish in the
same way as your brethren in the Ukraina, in Pokutye,
[128] and Lithuania perished at our hands." Thereupon
Rabbi Eliezer, our teacher, the president of the [rabbinical]
court, exclaimed: "Brethren, remember the death of our
fellow-Jews, who perished to sanctify the name of our
God! Let us too stretch forth our necks to the sword of the
enemy; look at me and act as I do!" Immediately
thousands of Jews renounced their lives, despised this
world, and hallowed the name of God. The Rosh-Yeshibah
was the first to offer up his body as a burnt-offering.
 Young and old, boys and girls saw the tortures, sufferings,
and wounds of the teacher, who did not cease exhorting
them to accept martyrdom in the name of Him who had
called into being the generations of mortals. As one man
they all exclaimed: "Let us forgive one another our mutual
insults. Let us offer up our souls to God and our bodies to
the wild waves, to our enemies, the offspring of the
Greeks!" When our enemies heard these words, they
started a terrible butchery, killing their victims with spears
in order that they might die slowly. Husbands, wives, and
children fell in heaps. They did not even attain to burial,
dogs and swine feeding on their dead bodies.
In September, 1648, Khmelnitzki himself, marching at the head of a
Cossack army, and accompanied by his Tatar allies, approached the
walls of Lemberg, and began to besiege the capital of Red Russia, or
Galicia. The Cossacks succeeded in storming and pillaging the
suburbs, but they failed to penetrate to the fortified center of the
town. Khmelnitzki proposed to the magistracy of Lemberg, that it
deliver all the Jews and their property into the hands of the
Cossacks, promising in this case to raise the siege. The magistracy
replied that the Jews were under the jurisdiction of the king, and the
town authorities had no right to dispose of them. Khmelnitzki
thereupon agreed to withdraw, having obtained from the city an
enormous ransom, the bulk of which had been contributed by the
Jews.
From Lemberg Khmelnitzki proceeded with his troops in the direction
of Warsaw, where at that time the election of a new king was taking
place. The choice fell upon John Casimir, a brother of Vladislav IV.,
who had been Primate of Gnesen and a Cardinal (1648-1668). The
new King entered into peace negotiations with the leader of the
rebels, the hetman Khmelnitzki. But owing to the excessive demands
of the Cossacks the negotiations were broken off, and as a result, in
the spring of 1649, the flame of civil war flared up anew,
accompanied by the destruction of many more Jewish communities.
After a succession of battles in which the Poles were defeated, a
treaty of peace was concluded between John Casimir and
Khmelnitzki, in the town of Zborov. In this treaty, which was
favorable to the Cossacks, a clause was included forbidding the
residence of Jews in the portion of the Ukraina inhabited by the
Cossacks, the regions of Chernigov, Poltava, Kiev, and partly Podolia
(August, 1649).
At last the Jews, after a year and a half of suffering and tortures,
could heave a sigh of relief. Those of them who, at the point of
death, had embraced the Greek Orthodox faith, were permitted by
King John Casimir to return to their old creed. The Jewish women
who had been forcibly baptized fled in large numbers from their
Cossack husbands, and returned to their families. The Council of the
Four Lands, which met in Lublin in the winter of 1650, framed a set
of regulations looking to the restoration of normal conditions in the
domestic and communal life of the Jews. The day of the Niemirov
massacre (Sivan 20), which coincided with an old fast day in
memory of the martyrs of the Crusades, was appointed a day of
mourning, to commemorate the victims of the Cossack rebellion.
Leading rabbis of the time composed a number of soul-stirring
dirges and prayers, which were recited in the synagogues on the
fateful anniversary of the twentieth of Sivan.
But the respite granted to the Jews after these terrible events did
not last long. The Treaty of Zborov, which was unsatisfactory to the
Polish Government, was not adhered to by it. Mutual resentment
gave rise to new collisions, and civil war broke out again, in 1651.
The Polish Government called together the national militia, which
included a Jewish detachment of one thousand men. This time the
people's army got the upper hand against the troops of Khmelnitzki,
with the result that a treaty of peace was concluded which was
advantageous to the Poles. In the Treaty of Byelaya Tzerkov,
concluded in September, 1651, many claims of the Cossacks were
rejected, and the right of the Jews to live in the Greek Orthodox
portion of the Ukraina was restored.[129]
As a result, the Cossacks and Greek Orthodox Ukrainians rose again.
Bogdan Khmelnitzki entered into negotiations with the Russian Tzar
Alexis Michaelovich, looking to the incorporation, with the rights of
an autonomous province, of the Greek Orthodox portion of the
Ukraina, under the name of Little Russia, into the Muscovite Empire.
In 1654 this incorporation took place, and in the same year the
Russian army marched upon White Russia and Lithuania to wage
war on Poland. Now came the turn of the Jews of the northwestern
region to endure their share of suffering.
3. The Russian and Swedish Invasions (1654-1658)
The alliance of their enemies, the Cossacks, with the rulers of
Muscovy, a country which had always felt a superstitious dread of
the people of other lands and religions, was fraught with untold
misery for the Jews. It was now the turn of the inhabitants of White
Russia and Lithuania to face the hordes of southern and northern
Scythians, who invaded the regions hitherto spared by them,
devastating them uninterruptedly for two years (1654-1656). The
capture of the principal Polish cities by the combined hosts of the
Muscovites and Cossacks was accompanied by the extermination or
expulsion of the Jews. When Moghilev on the Dnieper[130]
surrendered to Russian arms, Tzar Alexis Michaelovich complied with
the request of the local Russian inhabitants, and gave orders to
expel the Jews and divide their houses between the magistracy and
the Russian authorities (1654). The Jews, however, who were hoping
for a speedy termination of hostilities, failed to leave the city at
once, and had to pay severely for it. Towards the end of the summer
of 1655 the commander of the Russian garrison in Moghilev, Colonel
Poklonski, learned of the approach of a Polish army under the
command of Radziwill. Prompted by the fear that the Jewish
residents might join the approaching enemy, Poklonski ordered the
Jews to leave the boundaries of the city, and, on the ground of their
being Polish subjects, promised to have them transferred to the
camp of Radziwill. Scarcely had the Jews, accompanied by their
wives and children, and carrying with them their property, left the
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