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Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-1

Chapter 6
Looping

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
Chapter 6 covers looping structures. Students will learn to create definite and indefinite
loops using the while statement. Next, they will learn to use Java’s accumulating and
incrementing operators. Students will use for loops to create a definite loop and
do…while loops for use when a posttest loop is required. Finally, students will learn
how to create nested loops and how to improve loop efficiency.

Objectives
• Learn about the loop structure
• Create while loops
• Use shortcut arithmetic operators
• Create for loops
• Create do…while loops
• Nest loops
• Improve loop performance

Teaching Tips
Learning About the Loop Structure
1. Define a loop as a structure that allows repeated execution of a block of statements. The
loop body contains the block of statements.

2. Explain the purpose of a loop. Briefly introduce the three loop statements used in Java
that are listed on page 300.

3. Describe scenarios when looping is useful. If possible, equate the loop to a game or
real-life situation.

Teaching Repetition structures are the third and final type of program control structure
Tip along with sequence and decision.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 300.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-3

Creating while Loops

1. Define a while loop. Discuss that the loop body will continue to execute as long as the
Boolean expression that controls the loop is true.

2. Define a definite loop and an indefinite loop. Explain when each is useful in a
program.

Writing a Definite while Loop

1. Note that a while loop can be used to create a definite loop—one that repeats a
predetermined number of times. A definite loop is controlled by a loop control
variable.

2. Review the flowchart and program statements in Figure 6-2 and Figure 6-4.

3. If practical, code a definite while loop during your lecture.

Teaching Note that the flowchart symbol for a decision—a diamond—is also used in a
Tip loop flowchart.

4. Explain the concept of an infinite loop, as shown in Figure 6-3. Note that it is easy to
make a mistake when programming a loop that results in an infinite loop.

5. Describe the steps to avoid an infinite loop listed on page 302.

Pitfall: Failing to Alter the Loop Control Variable Within the Loop Body

1. Discuss the importance of altering the loop control variable within the body of a loop.

2. Using the code in Figure 6-5, demonstrate the pitfall of forgetting to insert curly braces
around the loop body.

Teaching Remind students that they should attempt to terminate a program that they
Tip believe contains an infinite loop.

Pitfall: Creating a Loop with an Empty Body

1. Using Figure 6-6, point out that a loop can have an empty body. Suggest to your
students that this should be avoided.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-4

Altering a Definite Loop’s Control Variable

1. Definite loops are sometimes called counter-controlled loops. The loop control
variable must be changed to avoid an infinite loop.

2. Introduce the terms incrementing and decrementing. Figure 6-7 shows a loop
statement in which the loop control variable is decremented each time the loop
executes.

3. Students often think that increments or decrements can only be in steps of 1.

Demonstrate that loops can increment by 1, 2, 3, .5, or whatever value change is
needed.

Teaching It is more common for a loop control variable to be incremented than

Tip decremented.

Writing an Indefinite while Loop

1. Describe an indefinite loop. This type of loop is an event-controlled loop, often

controlled by user input, as seen in the program in Figure 6-8.

2. Note that indefinite loops are also commonly used to validate data. An example is seen
in Figure 6-10.

3. If practical, code an event-controlled loop during your lecture.

Validating Data

1. Define the term validating data. Provide a really good example of why validating data
is important.

2. Examine the shaded loop in Figure 6-10. Be sure to discuss with your class how this
loop functions. Point out that the loop continues to execute while the data is invalid.
The test in validating loops should check for invalid data, not valid data.

3. Code several data validating loops during your lecture.

Teaching Validating data should be a very important topic in your lectures. Students
Tip should get into the habit of validating every input.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 310.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-5

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 310–311 to create a Java
application that uses a loop to validate data entries.

Quick Quiz 1
1. True or False: Within a looping structure, a floating-point expression is evaluated.
Answer: False

2. A(n) ____ loop is one in which the loop-controlling Boolean expression is the first
statement in the loop.
Answer: while

3. To write a definite loop, you initialize a(n) ____, a variable whose value determines
whether loop execution continues.
Answer: loop control variable

4. A loop controlled by the user is a type of ____ loop because you don’t know how many
times it will eventually loop.
Answer: indefinite

5. Verifying user data through a loop is the definition of ____.

Answer: validating data

Using Shortcut Arithmetic Operators

1. Define the terms counting and accumulating.

2. Introduce the shortcut operators used to increment and accumulate values:

add and assign operator +=
subtract and assign operator -=
multiply and assign operator *=
divide and assign operator /=
remainder and assign operator %=

Teaching Ask students to write several equivalent arithmetic statements using the normal
Tip and accumulating operators.

3. Introduce the prefix and postfix increment operators and decrement operators.
Review the program in Figure 6-13 to discuss the use of these operators.

4. Write code during your lectures that uses several of the operators presented in this
section.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-6

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 315.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 315–317 to create a Java
application that uses the prefix and postfix increment operators.

Teaching
Stress the difference between the prefix and postfix operators.
Tip

Creating a for Loop

1. Define a for loop. Emphasize that the for loop is a definite loop. Discuss when the
for loop is appropriate in code. Contrast the for loop with the counter-controlled
definite while loop.

2. Using Figure 6-18, describe the program statements used in a for loop. The three
sections of a for loop are described on page 317. Discuss the different ways these
three sections may be used (listing on pages 318–319).

3. Point out that a for loop with an empty body is not infinite, and can be used to create a
brief pause in your program.

Teaching Remind students that a variable declared within a for loop is only accessible
Tip within the loop and goes out of scope when the loop exits.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 320.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 320–321 to create a Java
application that uses a definite loop.

Learning How and When to Use a do…while Loop

1. Explain that in both of the loop structures introduced in the chapter, while and for,
the body of the loop may not execute because the loop condition is checked before
entering the loop. This is known as a pretest loop.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-7

2. In contrast, the body of a do…while loop will always execute at least once before the
loop condition is checked. This type of loop is called a posttest loop.

Teaching Provide examples of a situation for which it is desirable to use a pretest loop and
Tip one for which it is desirable to use a posttest loop.

3. Review the flowchart in Figure 6-20 and the program code in Figure 6-21.

4. Note that even though it is not required, it is a good idea to always enclose a single loop
statement within a block.

5. Revisit data validation. Point out that the code in Figure 6-10 asks for input both before
the loop and within the loop. The first input is called a priming input.

6. Recode the shaded portion of Figure 6-10 using a do…while loop. The use of the
do…while loop removes the need for the priming input. Code several other data
validation loops during your lecture.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 324.

Quick Quiz 2
1. The statement count ____1; is identical in meaning to count = count + 1.
Answer: +=

2. The prefix and postfix increment operators are ____ operators because you use them
with one value.
Answer: unary

3. The three elements within the for loop are used to ____, ____, and ____ the loop
control variable.
Answer: initialize, test, update

4. A while loop is a(n) ____ loop—one in which the loop control variable is tested
before the loop body executes.
Answer: pretest

5. The do…while loop is a(n) ____ loop—one in which the loop control variable is
tested after the loop body executes.
Answer: posttest
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-8

Learning About Nested Loops

1. Note that like decision structures, loop structures can be nested inside other loops. This
is shown in a flowchart in Figure 6-23.

2. Make sure that students understand the terms inner loop and outer loop. Also, stress
that any type of loop can be nested within any other type (i.e., a for loop inside a
while loop).

3. An example of a program with nested loops is shown in Figure 6-24.

4. Use the code on page 327 to discuss the importance of placing the inner and outer loops
correctly.

5. Discuss the performance issues involved with using nested loops.

6. Code a nested loop with your class. A classic example is generating a multiplication
table.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 327.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 328–329 to create a Java
application that uses nested loops to print a list of positive divisors.

Loop performance is very important on mobile devices. Improving the

Teaching
performance of a loop will make code execute faster on mobile devices, and
Tip
draw less power.

Improving Loop Performance

1. Discuss simple ways to improve loop performance by using the techniques listed on
page 329.

Avoiding Unnecessary Operations

1. Describe the inefficiency of making a calculation within a loop test expression. An

example of what not to do and how to fix it is shown on page 330.

Considering the Order of Evaluation of Short-Circuit Operators

1. Remind students that when a logical expression such as AND or OR is used, the
expression is only evaluated as far as necessary to determine the true or false
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-9

outcome. It is important to place the condition most likely to terminate the loop first,
especially with an inner loop. An example is shown on page 330.

Comparing to Zero

1. Note that it is faster to perform a comparison to 0 than to another value.

2. The example in Figure 6-27 creates and times two sets of nested do-nothing loops. The
second set of loops will execute faster than the first set of loops.

3. If time permits, execute the code in Figure 6-27 during your lecture.

Employing Loop Fusion

1. Explain the concept of loop fusion, as shown on page 332.

Using Prefix Incrementing Rather than Postfix Incrementing

1. Using prefix incrementing is slightly faster than using postfix incrementing. The code
shown in Figure 6-29 times two do-nothing loops that loop 1 billion times. The first
loop uses postfix loops; the second uses prefix loops.

2. Figure 6-30 proves that over the 1 billion loops, the prefix loop executes about one-
tenth of a second faster.

Figure 6-30 will result in different times depending on your system. The numbers
will likely not impress your students. To make the numbers relevant, calculate
Teaching
the time saved if this code is executed 1,000 times in a day. This saves 100
Tip
seconds, or nearly 3 minutes of processing time per day, or over 1,000 minutes
per year.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 334.

You Do It
1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 335–336 to create a Java
application that compares execution times for different loop techniques.

Don’t Do It
1. Review this section, discussing each point with the class.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-10

Quick Quiz 3
1. When loops are ____, each pair contains an inner loop and an outer loop.
Answer: nested

2. True or False: When you use a loop within a loop, you should always think of the inner
loop as the all-encompassing loop.
Answer: False

3. True or False: Whether you decide to use a while, for, or do…while loop in an
application, you can improve loop performance by making sure the loop does not
include unnecessary operations or statements.
Answer: True

4. Combining loops to improve performance is referred to as ____.

Answer: loop fusion

Class Discussion Topics

1. Under what circumstances would you use a for loop rather than a while loop?

2. Why do you think the Java language provides three different types of loops if all loops
can be written using the while statement?

3. Modern processors run at over 3 GHz and have several cores. Given the speed of
modern computers, why is it still important to discuss performance issues?

Additional Projects
1. Create a Java program that uses nested loops to print out the following:

*
**
***
****
*****

2. A new variation on the for loop called the for each loop was introduced in Java 5.
Using the Internet, find a description of this loop and explain how it is different from a
standard for loop.

3. Create a Java application that prints a checkerboard using nested loops.

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Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-11

Additional Resources
1. The while and do-while Statements:
http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/while.html

2. The for Statement:

http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/for.html

3. Multiple Choice Java Looping Quiz:

http://mathbits.com/mathbits/java/Looping/MCLooping.htm

4. The For-Each Loop:

http://download.oracle.com/javase/1.5.0/docs/guide/language/foreach.html

5. Java program to demonstrate looping:

www.java2s.com/Code/Java/Language-Basics/Javaprogramtodemonstratelooping.htm

Key Terms
 Accumulating: the process of repeatedly increasing a value by some amount to produce
a total.
 Add and assign operator ( += ): alters the value of the operand on the left by adding
the operand on the right to it.
 Counter-controlled loop: a definite loop.
 Counting: the process of continually incrementing a variable to keep track of the
number of occurrences of some event.
 Decrementing: reducing the value of a variable by 1.
 Definite loop: a loop that executes a specific number of times; also called a counted
loop.
 Divide and assign operator ( /= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
dividing the operand on the right into it.
 do…while loop: executes a loop body at least one time; it checks the loop control
variable at the bottom of the loop after one repetition has occurred.
 Do-nothing loop: one that performs no actions other than looping.
 Empty body: a block with no statements in it.
 Event-controlled loop: an indefinite loop.
 for loop: a special loop that can be used when a definite number of loop iterations is
required.
 Incrementing: adding 1 to the value of a variable.
 Indefinite loop: one in which the final number of loops is unknown.
 Infinite loop: a loop that never ends.
 Inner loop: contained entirely within another loop.
 Iteration: one loop execution.
 Loop: a structure that allows repeated execution of a block of statements.
 Loop body: the block of statements that executes when the Boolean expression that
controls the loop is true.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 6-12

 Loop control variable: a variable whose value determines whether loop execution
continues.
 Loop fusion: the technique of combining two loops into one.
 Multiply and assign operator ( *= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
multiplying the operand on the right by it.
 Outer loop: contains another loop.
 Postfix ++: evaluates a variable and then adds 1 to it.
 Postfix increment operator: another name for postfix ++.
 Posttest loop: one in which the loop control variable is tested after the loop body
executes.
 Prefix ++: adds 1 to a variable and then evaluates it.
 Prefix and postfix decrement operators: subtract 1 from a variable. For example, if b
= 4; and c = b--;, 4 is assigned to c, and then after the assignment, b is decreased
and takes the value 3. If b = 4; and c = --b;, b is decreased to 3, and 3 is
assigned to c.
 Prefix increment operator: another name for prefix ++.
 Pretest loop: one in which the loop control variable is tested before the loop body
executes.
 Priming input: another name for a priming read.
 Priming read: the first input statement prior to a loop that will execute subsequent
input statements for the same variable.
 Remainder and assign operator ( %= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
assigning the remainder when the left operand is divided by the right operand.
 Subtract and assign operator ( –= ): alters the value of the operand on the left by
subtracting the operand on the right from it.
 Validating data: the process of ensuring that a value falls within a specified range.
 while loop: executes a body of statements continually as long as the Boolean
expression that controls entry into the loop continues to be true.
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number would be small. There is no reason for limiting it strictly to
two persons, or for supposing that they would appear in pairs, two
and two; nor is it necessary to suppose that it refers particularly to
two people or nations. The word rendered witnesses—μάρτυσι—is
that from which we have derived the word martyr. It means properly
one who bears testimony, either in a judicial sense (Mat. xviii. 16;
xxvi. 65), or one who can in any way testify to the truth of what he
has seen and known, Lu. xxiv. 48; Ro. i. 9; Phi. i. 8; 1 Th. ii. 10;
1 Ti. vi. 12. Then it came to be employed in the sense in which the
word martyr is now—to denote one who, amidst great sufferings or
by his death, bears witness to the truth; that is, one who is so
confident of the truth, and so upright, that he will rather lay down
his life than deny the truth of what he has seen and known, Acts
xxii. 20; Rev. ii. 13. In a similar sense it comes to denote one who is
so thoroughly convinced on a subject that it is not susceptible of
being seen and heard, or who is so attached to one that he is willing
to lay down his life as the evidence of his conviction and attachment.
The word, as used here, refers to those who, during this period of
“forty and two months,” would thus be witnesses for Christ in the
world; that is, who would bear their testimony to the truth of his
religion, to the doctrines which he had revealed, and to what was
required of man—who would do this amidst surrounding error and
corruption, and when exposed to persecutions and trials on account
of their belief. It is not uncommon in the Scriptures to represent the
righteous as witnesses for God. See Notes on Is. xliii. 10, 12; xliv. 8.
¶ And they shall prophesy. The word prophesy does not necessarily
mean that they would predict future events; but the sense is, that
they would give utterance to the truth as God had revealed it. See
Notes on ch. x. 11. The sense here is, that they would in some
public manner hold up or maintain the truth before the world.
¶ A thousand two hundred and threescore days. The same period as
the forty and two months (ver. 2), though expressed in a different
form. Reckoning a day for a year, this period would be twelve
hundred and sixty years, or the same as the “time and times and the
dividing of time” in Da. vii. 25. See Notes on that place; also Editor’s
Preface. The meaning of this would be, therefore, that during that
long period, in which it is said that “the holy city would be trodden
under foot,” there would be those who might be properly called
“witnesses” for God, and who would be engaged in holding up his
truth before the world; that is, there would be no part of that period
in which there would not be found some to whom this appellation
could with propriety be given. Though the “holy city”—the church—
would seem to be wholly trodden down, yet there would be a few at
least who would assert the great doctrines of true godliness.
¶ Clothed in sackcloth. Sackcloth—σάκκους—was properly a coarse
black cloth commonly made of hair, used for sacks, for straining, and
for mourning garments. See Notes on ch. vi. 12; Is. iii. 24; and Mat.
xi. 21. Here it is an emblem of mourning; and the idea is, that they
would prophesy in the midst of grief. This would indicate that the
time would be one of calamity, or that, in doing this, there would be
occasion for their appearing in the emblems of grief, rather than in
robes expressive of joy. The most natural interpretation of this is,
that there would be but few who could be regarded as true
witnesses for God in the world, and that they would be exposed to
persecution.
 4 These are the 339two olive-trees, and the
two 340candlesticks standing before the God of
the earth.
4. These are the two olive-trees. These are represented by the
two olive-trees, or these are what are symbolized by the two olive-
trees. There can be little doubt that there is an allusion here to Zec.
iv. 3, 11, 14, though the imagery is in some respects changed. The
prophet (Zec. iv. 2, 3) saw in vision “a candlestick all of gold, with a
bowl upon the top of it, and his seven lamps thereon, and seven
pipes to the seven lamps, which were upon the top thereof; and two
olive-trees by it, one upon the right side of the bowl, and the other
upon the left side thereof.” These two “olive branches” were
subsequently declared (ver. 14) to be “the two anointed ones, that
stand by the Lord of the whole earth.” The olive-trees, or olive-
branches (ver. 12), appear in the vision of the prophet to have been
connected with the ever-burning lamp by golden pipes; and as the
olive-tree produced the oil used by the ancients in their lamps, these
trees are represented as furnishing a constant supply of oil through
the golden pipes to the candlestick, and thus they become
emblematic of the supply of grace to the church. John uses this
emblem, not in the sense exactly in which it was employed by the
prophet, but to denote that these two “witnesses,” which might be
compared with the two olive-trees, would be the means of supplying
grace to the church. As the olive-tree furnished oil for the lamps, the
two trees here would seem properly to denote ministers of religion;
and as there can be no doubt that the candlesticks, or lamp-bearers,
denote churches, the sense would appear to be that it was through
the pastors of the churches that the oil of grace which maintained
the brightness of those mystic candlesticks, or the churches, was
conveyed. The image is a beautiful one, and expresses a truth of
great importance to the world; for God has designed that the lamp
of piety shall be kept burning in the churches by truth supplied
through ministers and pastors. ¶ And the two candlesticks. The
prophet Zechariah saw but one such candlestick or lamp-bearer;
John here saw two—as there are two “witnesses” referred to. In the
vision described in ch. i. 12, he saw seven—representing the seven
churches of Asia. For an explanation of the meaning of the symbol,
see Notes on that verse. ¶ Standing before the God of the earth. So
Zec. iv. 14, “These be the two anointed ones, that stand by the Lord
of the whole earth.” The meaning is, that they stood, as it were, in
the very presence of God—as, in the tabernacle and temple, the
golden candlestick stood “before” the ark on which was the symbol
of the divine presence, though separated from it by a veil. Comp.
Notes on ch. ix. 13. This representation, that the ministers of religion
“stand before the Lord,” is one that is not uncommon in the Bible.
Thus it is said of the priests and Levites: “The Lord separated the
tribe of Levi, to stand before the Lord, to minister unto him, and to
bless his name,” De. x. 8; comp. xviii. 7. The same thing is said of
the prophets, as in the cases of Elijah and Elisha: “As the Lord liveth,
before whom I stand,” 1 Ki. xvii. 1; also, xviii. 15; 2 Ki. iii. 14; v. 16;
comp. Je. xv. 19. The representation is, that they ministered, as it
were, constantly in his presence, and under his eye.

5 And if any man will hurt them, 341fire

proceedeth out of their mouth, and devoureth
their enemies: and if any man will hurt them,
342
he must in this manner be killed.
5. And if any man will hurt them. This implies that there would be
those who would be disposed to injure or wrong them; that is, that
they would be liable to persecution. The word “will” is here more
than the mere sign of the future; it denotes intention, purpose,
design—θέλει—“if any man wills or purposes to injure them.” See a
similar use of the word in 1 Ti. vi. 9. The word hurt here means to
do injury or injustice—ἀδικῆσαι—and may refer to wrong in any form
—whether in respect to their character, opinions, persons, or
property. The general sense is, that there would be those who would
be disposed to do them harm, and we should naturally look for the
fulfilment of this in some form of persecution. ¶ Fire proceedeth out
of their mouth. It is, of course, not necessary that this should be
taken literally. The meaning is, that they would have the power of
destroying their enemies as if fire should proceed out of their mouth;
that is, their words would be like burning coals or flames. There may
possibly be an allusion here to 2 Ki. i. 10‒14, where it is said that
Elijah commanded the fire to descend from heaven to consume
those who were sent to take him (comp. Lu. ix. 54); but in that case
Elijah commanded the fire to come “from heaven;” here it
proceedeth “out of the mouth.” The allusion here, therefore, is to the
denunciations which they would utter, or the doctrines which they
would preach, and which would have the same effect on their
enemies as if they breathed forth fire and flame. So Je. v. 14,
“Because ye speak this word, Behold, I will make my words in thy
mouth fire and this people wood, and it shall devour them.” ¶ And
devoureth their enemies. The word devour is often used with
reference to fire, which seems to eat up or consume what is in its
way, or to feed on that which it destroys. This is the sense of the
word here—κατεσθίει—“to eat down, to swallow down, to devour.”
Comp. ch. xx. 9; Sept. Is. xxix. 6; Joel ii. 5; Le. x. 2. As there is no
reason to believe that there would be literal fire, so it is not
necessary to suppose that their enemies would be literally devoured
or consumed. The meaning is fulfilled if their words should in any
way produce an effect on their enemies similar to what is produced
by fire: that is, if it should destroy their influence; if it should
overcome and subdue them; if it should annihilate their domination
in the world. ¶ And if any man will hurt them. This is repeated in
order to make the declaration more intensive, and also to add
another thought about the effect of persecuting and injuring them.
¶ He must in this manner be killed. That is, in the manner specified
—by fire. It does not mean that he would be killed in the same
manner in which the “witnesses” were killed, but in the method
specified before—by the fire that should proceed out of their mouth.
The meaning is, undoubtedly, that they would have power to bring
down on them divine vengeance or punishment, so that there would
be a just retaliation for the wrongs done them.

6 These343 have power to shut heaven, that it

rain not in the days of their prophecy: and have
344
power over waters to turn them to blood,
and to smite the earth with all plagues, as often
as they will.
6. These have power to shut heaven. That is, so far as rain is
concerned—for this is immediately specified. There is probably a
reference here to an ancient opinion that the rain was kept in the
clouds of heaven as in reservoirs or bottles, and that when they
were opened it rained; when they were closed it ceased to rain. So
Job, “He bindeth up the waters in his thick clouds, and the cloud is
not rent under them,” xxvi. 8. “Which the clouds do drop and distil
upon man abundantly,” Job xxxvi. 28. “Who can number the clouds
in wisdom? or who can stay the bottles of heaven?” Job xxxviii. 37;
comp. Ge. i. 7; vii. 12; viii. 2; 2 Ki. vii. 2. To shut or close up the
heavens, therefore, is to restrain the rain from descending, or to
produce a drought. Comp. Notes on Ja. v. 17. ¶ That it rain not in
the days of their prophecy. In the time when they prophesy.
Probably the allusion here is to what is said of Elijah, 1 Ki. xvii. 1.
This would properly refer to some miraculous power; but still it may
be used to denote merely that they would be clothed with the power
of causing blessings to be withheld from men, as if rain were
withheld; that is, that in consequence of the calamities that would
be brought upon them, and the persecutions which they would
endure, God would bring judgments upon men as if they were
clothed with this power. The language, therefore, it seems to me,
does not necessarily imply that they would have the power of
working miracles. ¶ And have power over waters to turn them to
blood. The allusion here is doubtless to what occurred in Egypt, Ex.
vii. 17. Comp. Notes on Re. viii. 8. This, too, would literally denote
the power of working a miracle; but still it is not absolutely
necessary to suppose that this is intended. Anything that would be
represented by turning waters into blood, would correspond with all
that is necessarily implied in the language. If any great calamity
should occur in consequence of what was done to them that would
be properly represented by turning the waters into blood so that
they could not be used, and that was so connected with the
treatment which they received as to appear to be a judgment of
heaven on that account, or that would appear to have come upon
the world in consequence of their imprecations, it would be all that
is necessarily implied in this language. ¶ And to smite the earth with
all plagues. All kinds of plague or calamity; disease, pestilence,
famine, flood, &c. The word plague—πληγῇ—which means, properly,
stroke, stripe, blow, would include any or all of these. The meaning
here is, that great calamities would follow the manner in which they
were treated, as if the power were lodged in their hands. ¶ As often
as they will. So that it would seem that they could exercise this
power as they pleased.

7 And when they shall have finished their

testimony 345the beast that ascendeth out of
the bottomless pit shall 346make war against
them, and shall overcome them, and kill them.
7. And when they shall have finished their testimony. Professor
Stuart renders this, “And whenever they shall have finished their
testimony.” The reference is undoubtedly to a period when they
should have faithfully borne the testimony which they were
appointed to bear. The word here rendered “shall have finished”—
τελέσωσι, from τελέω—means properly to end, to finish, to
complete, to accomplish. It is used, in this respect, in two senses—
either in regard to time or in regard to the end or object in view, in
the sense of perfecting it, or accomplishing it. In the former sense it
is employed in such passages as the following:—“Till the thousand
years should be fulfilled,” Re. xx. 3. “Ye shall not have gone over the
cities of Israel [Gr., ye shall not have finished the cities of Israel] till
the Son of man be come,” Mat. x. 23; that is, ye shall not have
finished passing through them. “When Jesus had made an end [Gr.,
finished] of commanding his twelve disciples,” Mat. xi. 1. “I have
finished my course,” 2 Ti. iv. 7. In these passages it clearly refers to
time. In the other sense it is used in such places as the following:
—“And shall not the uncircumcision which is by nature, if it fulfil the
law,” Ro. ii. 27; that is, if it accomplish or come up to the demands
of the law. “If ye fulfil the royal law according to the scriptures,” Ja.
ii. 8. The word, then, may here refer not to time, meaning that these
events would occur at the end of the “thousand two hundred and
threescore days,” but to the fact that what is here stated would
occur when they had completed their testimony in the sense of
having testified all that they were appointed to testify; that is, when
they had borne full witness for God, and fully uttered his truth. Thus
understood, the meaning here may be that the event here referred
to would take place, not at the end of the 1260 years, but at that
period during the 1260 years when it could be said with propriety
that they had accomplished their testimony in the world, or that they
had borne full and ample witness on the points intrusted to them.
¶ The beast. This is the first time in the book of Revelation in which
what is here called “the beast” is mentioned, and which has so
important an agency in the events which it is said would occur. It is
repeatedly mentioned in the course of the book, and always with
similar characteristics, and as referring to the same object. Here it is
mentioned as “ascending out of the bottomless pit;” in ch. xiii. 1, as
“rising up out of the sea;” in ch. xiii. 11, as “coming up out of the
earth.” It is also mentioned with characteristics appropriate to such
an origin, in ch. xiii. 2‒4 (twice), 11, 12 (twice), 14 (twice), 15
(twice), 17, 18; xiv. 9, 11; xv. 2; xvi. 2, 10, 13; xvii. 3, 7, 8 (twice),
11, 12, 13, 16, 17; xix. 19, 20 (twice); xx. 4, 40. The word here
used—θηρίον—means properly a beast, a wild beast, Mar. i. 13; Ac.
x. 12; xi. 6; xxviii. 4, 5; He. xii. 20; Ja. iii. 7; Re. vi. 8. It is once used
tropically of brutal or savage men, Tit. i. 12. Elsewhere, in the
passages above referred to in the Apocalypse, it is used symbolically.
As employed in the book of Revelation, the characteristics of the
“beast” are strongly marked. (a) It has its origin from beneath—in
the bottomless pit; the sea; the earth, ch. xi. 7; xiii. 1, 11. (b) It has
great power, ch. xiii. 4, 12; xvii. 12, 13. (c) It claims and receives
worship, ch. xiii. 3, 12, 14, 15; xiv. 9, 11. (d) It has a certain “seat”
or throne from whence its power proceeds, ch. xvi. 10. (e) It is of
scarlet colour, ch. xvii. 3. (f) It receives power conferred upon it by
the kings of the earth, ch. xvii. 13. (g) It has a mark by which it is
known, ch. xiii. 17; xix. 20. (h) It has a certain “number;” that is,
there are certain mystical letters or figures which so express its
name that it may be known, ch. xiii. 17, 18. These things serve to
characterize the “beast” as distinguished from all other things, and
they are so numerous and definite, that it would seem to have been
intended to make it easy to understand what was meant when the
power referred to should appear. In regard to the origin of the
imagery here, there can be no reasonable doubt that it is to be
traced to Daniel, and that the writer here means to describe the
same “beast” which Daniel refers to in ch. vii. 7. The evidence of this
must be clear to anyone who will compare the description in Daniel
(ch. vii.) with the minute details in the book of Revelation. No one,
I think, can doubt that John means to carry forward the description
in Daniel, and to apply it to new manifestations of the same great
and terrific power—the power of the fourth monarchy—on the earth.
For full evidence that the representation in Daniel refers to the
Roman power prolonged and perpetuated in the Papal dominion,
I must refer the reader to the Notes on Da. vii. 25. It may be
assumed here that the opinion there defended is correct, and
consequently it may be assumed that the “beast” of this book refers
to the Papal power. ¶ That ascendeth out of the bottomless pit. See
Notes on ch. ix. 1. This would properly mean that its origin is the
nether world; or that it will have characteristics which will show that
it was from beneath. The meaning clearly is, that what was
symbolized by the beast would have such characteristics as to show
that it was not of divine origin, but had its source in the world of
darkness, sin, and death. This, of course, could not represent the
true church, or any civil government that is founded on principles
which God approves. But if it represent a community pretending to
be a church, it is an apostate church; if a civil community, it is a
community the characteristics of which are that it is controlled by
the spirit that rules over the world beneath. For reasons which we
shall see in abundance in applying the descriptions which occur of
the “beast,” I regard this as referring to that great apostate power
which occupies so much of the prophetic descriptions—the Papacy.
¶ Shall make war against them. Will endeavour to exterminate them
by force. This clearly is not intended to be a general statement that
they would be persecuted, but to refer to the particular manner in
which the opposition would be conducted. It would be in the form of
“war;” that is, there would be an effort to destroy them by arms.
¶ And shall overcome them. Shall gain the victory over them;
conquer them—νικήσει αὐτοὺς. That is, there will be some signal
victory in which those represented by the two witnesses will be
subdued. ¶ And kill them. That is, an effect would be produced as if
they were put to death. They would be overcome; would be
silenced; would be apparently dead. Any event that would cause
them to cease to bear testimony, as if they were dead, would be
properly represented by this. It would not be necessary to suppose
that there would be literally death in the case, but that there would
be some event which would be well represented by death—such as
an entire suspension of their prophesying in consequence of force.

8 And their 347dead bodies shall lie in the

street of the great city, which spiritually is called
348
Sodom and 349Egypt, where also our Lord
was crucified.
 8. And their dead bodies shall lie in the street. Professor Stuart,
“Shall be in the street.” The words “shall lie” are supplied by the
translators, but not improperly. The literal rendering would be, “and
their corpses upon the street of the great city;” and the meaning is,
that there would be a state of things in regard to them which would
be well represented by supposing them to lie unburied. To leave a
body unburied is to treat it with contempt, and among the ancients
nothing was regarded as more dishonourable than such treatment.
See the Ajax of Sophocles. Among the Jews also it was regarded as
a special indignity to leave the dead unburied, and hence they are
always represented as deeply solicitous to secure the interment of
their dead. See Ge. xxiii. 4. Comp. 2 Sa. xxi. 9‒13; Ec. vi. 3; Is.
xiv. 18‒20; xxii. 16; liii. 9. The meaning here is, that, for the time
specified, those who are here referred to would be treated with
indignity and contempt. In the fulfilment of this, we are not, of
course, to look for any literal accomplishment of what is here said,
but for some treatment of the “witnesses” which would be well
represented by this; that is, which would show that they were
treated, after they were silenced, like unburied corpses putrefying in
the sun. ¶ Of the great city. Where these transactions would occur.
As a great city would be the agent in putting them to death, so the
result would be as if they were publicly exposed in its streets. The
word “great” here supposes that the city referred to would be
distinguished for its size—a circumstance of some importance in
determining the place referred to. ¶ Which spiritually is called—
πνευματικῶς. This word occurs only in one other place in the New
Testament, 1 Co. ii. 14, “because they are spiritually discerned”—
where it means, “in accordance with the Holy Spirit,” or “through the
aid of the Holy Spirit.” Here it seems to be used in the sense of
metaphorically, or allegorically, in contradistinction from the literal
and real name. There may possibly be an intimation here that the
city is so called by the Holy Spirit to designate its real character, but
still the essential meaning is, that that was not its literal name. For
some reason the real name is not given to it; but such descriptions
are applied as are designed to leave no doubt as to what is
intended. ¶ Sodom. Sodom was distinguished for its wickedness, and
especially for that vice to which its abominations have given name.
For the character of Sodom, see Ge. xviii., xix. Comp. 2 Pe. ii. 6. In
inquiring what “city” is here referred to, it would be necessary to find
in it such abominations as characterized Sodom, or so much
wickedness that it would be proper to call it Sodom. If it shall be
found that this was designed to refer to Papal Rome, no one can
doubt that the abominations which prevailed there would justify such
an appellation. Comp. Notes on ch. ix. 20, 21. ¶ And Egypt. That is,
it would have such a character that the name Egypt might be
properly given to it. Egypt is known in the Scriptures as the land of
oppression—the land where the Israelites, the people of God, were
held in cruel bondage. Comp. Ex. i.‒xv. See also Eze. xxiii. 8. The
particular idea, then, which seems to be conveyed here is, that the
“city” referred to would be characterized by acts of oppression and
wrong towards the people of God. So far as the language is
concerned, it might apply either to Jerusalem or to Rome—for both
were eminently characterized by such acts of oppression toward the
true children of God as to make it proper to compare their cruelties
with those which were inflicted on the Israelites by the Egyptians. Of
whichever of these places the course of the exposition may require
us to understand this, it will be seen at once that the language is
such as is strictly applicable to either; though, as the reference is
rather to Christians than to the ancient people of God, it must be
admitted that it would be most natural to refer it to Rome. More acts
authorizing persecution, and designed to crush the true people of
God, have gone forth from Rome than from any other city on the
face of the earth; and taking the history of the church together,
there is no place that would be so properly designated by the term
here employed. ¶ Where also our Lord was crucified. If this refers to
Jerusalem, it is to be taken literally; if to another city, it is to be
understood as meaning that he was practically crucified there: that
is, that the treatment of his friends—his church—was such that it
might be said that he was “crucified afresh” there; for what is done
to his church may be said to be done to him. Either of these
interpretations would be justified by the use of the language. Thus
in He. vi. 6, it is said of apostates from the true faith (comp. Notes
on the passage), that “they crucify to themselves the Son of God
afresh.” If the passage before us is to be taken figuratively, the
meaning is, that acts would be performed which might properly be
represented as crucifying the Son of God; that, as he lives in his
church, the acts of perverting his doctrines, and persecuting his
people, would be, in fact, an act of crucifying the Lord again. Thus
understood, the language is strictly applicable to Rome; that is, if it
is admitted that John meant to characterize that city, he has
employed such language as a Jewish Christian would naturally use.
While, therefore, it must be admitted that the language is such as
could be literally applied only to Jerusalem, it is still true that it is
such language as might be figuratively applied to any other city
strongly resembling that, and that in this sense it would characterize
Rome above all other cities of the world. The common reading of the
text here is “our Lord”—ἡμῶν; the text now regarded as correct,
however (Griesbach, Tittmann, Hahn), is “their Lord”—αὐτῶν. This
makes no essential difference in the sense, except that it directs the
attention more particularly to the fact that they were treated like
their own Master.

9 And they of the people, and kindreds, and

tongues, and nations, shall 350see their dead
bodies three days and an half, and shall not
suffer their dead bodies to be put in graves.
9. And they of the people. Some of the people; a part of the
people—ἐκ τῶν λαῶν. The language is such as would be employed
to describe a scene where a considerable portion of a company of
people should be referred to, without intending to include all. The
essential idea is, that there would be an assemblage of different
classes of people to whom their carcasses would be exposed, and
that they would come and look upon them. We should expect to find
the fulfilment of this in some place where, from any cause, a variety
of people should be assembled—as in some capital, or some
commercial city, to which they would be naturally attracted. ¶ Shall
see their dead bodies. That is, a state of things will occur as if these
witnesses were put to death, and their carcasses were publicly
exposed. ¶ Three days and an half. This might be either literally
three days and a half, or, more in accordance with the usual style of
this book, these would be prophetic days; that is, three years and a
half. Comp. Notes on ch. ix. 5, 15. ¶ And shall not suffer their dead
bodies to be put in graves. That is, there would be a course of
conduct in regard to these witnesses such as would be shown to the
dead if they were not suffered to be decently interred. The language
used here—“shall not suffer”—seems to imply that there would be
those who might be disposed to show them the respect evinced by
interring the dead, but that this would not be permitted. This would
find a fulfilment if, in a time of persecution, those who had borne
faithful testimony were silenced and treated with dishonour, and if
there should be those who were disposed to show them respect, but
who would be prevented by positive acts on the part of their
persecutors. This has often been the case in persecution, and there
could be no difficulty in finding numerous instances in the history of
the church to which this language would be applicable.

10 And they that dwell upon the earth shall

rejoice over them, and make merry, and shall
send gifts one to another; because these two
prophets tormented them that dwelt on the
earth.
10. And they that dwell upon the earth shall rejoice over them.
Those dwelling in the land would rejoice over their fall and ruin. This
cannot, of course, mean all who inhabit the globe; but, according to
the usage in Scripture, those who dwell in the country where this
would occur. Comp. Notes on Lu. ii. 1. We now affix to the word
“earth” an idea which was not necessarily implied in the Hebrew
word ‫ ֶאֶר ץ‬ērĕtz (comp. Ex. iii. 8; xiii. 5; De. xix. 2, 10; xxviii. 12; Ne.
ix. 22; Ps. xxxvii. 9, 11, 22, 29; lxvi. 4; Pr. ii. 21; x. 30; Joel i. 2); or
the Greek word γῆ—gē, comp. Mat. ii. 6, 20, 21; xiv. 15; Ac. vii. 7,
11, 36, 40; xiii. 17. Our word land, as now commonly understood,
would better express the idea intended to be conveyed here; and
thus understood, the meaning is, that the dwellers in the country
where these things would happen would thus rejoice. The meaning
is, that while alive they would, by their faithful testimony against
existing errors, excite so much hatred against themselves, and
would be so great an annoyance to the governing powers, that there
would be general exultation when the voice of their testimony should
be silenced. This, too, has been so common in the world that there
would be no difficulty in applying the language here used, or in
finding events which it would appropriately describe. ¶ And make
merry. Be glad. See Notes on Lu. xii. 19; xv. 23. The Greek word
does not necessarily denote the light-hearted mirth expressed by our
word merriment, but rather joy or happiness in general. The
meaning is, that they would be filled with joy at such an event.
¶ And shall send gifts one to another. As expressive of their joy. To
send presents is a natural expression of our own happiness, and our
desire for the happiness of others—as is indicated now by
“Christmas” and “New Year’s gifts.” Comp. also Ne. viii. 10‒12:
“Then he said unto them, Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the
sweet, and send portions unto them for whom nothing is prepared:
for this day is holy unto our Lord: neither be ye sorry; for the joy of
the Lord is your strength,” &c. See also Es. ix. 19‒22. ¶ Because
these two prophets tormented them that dwell on the earth. They
“tormented” them, or were a source of annoyance to them, by
bearing testimony to the truth; by opposing the prevailing errors;
and by rebuking the vices of the age: perhaps by demanding
reformation, and by denouncing the judgment of heaven on the
guilty. There is no intimation that they tormented them in any other
way than by the truths which they held forth. See the word
explained in the Notes on 2 Pe. ii. 8.
 11 And after three days and an half the
351
Spirit of life from God entered into them, and
they stood upon their feet; and great fear fell
upon them which saw them.
11. And after three days and an half. See Notes on ver. 9. ¶ The
Spirit of life from God. The living, or life-giving Spirit that proceeds
from God entered into them. Comp. Notes on Job xxxiii. 4. There is
evidently allusion here to Ge. ii. 7, where God is spoken of as the
Author of life. The meaning is, that they would seem to come to life
again, or that effects would follow as if the dead were restored to
life. If, when they had been compelled to cease from prophesying,
they should, after the interval here denoted by three days and a half,
again prophesy, or their testimony should be again borne to the
truth as it had been before, this would evidently be all that would be
implied in the language here employed. ¶ Entered into them.
Seemed to animate them again. ¶ And they stood upon their feet. As
if they had come to life again. ¶ And great fear fell upon them which
saw them. This would be true if those who were dead should be
literally restored to life; and this would be the effect if those who
had given great annoyance by their doctrines, and who had been
silenced, and who seemed to be dead, should again, as if animated
anew by a divine power, begin to prophesy, or to proclaim their
doctrines to the world. The statement in the symbol is, that those
who had put them to death had been greatly troubled by these
“witnesses;” that they had sought to silence them, and in order to
this had put them to death; that they then greatly rejoiced, as if
they would no more be annoyed by them. The fact that they seemed
to come to life again would, therefore, fill them with consternation,
for they would anticipate a renewal of their troubles, and they would
see in this fact evidence of the divine favour towards those whom
they persecuted, and reason to apprehend divine vengeance on
themselves.
 12 And they heard a great voice from heaven
saying unto them, Come up hither. And they
352
ascended up to heaven in a cloud; and
353
their enemies beheld them.
12. And they heard a great voice from heaven. Some manuscripts
read, “I heard”—ἤκουσα—but the more approved reading is that of
the common text. John says that a voice was addressed to them
calling them to ascend to heaven. ¶ Come up hither. To heaven.
¶ And they ascended up to heaven in a cloud. So the Saviour
ascended, Ac. i. 9; and so probably Elijah, 2 Ki. ii. 11. ¶ And their
enemies beheld them. That is, it was done openly, so that their
enemies, who had put them to death, saw that they were approved
of God, as if they had been publicly taken up to heaven. It is not
necessary to suppose that this would literally occur. All this is,
manifestly, mere symbol. The meaning is, that they would triumph
as if they should ascend to heaven, and be received into the
presence of God. The sense of the whole is, that these witnesses,
after bearing a faithful testimony against prevailing errors and sins,
would be persecuted and silenced; that for a considerable period
their voice of faithful testimony would be hushed as if they were
dead; that during that period they would be treated with contempt
and scorn, as if their unburied bodies should be exposed to the
public gaze; that there would be general exultation and joy that they
were thus silenced; that they would again revive, as if the dead were
restored to life, and bear a faithful testimony to the truth again; and
that they would have the divine attestation in their favour, as if they
were raised up visibly and publicly to heaven.

13 And the same hour was there a great

earthquake, and the tenth part354 of the city
fell, and in the earthquake were slain 355of men
 seven thousand: and the remnant were
affrighted, and 356gave glory to the God of
heaven.
13. And the same hour. In immediate connection with their
triumph. ¶ Was there a great earthquake. An earthquake is a symbol
of commotion, agitation, change; of great political revolutions, &c.
See Notes on ch. vi. 12. The meaning here is, that the triumph of
the witnesses, represented by their ascending to heaven, would be
followed by such revolutions as would be properly symbolized by an
earthquake. ¶ And the tenth part of the city fell. That is, the tenth
part of that which is represented by the “city”—the persecuting
power. A city would be the seat and centre of the power, and the
acts of persecution would seem to proceed from it; but the
destruction, we may suppose, would extend to all that was
represented by the persecuting power. The word “tenth” is probably
used in a general sense to denote that a considerable portion of the
persecuting power would be thus involved in ruin; that is, that in
respect to that power there would be such a revolution, such a
convulsion or commotion, such a loss, that it would be proper to
represent it by an earthquake. ¶ And in the earthquake. In the
convulsions consequent on what would occur to the witnesses.
¶ Were slain of men seven thousand. Marg., as in the Greek, “names
of men”—the name being used to denote the men themselves. The
number here mentioned—seven thousand—seems to have been
suggested because it would bear some proportion to the tenth part
of the city which fell. It is not necessary to suppose, in seeking for
the fulfilment of this, that just seven thousand would be killed; but
the idea clearly is, that there would be such a diminution of numbers
as would be well represented by a calamity that would overwhelm a
tenth part of the city, such as the apostle had in his eye, and a
proportional number of the inhabitants. The number that would be
slain, therefore, in the convulsions and changes consequent on the
treatment of the witnesses, might be numerically much larger than
seven thousand, and might be as great as if a tenth part of all that
were represented by the “city” should be swept away. ¶ And the
remnant were affrighted. Fear and alarm came on them in
consequence of these calamities. The “remnant” here refers to those
who still remained in the “city”—that is, to those who belonged to
the community or people designed to be represented here by the
city. ¶ And gave glory to the God of heaven. Comp. Lu. v. 26: “And
they were all amazed, and they glorified God, and were filled with
fear, saying, We have seen strange things to-day.” All that seems to
be meant by this is, that they stood in awe at what God was doing,
and acknowledged his power in the changes that occurred. It does
not mean, necessarily, that they would repent and become truly his
friends, but that there would be a prevailing impression that these
changes were produced by his power, and that his hand was in these
things. This would be fulfilled if there should be a general willingness
among mankind to acknowledge God, or to recognize his hand in the
events referred to; if there should be a disposition extensively
prevailing to regard the “witnesses” as on the side of God, and to
favour their cause as one of truth and righteousness; and if these
convulsions should so far change public sentiment as to produce an
impression that theirs was the cause of God.
 14 The 357second woe is past; and, behold,
the third woe cometh quickly.
14. The second woe is past. That is, the second of the three that
were announced as yet to come, ch. viii. 13; comp. ch. ix. 12. ¶ And,
behold, the third woe cometh quickly. The last of the series. The
meaning is, that that which was signified by the third “woe” would
be the next, and final event, in order. On the meaning of the word
“quickly,” see Notes on ch. i. 1; comp. ii. 5, 16; iii. 11; xxii. 7, 12, 20.

In reference now to the important question about the application

of this portion of the book of Revelation, it need hardly be said that
the greatest variety of opinion has prevailed among expositors. It
would be equally unprofitable, humiliating, and discouraging to
attempt to enumerate all the opinions which have been held; and
I must refer the reader who has any desire to become acquainted
with them to Poole’s Synopsis, in loco, and to the copious statement
of Professor Stuart, Com. vol. ii. pp. 219‒227. Professor Stuart
himself supposes that the meaning is, that “a competent number of
divinely-commissioned and faithful Christian witnesses, endowed
with miraculous powers, should bear testimony against the corrupt
Jews, during the last days of their commonwealth, respecting their
sins; that they should proclaim the truths of the gospel; and that the
Jews, by destroying them, would bring upon themselves an
aggravated and an awful doom,” ii. 226. Instead of attempting to
examine in detail the opinions which have been held, I shall rather
state what seems to me to be the fair application of the language
used, in accordance with the principles pursued thus far in the
exposition. The inquiry is, whether there have been any events to
which this language is applicable, or in reference to which, if it be
admitted that it was the design of the Spirit of inspiration to describe
them, it may be supposed that such language would be employed as
we find here.
 In this inquiry it may be assumed that the preceding exposition is
correct, and the application now to be made must accord with that—
that is, it must be found that events occurred in such times and
circumstances as would be consistent with the supposition that that
exposition is correct. It is to be assumed, therefore, that ch.
ix. 20, 21, refers to the state of the ecclesiastical world after the
conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, and previous to the
Reformation; that ch. x. refers to the Reformation itself; that ch.
xi. 1, 2, refers to the necessity, at the time of the Reformation, of
ascertaining what was the true church, of reviving the Scripture
doctrine respecting the atonement and justification, and of drawing
correct lines as to membership in the church. All this has reference,
according to this interpretation, to the state of the church while the
Papacy would have the ascendency, or during the twelve hundred
and sixty years in which it would trample down the church as if the
holy city were in the hands of the Gentiles. Assuming this to be the
correct exposition, then what is here said (ver. 3‒13) must relate to
that period, for it is with reference to that same time—the period of
“a thousand two hundred and threescore days,” or twelve hundred
and sixty years—that it is said (ver. 3) the witnesses would
“prophesy,” “clothed in sackcloth.” If this be so, then what is here
stated (ver. 3‒13) must be supposed to occur during the ascendency
of the Papacy, and must mean, in general, that during that long
period of apostasy, darkness, corruption, and sin, there would be
faithful witnesses for the truth, who, though they were few in
number, would be sufficient to keep up the knowledge of the truth
on the earth, and to bear testimony against the prevailing errors and
abominations. The object of this portion of the book, therefore, is to
describe the character of the faithful witnesses for the truth during
this long period of darkness; to state their influence; to record their
trials; and to show what would be the ultimate result in regard to
them, when their “testimony” should become triumphant. This
general view will be seen to accord with the exposition of the
previous portion of the book, and will be sustained, I trust, by the
more particular inquiry into the application of the passage to which
I now proceed. The essential points in the passage (ver. 3‒13)
respecting the “witnesses” are six: (1) who are meant by the
witnesses; (2) the war made on them; (3) their death; (4) their
resurrection; (5) their reception into heaven; and (6) the
consequences of their triumph in the calamity that came upon the
city.

I. Who are meant by the witnesses, ver. 3‒6. There are several
specifications in regard to this point which it is necessary to notice.
(a) The fact that, during this long period of error, corruption, and
sin, there were those who were faithful witnesses for the truth—men
who opposed the prevailing errors; who maintained the great
doctrines of the Christian faith; and who were ready to lay down
their lives in defence of the truth. For a full confirmation of this it
would be necessary to trace the history of the church down from the
rise of the Papal power through the long lapse of the subsequent
ages; but such an examination would be far too extensive for the
purpose contemplated in these Notes, and, indeed, would require a
volume by itself. Happily, this has already been done; and all that is
necessary now is to refer to the works where the fact here affirmed
has been abundantly established. In many of the histories of the
church—Mosheim, Neander, Milner, Milman, Gïeseler—most ample
proof may be found, that amidst the general darkness and
corruption there were those who faithfully adhered to the truth as it
is in Jesus, and who, amidst many sufferings, bore their testimony
against prevailing errors. The investigation has been made, also,
with special reference to an illustration of this passage, by Mr. Elliott,
Horæ Apoca. vol. ii. pp. 193‒406; and although it must be admitted
that some of the details are of doubtful applicability, yet the main
fact is abundantly established, that during that long period there
were “witnesses” for the pure truths of the gospel, and a faithful
testimony borne against the abominations and errors of the Papacy.
These “witnesses” are divided by Mr. Elliott into (1) the earlier
Western witnesses—embracing such men, and their followers, as
Serenus, bishop of Marseilles; the Anglo-Saxon church in England;358
Agobard, archbishop of Lyons from A.D. 810 to 841, on the one side
of the Alps, and Claude of Turin on the other; Gotteschalcus,
A.D. 884; Berenger, Arnold of Brescia, Peter de Bruys, and his disciple
Henry, and then the Waldenses. (2) The Eastern, or Paulikian line of
witnesses, a sect deriving their origin, about A.D. 653, from an
Armenian by the name of Constantine, who received from a deacon,
by whom he was hospitably entertained, a present of two volumes,
very rare, one containing the Gospels, and the other the Epistles of
Paul, and who applied himself to the formation of a new sect or
church, distinct from the Manicheans, and from the Greek Church. In
token of the nature of their profession, they adopted the name by
which they were ever after distinguished, Paulikiani, Paulicians, or
“disciples of the disciple of Paul.” This sect continued to bear
“testimony” in the East from the time of its rise till the eleventh or
twelfth centuries, when it commenced a migration to the West,
where it bore the same honourable character for its attachment to
the truth. See Elliott, ii. 233‒246, 275‒315. (3) Witnesses during the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, up to the time of Peter Waldo.
Among these are to be noticed those who were arraigned for heresy
before the councils of Orleans, Arras, Thoulouse, Oxford, and
Lombers, in the years 1022, 1025, 1119, 1160, 1165, respectively,
and who were condemned by those councils for their departure from
the doctrines held by the Papacy. For a full illustration of the
doctrines held by those who were thus condemned, and of the fact
that they were “witnesses” for the truth, see Elliott, ii. 247‒275.
(4) The Waldenses and Albigenses. The nature of the testimony
borne by these persecuted people is so well known that it is not
necessary to dwell on the subject; and a full statement of their
testimony would require the entire transcription of their history. No
Protestant will doubt that they were “witnesses” for the truth, or that
from the time of their rise, through all the periods of their
persecution, they bore full and honourable testimony to the truth as
it is in Jesus. The general ground of this claim to be regarded as
Apocalyptic witnesses, will be seen from the following summary
statements of their doctrines. Those statements are found in a work
called The Noble Lesson, written within some twenty years of 1170.
The treatise begins in this manner: “O brethren, hear a Noble
Lesson. We ought always to watch and pray,” &c. In this treatise the
following doctrines are drawn out, says Mr. Elliott, “with much
simplicity and beauty: the origin of sin in the fall of Adam; its
transmission to all men, and the offered redemption from it through
the death of Jesus Christ; the union and co-operation of the three
persons of the blessed Trinity in man’s salvation; the obligation and
spirituality of the moral law under the gospel; the duties of prayer,
watchfulness, self-denial, unworldliness, humility, love, as ‘the way of
Jesus Christ;’ their enforcement by the prospect of death and
judgment, and the world’s near ending; by the narrowness, too, of
the way of life, and the fewness of those who find it; as also by the
hope of coming glory at the judgment and revelation of Jesus Christ.
Besides which we find in it a protest against the Romish system
generally, as one of soul-destroying idolatry; against masses for the
dead, and therein against the whole doctrine of purgatory; against
the system of the confessional, and asserted power of the
priesthood to absolve from sin; this last point being insisted on as
the most deadly point of heresy, and its origin referred to the
mercenariness of the priesthood, and their love of money;—the
iniquity further noticed of the Romish persecutions of good men and
teachers that wished to teach the way of Jesus Christ; and the
suspicion half-hinted, and apparently half-formed, that, though a
personal Antichrist might be expected, yet Popery itself might be one
form of Antichrist.” In another work, the Treatise of Antichrist, there
is a strong and decided identification of the Antichristian system and
the Papacy. This was written probably in the last quarter of the
fourteenth century. “From this,” says Mr. Elliott (ii. 355), “the
following will appear to have been the Waldensian views: that the
Papal or Romish system was that of Antichrist; which, from infancy
in apostolic times, had grown gradually by the increase of its
constituent parts to the stature of a full-grown man; that its
prominent characteristics were—to defraud God of the worship due
to Him, rendering it to creatures, whether departed saints, relics,
images, or Antichrist;—to defraud Christ, by attributing justification
and forgiveness to Antichrist’s authority and words, to saints’
intercession, to the merits of men’s own performances, and to the
fire of purgatory;—to defraud the Holy Spirit, by attributing
regeneration and sanctification to the opus operatum of the two
sacraments; that the origin of this Antichristian religion was the
covetousness of the priesthood; its tendency, to lead men away from
Christ; its essence, a ceremonial; its foundation, the false notion of
grace and forgiveness.” This work is so important as a “testimony”
against Antichrist, and for the truth, and is so clear as showing that
the Papacy was regarded as Antichrist, that I will copy, from the
work itself, the portion containing these sentiments—sentiments
which may be regarded as expressing the uniform testimony of the
Waldenses on the subject:—

“Antichrist is the falsehood of eternal damnation, covered with the

appearance of the truth and righteousness of Christ and his spouse.
The iniquity of such a system is with all his ministers, great and
small: and inasmuch as they follow the law of an evil and blinded
heart, such a congregation, taken together, is called Antichrist, or
Babylon, or the Fourth Beast, or the Harlot, or the Man of Sin, who
is the son of perdition.

“His first work is, that the service of latria, properly due to God
alone, he perverts unto Antichrist himself and to his doings; to the
poor creature, rational or irrational, sensible or insensible; as, for
instance, to male or female saints departed this life, and to their
images, or carcasses, or relics. His doings are the sacraments,
especially that of the Eucharist, which he worships equally with God
and Christ, prohibiting the adoration of God alone.

“His second work is, that he robs and deprives Christ of the merits
of Christ, with the whole sufficiency of grace, and justification, and
regeneration, and remission of sins, and sanctification, and
confirmation, and spiritual nourishment; and imputes and attributes
them to his own authority, or to a form of words, or to his own
performances, or to the saints and their intercession, or to the fire of
purgatory. Thus he divides the people from Christ, and leads them
away to the things already mentioned; that so they may seek not
the things of Christ, nor through Christ, but only the work of their
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