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Geographic Data Science with Python 1st Edition Sergio
Rey Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Sergio Rey, Dani Arribas-Bel, Levi John Wolf
ISBN(s): 9781000885279, 1000885275
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 27.26 MB
Year: 2023
Language: english
 Geographic Data
Science with Python

This book provides the tools, the methods, and the theory to meet the challenges
of contemporary data science applied to geographic problems and data. In the
new world of pervasive, large, frequent, and rapid data, there are new opportuni-
ties to understand and analyze the role of geography in everyday life. Geographic
Data Science with Python introduces a new way of thinking about analysis, by us-
ing geographical and computational reasoning, it shows the reader how to unlock
new insights hidden within data.

Key Features:

• Showcases the excellent data science environment in Python.

• Provides examples for readers to replicate, adapt, extend, and improve.
• Covers the crucial knowledge needed by geographic data scientists.

It presents concepts in a far more geographic way than competing textbooks,

covering spatial data, mapping, and spatial statistics whilst covering concepts,
such as clusters and outliers, as geographic concepts.

Intended for data scientists, GIScientists, and geographers, the material provid-
ed in this book is of interest due to the manner in which it presents geospatial
data, methods, tools, and practices in this new field.
CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
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 Geographic Data
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Designed cover image: Sergio Rey, Dani Arribas-Bel and Levi John Wolf

First edition published 2023

by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Rey, Sergio J. (Sergio Joseph), author. | Arribas-Bel, Dani, author.

| Wolf, Levi John, author.
Title: Geographic data science with Python / by Sergio Rey, Dani
Arribas-Bel and Levi John Wolf.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. | Series: Chapman & Hall/CRC
texts in statistical science | Includes bibliographical references and
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Identifiers: LCCN 2022056545 (print) | LCCN 2022056546 (ebook) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Geospatial data--Computer processing. | Python (Computer
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(ebook) | DDC 910.285/5133--dc23/eng20230506
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A los recuerdos de María Rey y Sergio Joseph Rey, Sr.

Para Mauri y Naomi.

To my parents, Frank & Debora Wolf.

Collectively we offer this book as a tribute to Luc Anselin,

whose visionary research and generous mentoring have been
an inspiration to us and a generation of spatial scientists and
thinkers.
Contents

Preface xiii
Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Why this book? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Who is this book for? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
What this book is not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Content and Purpose of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
What we included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
What we did not include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
The book in the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii

Acknowledgments xxi

Author/editor biographies xxv

List of Figures xxvii

I Building Blocks 1
1 Geographic Thinking for Data Scientists 3
1.1 Introduction to geographic thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Conceptual representations: models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Computational representations: data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Connecting conceptual to computational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 This categorization is now breaking up (data is data) . . . . . 10
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Computational Tools for Geographic Data Science 13

2.1 Open science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Computational notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2 Open source packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.3 Reproducible platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 The (computational) building blocks of this book . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Jupyter notebooks and JupyterLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1.1 Notebooks and cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1.2 Rich content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

vii
viii CONTENTS

2.2.1.3 JupyterLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Python and open source packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2.1 Open source packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2.2 Contextual help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Containerized platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.4 Running the book in a container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Spatial Data 35
3.1 Fundamentals of geographic data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.1 Geographic tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.3 Spatial graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2 Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.1 Surfaces as tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.1.1 One pixel at a time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1.2 Pixels to polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.2 Tables as surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.3 Networks as graphs and tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4 Spatial Weights 67
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Contiguity weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.1 Spatial weights from real-world geographic tables . . . . . . 75
4.2.2 Spatial weights from surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Distance based weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1 K-nearest neighbor weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.2 Kernel weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.3 Distance bands and hybrid weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.4 Great circle distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Block weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5 Set operations on weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5.1 Editing/connecting disconnected observations . . . . . . . . 88
4.5.2 Using the union of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.6 Visualizing weight set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7 Use case: boundary detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.9 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.10 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
CONTENTS ix

II Spatial Data Analysis 103

5 Choropleth Mapping 105
5.1 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 Quantitative data classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2.1 Equal intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Quantiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2.3 Mean-standard deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.4 Maximum breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.5 Boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.6 Head-tail breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.7 Jenks-Caspall breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.8 Fisher-Jenks breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.9 Max-p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2.10 Comparing classification schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.1 Sequential palettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.2 Diverging palettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.3 Qualitative palettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4 Advanced topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.1 User-defined choropleths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.2 Pooled classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.7 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6 Global Spatial Autocorrelation 133

6.1 Understanding spatial autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 An empirical illustration: the EU Referendum . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.3 Global spatial autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3.1 Spatial lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3.2 Binary case: join counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3.3 Continuous case: Moran Plot and Moran’s I . . . . . . . . . 147
6.3.4 Other global indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.4.1 Geary’s C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.4.2 Getis and Ord’s G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

7 Local Spatial Autocorrelation 157

7.1 An empirical illustration: the EU Referendum . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.2 Motivating local spatial autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.3 Local Moran’s Ii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4 Getis and Ord’s local statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.5 Bonus: local statistics on surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
x CONTENTS

7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

7.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.8 Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

8 Point Pattern Analysis 185

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.2 Patterns in Tokyo photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.3 Visualizing point patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3.1 Showing patterns as dots on a map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3.2 Showing density with hexbinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3.3 Another kind of density: kernel density estimation . . . . . . 192
8.4 Centrography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.4.1 Tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.4.2 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.4.3 Extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.5 Randomness and clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.5.1 Quadrat statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.5.2 Ripley’s alphabet of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.6 Identifying clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.8 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.9 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

III Advanced Topics 221

9 Spatial Inequality Dynamics 223
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.2 Data: U.S. state per capita income 1969-2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.3 Global inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.3.1 20:20 ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.3.2 Gini index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3.3 Theil’s index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.4 Personal vs. regional income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.5 Spatial inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9.5.1 Spatial autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9.5.2 Regional decomposition of inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.5.3 Spatializing classic measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.8 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

10 Clustering and Regionalization 251

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.2 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.3 Geodemographic clusters in san diego census tracts . . . . . . . . . . 259
CONTENTS xi

10.3.1 K-means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

10.3.2 Spatial distribution of clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.3.3 Statistical analysis of the cluster map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.4 Hierarchical Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.5 Regionalization: spatially constrained hierarchical clustering . . . . . 272
10.5.1 Contiguity constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.5.2 Changing the spatial constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.5.3 Geographical coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
10.5.4 Feature coherence (goodness of fit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.5.5 Solution similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.8 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

11 Spatial Regression 283

11.1 What is spatial regression and why should I care? . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.2 Data: San Diego Airbnb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.3 Non-spatial regression, a (very) quick refresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.3.1 Hidden structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.4 Bringing space into the regression framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.4.1 Spatial feature engineering: proximity variables . . . . . . . 294
11.4.2 Spatial heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.4.2.1 Spatial fixed effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.4.2.2 Spatial regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.4.3 Spatial dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.4.3.1 Exogenous effects: The SLX model . . . . . . . . 308
11.4.3.2 Spatial error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
11.4.3.3 Spatial lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
11.4.3.4 Other ways of bringing space into regression . . . 318
11.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
11.5.1 Challenge questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
11.5.1.1 The random coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
11.5.1.2 The K-neighbor correlogram . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
11.6 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

12 Spatial Feature Engineering 325

12.1 What is spatial feature engineering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
12.2 Feature engineering using map matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
12.2.1 Counting nearby features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
12.2.2 Assigning point values from surfaces: elevation of Airbnbs . . 335
12.2.3 Point interpolation using scikit-learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
12.2.4 Polygon to point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
12.2.5 Area to area interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.3 Feature engineering using map synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.3.1 Spatial summary features in map synthesis . . . . . . . . . . 352
xii CONTENTS

12.3.1.1 Counting neighbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

12.3.1.2 Distance buffers within a single table . . . . . . . 353
12.3.1.3 “Ring” buffer features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12.3.2 Clustering as feature engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
12.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
12.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
12.6 Next steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

References 367

Index 375
 Preface

This book provides the tools, methods, and theory to meet the challenges of contem-
porary data science applied to geographic problems and data. Social media, emerging
forms of data, and computational techniques are revolutionizing social science. In the
new world of pervasive, large, frequent, and rapid data, we have new opportunities to
understand and analyze the role of geography in everyday life. This book provides the
first comprehensive curriculum in geographic data science.
Geographic data is ubiquitous. On the whole, social processes, physical contexts, and
individual behaviors show striking regularity in their geographic patterns, structures,
and spacing. As data relating to these systems grows in scope, intensity, and depth,
it becomes more important to extract meaningful insights from common geographical
properties like location, but also how to leverage geographical relations between data
that are less commonly seen in standard data science.
This book introduces a new way of thinking about analysis. Using geographical and
computational reasoning, it shows the reader how to unlock new insights hidden within
data. The book is structured around the excellent data science environment available
in Python, providing examples and worked analyses for the reader to replicate, adapt,
extend, and improve.

xiii
xiv PREFACE

Motivation

Why this book?

Writing a book like this is a major undertaking, and this suggests the authors must
have some intrinsic motivations for taking on such a task. We do. Each of the authors
is an active participant in both open source development of spatial analytical tools and
academic geographic science. Through our research and teaching, we have come to rec-
ognize a need for a book to fill the niche that sits at the intersection of GIS/Geography
and the world of Data Science. We have seen the explosion of interest in all things Data
Science on the one hand and, on the other, the longer standing and continued evolution
of GIScience. This book represents our attempt at helping to emerge the intersection
between these two fields. It is at that common ground where we believe the intellectual
and methodological magic occurs.

Who is this book for?

In writing the book, we envisaged two communities of readers whom we want to bring
together. The first are GIScientists and geographers who may be wondering what all the
fuss is about Data Science, and questioning whether they should engage with the meth-
ods, tools, and practices of this new field. Our response to such a reader is an emphatic
“Yes!”. We see so much to be gained and contributed by geographers who enter these
new waters. The second community we have held in mind in writing this material is data
scientists who are beginning to turn their attention to working with geographical data.
Here we have encountered members of the data science community who are wondering
what is so special about geographical data and problems. Data science currently has an
impressive array of models and methods; surely these are all that geographers need?
Our response is “No! There is a need for new forms of data science when working with
geospatial data.” Moreover, we see the collaboration between these two communities
as critical to the development of these new advances.
We also recognize that neither of these two communities is a monolithic whole, but they
are in fact composed of individuals from different sectors, academic science, industry,
public sector, and independent researchers, as well as at different career stages. We
hope this book provides material that will be of interest to all of these readers.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
of the animal life. The weakness of the first by no means renders
absolutely necessary a decrease of action in the second. Hence
proceed marasmus and leanness, states, in which the assimilating
process ceases in part, the process of excretion remaining unaltered.
Let us leave, then, to other sciences, all artificial method, but
follow the concatenation of the phenomena of life, for connecting
the ideas which we form of them, and we shall perceive, that the
greater part of the present physiological divisions, afford us but
uncertain bases for the support of any thing like a solid edifice of
science.
These divisions I shall not recapitulate; the best method of
demonstrating their inutility will be, if I mistake not, to prove the
solidity of the division, which I have adopted. We shall now examine
the great differences, which separate the animal existing without,
from the animal existing within, and wearing itself away in a
continual vicissitude of assimilation and excretion.
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] The form adopted by Bichat, in this work, has been much
blamed by some, and extravagantly praised by others. The blame
and the praise appear to me to be equally misplaced. His object
was to exhibit the various phenomena of life; the order in which
this was to be done was a matter of indifference. If Bichat gave a
preference to this form, it was because it was conformable to the
nature of his mind; and he accomplished his task in a very happy
manner. The division that he has adopted is not new, it may be
found, with slight modifications, in writers of different periods,
and even in Aristotle. Besides, it is not necessary in the sciences
to attach a very great importance to classification. All these
contrivances have been invented only to aid the memory; and the
functions of living bodies are not so numerous, as to render it
necessary in studying them to lean upon systematic divisions.
[2] The word life has been employed by physiologists in two
different senses. With some, it means an imaginary being, the
sole principle of all the functions which living bodies exhibit; with
others, it means only the assemblage of these functions. It is in
this last sense that Bichat employs it. This is what he means to
say in the following sentence. Life is the assemblage of the
functions which resist death. He is wrong only in allowing the idea
of death to enter into it; for this idea necessarily supposes that of
life. There is then really a bad circle in this definition; but in
putting aside what is defective in the expression, it may be seen
that Bichat considers life as a result, not as a cause.
Before and since the time of Bichat, a great number of definitions
of life has been given, which are either false or incomplete. It
should not be required of a definition, that it should give all the
properties of the thing which it is designed to make known, this
would be a description; but we have a right to expect that it
should assign to this thing certain characters which belong to it
alone, and thus distinguish it from every thing else.
Let us examine by this principle the definition adopted in a
modern work. Life, it is said, is the assemblage of the phenomena
which succeed each other, for a limited time, in an organized
being. This is no doubt true of life; but, if it can also be applied to
another state, it ceases to be a definition. An animal has just
died; its organs from that moment are subject to the action of
chemical affinities only; decomposition takes place, gases are
disengaged, fluids flow out and new solid aggregates are formed.
After a time every molecular motion ceases; there remains only a
certain number of binary, ternary combinations, &c. Here then is
an assemblage of phenomena taking place for a limited time in an
organized body, and yet it is not life.
[3] This distinction of the two lives is bad, inasmuch as it tends to
separate phenomena which have a very intimate connexion,
which relate to a common object, and which are often produced
by means in every respect similar. Why should I rank among the
organs of animal life the muscular apparatus which carries the
alimentary mass from the mouth into the oesophagus, and
among those of the other life, that which takes it from the cardiac
orifice to the anus? Is not the action of the first apparatus in
relation with nutrition as well as the action of the last, and does
not the muscular apparatus of the oesophagus act upon a body
which is foreign to us, as well as that of the tongue and the
pharynx? Do the motions of mastication differ in their object from
those of which we have just spoken, and as to the means of
execution, does not the muscular action still perform the principal
part?
We might in the same way bring near each other the motions by
means of which we seize our food. The action itself of the senses,
which directs these motions, is, with nutrition, in a relation more
remote, but not less necessary, and we see in the various classes
of animals that their apparatus is modified according to the
different kinds of nourishment. If the distinction of the two lives
be wanting in justice, as to the object of the functions it
separates, we shall soon see that the characters attached to the
organs of one and the other do not establish this division in a
more striking manner.
[4] This division between vegetables and animals is far from
being so striking as is here supposed; these two classes of
beings, so different when we examine them in the individuals
endowed with a very complicated organization, approximate each
other in a remarkable degree, when we descend to those species
whose structure is most simple; it is even remarkable that the
most constant character which distinguishes one from the other,
is not found in the organs of animal life, but in those of vegetable
or organic life. The senses are one after the other found wanting;
for in an individual in whom we can discover no nervous system,
there is no more reason to suppose the existence of the sense of
touch as a sensation, than to suppose it in the sensitive plant, the
dionæa muscipula, and other similar plants; we see only action
and reaction. The motions of the arms of certain polypi no more
suppose volition than the motion of the root which follows a wet
sponge, or that of the branches which turn towards the light; the
only very constant character is the absence or presence of a
digestive cavity. To speak of an animal as a vegetable clothed
with an external apparatus of organs of relation, is a more
brilliant than profound view of the subject. Buisson, who, in his
division of the physiological phenomena, avoids this inaccuracy,
has himself fallen into error; he pretends that respiration belongs
exclusively to animals; and that thus the division of Bichat was
not only unfounded but also incomplete, since this function,
which is neither of vegetation nor of relation, could be ranked
under neither life. Buisson was not well informed; no doubt the
respiration of vegetables does not exhibit the most apparent
phenomena of the respiration of the mammalia, but every thing,
which essentially constitutes the function, is found in the one as
well as in the other; absorption of the atmospheric air, and the
formation and exhalation of a new gas; the rest is only accidental
and is not an appendage but in certain classes of animals. In
some reptiles, though we find a particular organ for respiration,
this organ is not indispensable; it may be removed, and the skin
becomes the only respiratory organ; and when finally we come to
consider animals with tracheæ, we see that the conformity
becomes more and more evident.
[5] Bichat seems here to adopt the generally received opinion
that it is the chyle which furnishes to the mammary gland the
materials of which the milk is composed. We know not whence
this opinion arises, if it be not from the gross resemblance which
the chyle and milk often exhibit. This resemblance, if it were very
great, would be a poor reason for admitting, without anatomical
proof, so singular a fact; but it is very far from being perfect. The
chyle in fact does not exhibit the milky appearance and the white
opaque colour, only when the animal from whom it is taken, has
fed upon substances containing fat; in all other cases, it is almost
transparent; its odour and taste, under all circumstances, differ
entirely from those of milk; if these two fluids are left to
themselves, the milk remains a long time without coagulating, but
the chyle almost immediately coagulates, and then separates into
three parts. The solid portion soon exhibits cells, and an
appearance of organization; nothing similar is seen in the
coagulum of milk; the serum of the milk remains colourless when
exposed to the simple contact of the air, that of the chyle
assumes a rosy tint, often very vivid. Finally, if we examine the
chemical composition of these two fluids, we shall find in them
differences still more striking. (See for farther details, my
Elements of Physiology, Vol. 2d.)
 CHAPTER II.

GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO LIVES WITH REGARD TO THE OUTWARD FORM OF THEIR

RESPECTIVE ORGANS.

The organs of the animal life are symmetrical, those of the organic
life irregular in their conformation; in this circumstance consists the
most essential of their differences. Such character, however, to some
animals, and among the fish, to the sole and turbot especially, is not
applicable; but in man it is exactly traced, as well as in all the genera
which are nearest to him in perfection. In them alone am I about to
examine it.

I. Symmetry of the external forms of the animal life.[6]

Two globes in every respect the same, receive the impressions of

light. Sounds and odours, have also their double analogous organ. A
single membrane is affected to savours, but the median line is
manifest upon it, and the two segments, which are indicated by it,
are exactly similar. This line indeed is not every where to be seen in
the skin, but it is every where implied. Nature, as it were, has
forgotten to describe it, but from space to space she has laid down a
number of points, which mark its passage. The cleft at the extremity
of the nose, of the chin, and the middle of the lips, the umbilicus,
the seam of the perineum, the projection of the spinous apophyses
of the back, and the hollow at the posterior part of the neck are the
principal points at which it is shewn.
The Nerves, which transmit the impressions received by the
senses, are evidently assembled in symmetrical pairs.
The brain, the organ (on which the impressions of objects are
received) is remarkable also for the regularity of its form. Its double
parts are exactly alike, and even those which are single, are all of
them symmetrically divided by the median line.
 The Nerves again, which transmit to the agents of locomotion and
of the voice, the volitions of the brain, the locomotive organs also,
which are formed in a great degree of the muscular system, of the
bony system, and its dependencies, these together with the larynx
and its accessories, composing the double agents of volition, have all
of them a regularity, a symmetry, which are invariable.
Such even is the truth of the character which I am now describing,
that the muscles and the nerves immediately cease to be regular, as
soon as they cease to appertain to the animal life. The heart, and
the muscular fibres of the intestines are proofs of this assertion in
the muscles; in the nerves, the great sympathetic, is an evidence of
its truth.
We may conclude then from simple inspection, that Symmetry is
the essential character of the organs of the animal life of man.

II. Irregularity of the exterior forms of the organic life.

If at present we pass to the viscera of the organic life, we shall

perceive a character directly the contrary of the former. The
stomach, the intestines, the spleen, the liver, &c. are all of them
irregularly disposed.
In the system of the circulation, the heart and the large vessels,
such as the upper divisions of the aorta, the vena azygos, the vena
portæ, and the arteria innominata have no one trace of symmetry.
In the vessels of the extremities continual varieties are also
observed, and when they occur, it is particularly remarkable that
their existence on one side in no way affects the other side of the
body.
The apparatus of respiration appears indeed at first to be exactly
regular; nevertheless, the bronchi are dissimilar in length, diameter,
and direction; three lobes compose one of the lungs, two the other:
between these organs also, there is a manifest difference of volume;
the two divisions of the pulmonary artery resemble each other
neither in their course, nor in their diameter; and the mediastinum is
sensibly directed to the left. We shall thus perceive that symmetry is
here apparent only, and that the common law has no exception.
The organs of exhalation and absorption, the serous membranes,
the thoracic duct, the great right lymphatic vessel, and the
secondary absorbents of all the parts have a distribution universally
unequal and irregular.
In the glandular system also we see the crypts, or mucous follicles
disseminated in a disorderly manner in every part; the pancreas, the
liver, the salivary glands themselves, though at first sight more
symmetrical, are not exactly submitted to the median line; added to
this, the kidneys differ from each other in their situation, in the
length and size of their artery and vein, and in their frequent
varieties more especially.[7]
From considerations so numerous we are led to a result exactly
the reverse of the preceding one; namely, that the especial attribute
of the organs of the interior life is irregularity of exterior form.

III. Consequences resulting from the difference of exterior form

in the organs of the two lives.

It follows from the preceding description, that the animal life is as

it were double; that its phenomena performed as they are at the
same time on the two sides of the body, compose a system in each
of them independent of the opposite system; that there is a life to
the right, a life to the left; that the one may exist, the other ceasing
to do so, and that they are doubtless intended reciprocally to supply
the place of each other.
The latter circumstance we may frequently observe in those
morbid affections so common, where the animal sensibility and
mobility are enfeebled, or annihilated on one side of the body, and
capable of no affection whatever; where the man on one side is little
more than the vegetable, while on the other he preserves his claim
to the animal character. Undoubtedly those partial palsies, in which
the median line, is the limit where the faculties of sensation and
motion finish, and the origin from whence they begin can never be
remarked so invariably in animals, which, like the oyster, have an
irregular exterior.
On the contrary the organic life is a single system, in which every
thing is connected and concatenated; where the functions on one
side cannot be interrupted, and those on the other subsist. A
diseased liver influences the state of the stomach; if the colon on
one side cease to act, that upon the other side cannot continue in
action: the same attack, which arrests the circulation in the right
side of the heart, will annihilate it also in the left side of the heart.
Hence it follows, the internal organs on one side being supposed to
suspend their functions, that those on the other must remain
inactive, and death ensue.
This assertion, however, is a general one; it is only applicable to
the sum of the organic life, and not to its isolated phenomena. Some
of them in fact are double, and their place may be supplied—the
kidneys and lungs are of this description.
I shall not enquire into the cause of this remarkable difference,
which in man, and those animals which approach him the nearest,
distinguishes the organs of the two lives. I shall only observe, that it
enters essentially into the nature of their phenomena, and that the
perfection of the animal functions is so connected with the general
symmetry observed in their respective organs, that every thing
which troubles such symmetry, will more or less impair the functions.
It is from thence, no doubt, that proceeds this other difference of
the two lives, namely, that nature very rarely varies the usual
conformation of the organs of the animal life. Grimaud has made
this observation, but has not shewn the principle on which it
depends.
It is a fact, which cannot have escaped any one the least
accustomed to dissection, that the spleen, the liver, the stomach, the
kidneys, the salivary glands, and others of the internal life, are
frequently various in form, size, position, and direction. Such in the
vascular system are these varieties, that scarcely will any two
subjects be found exactly alike under the scalpel of the anatomist:
the organs of absorption, the lymphatic glands in particular, are
rarely the same either in number or volume, neither do the mucous
glands in any way affect a fixed and analogous situation.
And not only is each particular system subject to frequent
aberrations, but the whole of the organs of the internal life are
sometimes found in the inverse of the natural order. Of this I have
lately seen an instance.
Let us now consider the organs of the animal life, the senses, the
brain, the voluntary muscles, and the larynx: here every thing is
exact, precise, and rigourously determined. In these there is scarcely
ever seen a variety of conformation; if there do exist any, the
functions are troubled, disturbed, or destroyed: they remain
unaltered in the organic life, whatever may be the disposition of the
parts.
The difference with respect to action, in the organs of the two
lives, depends, undoubtedly, upon the symmetry of the one, whose
functions the least change of conformation would have disturbed,
and on the irregularity of the other, with which these different
changes very well agree.
The functions of every organ of the animal life are immediately
connected with the resemblance of the organ to its fellow on the
opposite side if double, or if single to its similarity of conformation in
its two halves: from hence the influence of organic changes upon
the derangement of the functions may be well conceived.
But this assertion will become more sensible, when I shall have
pointed out the relations which exist between the symmetry and the
irregularity of the organs, and the harmony and the discordance of
their functions.
 FOOTNOTES:
[6] It is rather to the external forms that symmetry appears to
have been primitively attached, and it is in some measure
accidentally and because the nature of their functions requires in
general that they should be placed on the exterior, that the
organs of relation are found modified in virtue of this law. In the
example cited, of fishes without a bladder, the eyes, to lose
nothing of their utility, must be differently placed, and on the
face, which alone is in relation with the light; yet even in this
case, the symmetry of external forms has been displaced rather
than destroyed, and at the first examination it seems complete.
When the organs of relation are found placed on the interior, they
frequently exhibit some irregularity, and to take an example of a
known animal, the organ of voice, in the male duck, is a very
remarkable one; in man even, the wind-pipe is not symmetrical,
after it arrives at the first division of the bronchia. On the
contrary, among the organs of the other life, those which are
prominent on the exterior, constantly present the symmetrical
character, as the thyroid gland; the mammary glands, &c.
[7] If we deny symmetry to the kidneys, because they are not
uniformly composed of the same number of lobes in children, we
must deny it also to the brain, the two lobes of which never
exhibit the same arrangement in their circumvolutions; if we deny
it to the salivary glands, because one is larger than the other, we
must deny it to the extremities, because the right is usually more
developed than the left. If these examples are not enough, a host
of others might be cited; such as, the atrabiliary capsules, the
bladder, the different organs of generation and lactation, and the
very regular arrangement of the mucous follicles in certain parts
situated upon the median line, &c. As to the anomalies that are
observed in the distribution of the blood-vessels, they are also
observed very frequently, though in a less evident manner, in the
distribution of the nervous branches.
 CHAPTER III.

GENERAL DIFFERENCE OF THE TWO LIVES WITH REGARD TO THE MODE OF ACTION OF THEIR

RESPECTIVE ORGANS.

Harmony is to the functions of the organs, what symmetry is to

their conformation; it supposes a perfect equality of force and
action, between their similar parts, just as symmetry indicates an
exact analogy of external form, and internal structure: indeed it is a
necessary consequence of symmetry, for two parts essentially alike
in structure, cannot much differ in their manner of action. Hence we
should be naturally led to the following conclusion, namely, that
harmony is the character of the animal, discordance that of the
organic functions. But on these points we must be more particular.

I. Of harmony of action in the animal life.

We have already observed, that the animal life arises from the
successive actions of the senses, the nerves, the brain, the
locomotive organs, and the voice. We shall now consider what
harmony of action is, in each of these great divisions.
The precision of our sensations appears to be the more complete
in proportion as there exists a resemblance between the two
impressions, of which they are each of them the assemblage. We
see inaccurately when one of the eyes is better formed, and stronger
than the other; when it conveys to the brain a clearer image than its
fellow does. It is to avoid this confusion that we shut one eye, while
the action of the other is increased by the application of a lens, for
at such time there can be no harmony of action in the two organs;
accordingly, we make use of one of them only in order to avoid the
discordance of the impression.—What a lens applied to one eye only
produces artificially, is exemplified in a natural way by squinting.—
We squint, says Buffon, because we turn the weaker eye from the
object on which the stronger is fixed; for in so doing we avoid the
confusion, which would arise from the perception of two dissimilar
images.
We know that many other causes may contribute to the
production of this effect, but we cannot doubt the reality of the
reason assigned. We know also, that in some animals each eye may
act without the assistance of the other, and that two different
objects may be transmitted at the same time by the two eyes of
certain other animals; but this circumstance, when the action of both
the organs is united upon a single object, should by no means
prevent a similarity in the two impressions. A single sensation is the
consequence of the combination; but in what way can such
sensation be formed with accuracy, if the same body at the same
time be pictured both in strong and weak colours on the one and the
other of the retinæ?
What we have said of the eye may be equally well applied to the
ear. If, of the two sensations which form a sound, the one be
received by a strong and well formed organ, the other by a weak
one, the impressions will be unequal; the brain also, because it is
differently affected by each, will be the seat of an imperfect
perception. Such conformation constitutes what is called an incorrect
or false ear. For what reason does it happen that one man is
unpleasantly affected by a dissonance, while another does not even
perceive it? The reason is this, that in the one, the two perceptions
of the same sound are identical; in the other, dissimilar.[8] For the
same reason a man with a correct ear will combine his dancing with
the cadence of the measure given him; another without this
similarity of organ will be as constantly at variance in his motions
with the orchestra.
Buffon has confined his observations on harmony of action, to the
organs of vision and hearing; we shall push our examination of it
farther.
In the sense of smelling, as well as in the other senses, we must
admit of two impressions; the one primitive, and belonging to the
organ, the other consecutive, and affecting the sensorium: now the
latter may vary, the former remaining unaltered. Many odours are
disagreeable to some, but pleasant to others; and this, not because
there is any difference in the affection of the pituitary membrane,
but because in different individuals, the mind may attach a very
different sentiment to the same impression.—Hence a variety of
results does not in this case suppose a difference of principle.
But sometimes the impression which is made upon the pituitary
membrane does really differ from that which it ought to be, for
producing perfect sensation. Two dogs pursue the same game; the
one never loses scent, but makes the same turnings and windings
with the animal before him; the other follows his game also, but
often stops and hesitates, endeavors to recover the scent, proceeds
and stops again. The first of these receives a lively impression of the
scented emanation; the organs of the second are only confusedly
affected. Now it may be asked whether this confusion does not arise
from the unequal action of the two nostrils, from the superior
organization of the one, and from the imperfection of the other?—
the following observations appear to decide the question.
In the coryza, which affects but one of the nostrils, if the two be
suffered to remain open, the sense of smelling is confused; but let
the diseased nostril be shut, and the smell shall immediately become
distinct. A polypus in one of the nostrils debilitates the action of the
pituitary membrane on the affected side, the other remaining in its
healthy state: hence, as in the preceding case, ensues a want of
harmony in the two organs, and the same confusion in the
perception of odours. The greater number of the affections of a
single nostril have similar effects, which may be all of them
corrected by the same means. And wherefore? because in rendering
one of the pituitary membranes inactive, we put a stop to the
discordance which is occasioned by the deficiency of action in the
other. From the above facts (since any accidental cause, which
destroys the harmony of action in these organs, is capable of
rendering the perception of odours inexact) we may conclude, that
when the perception is naturally inaccurate, there is a natural
dissimilarity in the formation of the organs, and therefore a
difference of power in them.
The same reasoning may be applied to the sense of taste. It is
often the case that one side of the tongue is affected by palsy or
spasm, the median line dividing the insensible half from the other,
which continues to preserve its sensibility. But such affection may
take place in a variety of degrees, and one side of the tongue retain
a power of perceiving savours though in a less perfection than the
other side. In such case it is natural to suppose that the taste must
be confused; because a clear perception cannot be the consequence
of two unequal sensations.
The perfection of the touch as well as that of the other senses, is
essentially connected with uniformity of action in the two
symmetrical halves of the body, and particularly in the hands. Let us
suppose, for instance, a man born blind, to have one hand well
organized, the other defective in the power of moving the thumb
and fingers, and forming only a stiff and immovable surface; such
person would find it a very difficult thing to acquire a just notion of
the size and figure of bodies, because the same sensation would not
arise from the successive application of each hand to the same
substance. Let both of his hands, for example, be supposed to touch
a small sphere; the one by the extremities of the fingers will
embrace it in all its diameters, and convey to him the idea of
roundness; the other, which will be in contact with it only in a few
points, will produce a very different sensation. Embarrassed between
these two bases of his judgment, he will scarcely be able to decide,
nay, it is even possible that he may form a double judgment from
the double sensation which is presented him: his ideas would be
more correct were he to use only the perfect hand, in the same
manner as the person who squints, makes use of the perfect eye
only. Our hands then assist each other reciprocally; the one confirms
the notions which are given us by the other; hence the necessary
uniformity of their conformation.
 The hands are not the only instruments of the sense of touch. The
axilla, the groin, the concavity of the foot and many other parts, may
all of them from their application to bodies, afford us so many bases
for our judgments with regard to external form. Now, if one half of
the body were differently arranged from the other half, the same
uncertainty in perception would infallibly be the result. From all that
has been said, we may conclude, that in the external organs of
sense, a harmony of action in the two symmetrical parts, or the two
similar halves of the organ, is a condition essential to the perfection
of sensation.
The external senses are the natural excitants of the brain. The
functions of the brain succeed to theirs, and this organ would but
languish, were it not to find in them the principle of its activity. From
sensation follow perception, memory and imagination; from these
the judgment. Now it is easy to prove, that these different functions,
commonly known by the name of the internal senses,[9] are
governed in their actions by the same laws, which influence the
external senses; and that like them, they approach the nearer to
perfection in proportion to the degree of harmony existing in the
symmetrical parts, in which they have their seat.
Let us suppose for instance one hemisphere of the brain to be
better organised, and therefore susceptible of livelier affections than
its fellow; in such case the perception of the individual would be
confused, for the brain is to the soul what the senses are to the
brain; it transmits to the soul the impressions conveyed to it by the
senses, as the senses convey to the brain the impressions made
upon them by external objects. But, if the defect of harmony in the
external senses confuse the perception of the brain, why may not
the soul perceive but confusedly, when the two hemispheres of the
brain are unequal in power, and incapable of blending into one the
double impression, which is made upon them?
The memory is the faculty of re-producing former sensations, the
imagination that of creating new ones, now in the act of
remembering or imagining, each hemisphere of the brain appears to
re-produce, or to create a sensation of its own. If both do not act
alike, the perception of the mind, which ought to be the result of the
two sensations united, will be inexact and irregular. But, it is evident,
that there will be a disparity in the two sensations, if there be a
disparity in the two halves of the brain, in which they have arisen,
and since the general foundations of the judgment are made up of
the faculties of perception, memory, and imagination, if these be
confused, the judgment itself must be confused also.
We have now supposed an inequality of action in the hemispheres
of the brain, and inferred, that the functions would in this
supposition be imperfect; but what as yet is only supposition, in a
variety of instances can be proved to be a fact; for nothing is more
common than to find in consequence of compression on either
hemisphere by blood, pus, or exostosis, a variety of alterations in the
intellectual functions.
Even when all appearances of actual compression have vanished,
if in consequence of that which has been experienced, a part of the
brain remain enfeebled, the same alterations of mental power will be
found to be prolonged. If both hemispheres of the brain, however,
be affected equally, the judgment though weaker, will be more
exact.[10] Perhaps it is thus, that we should explain those
observations so frequently repeated, of an accidental stroke upon
one side of the head having restored the intellectual functions, which
had long remained dormant in consequence of a blow received upon
the other side.
I now conceive myself to have proved, that with inequality of
action in the hemispheres, there must be confusion of intellect. I
have also pointed out some states of disease, in which such
confusion is evidently the effect of inequality of action so
occasioned; here we see the effect and its cause; but may we not
from analogy, infer a similar cause where we see a like effect? when
the judgment is habitually incorrect, and all the ideas wanting in
precision, may we not be induced to believe, that there does exist a
defect of harmony in the action of the two hemispheres of the brain?
We see inaccurately if nature have not given to both eyes an equal
power; we perceive and judge inaccurately in like manner, if the two
sides of the brain are naturally dissimilar. The most correct mind,
and the soundest judgment, pre-suppose in the hemispheres a
perfect harmony of action; and what a multiplicity of shades do we
not behold in the operations of the understanding? it is probable that
they all of them correspond to so many varieties in the proportions
of power in the hemispheres. Could we squint with the brain as we
do with the eyes—that is to say, could we receive impressions on
one hemisphere only, and form from thence our determinations, we
might then command at will, a precision in our intellectual
operations; but such a power does not exist.
To the functions of the brain succeed those of locomotion and the
voice. The first of these would appear almost to form an exception
to the general law. In considering the two vertical halves of the
body, we shall perceive that the one is constantly more powerful
than the other with respect to the strength and number of its
movements. The right half is that, which from custom, is most made
use of.
To comprehend the reason of this difference; we must make a
difference between strength and agility; strength depends upon the
perfection of the organization, on the energy of the nutritive
process, on the plenitude of life in the muscular fibre; agility, on the
contrary, is the result of habit and frequent exercise.[11]
At present we shall observe, that this disparity of action in the
locomotive organs, does not consist in the difference of their actual
strength, but in that of the agility, with which these motions are
executed.—All is equal in the size, in the number of fibres, and
nerves both of the one and the other of the superior, or inferior
extremities; the difference of their vascular systems is scarcely any
thing. From hence it follows that the discordance does not exist in
nature, but that it is the effect of our social habits, which by
multiplying our movements on one side of the body, increase their
address without much adding to their power. Such in fact are the
wants of society, as to call forth a certain number of general
movements, which must be performed by all in the same direction,
in order to be understood. It is generally agreed, that this direction
shall be from left to right. The letters, which form the writing of
most nations, are in this way directed; such circumstance occasions
the necessity of our using the right hand to form them in preference
to the left, the former being as much better adapted to this method,
as the latter would be to the contrary one; of this we may convince
ourselves by experiment.
The direction of the letters from left to right, imposes on us the
necessity also of casting our eyes upon them in the same direction.
From this habit acquired in reading, arises that of examining objects
in the same manner.
The necessity of similar movements when men are drawn up in
line of battle, has induced almost all nations to handle their weapons
with their right hands; the harmony too which prevails in the dances
of even the most savage people exacts an accord in the limbs, which
they constantly preserve by making all their principal movements
with the right. We might add to these examples a great variety of
others.
The general movements agreed on by society, which, if every one
were not to execute them in the same direction, would be creative of
much confusion; these movements, I say, by the influence of habit,
oblige us for our own particular movements to use the limbs, which
they have brought into action. Hence, the members of the right side
of the body are perpetually in action either for our own particular
wants, or for those which we feel in conjunction with others.
Now, as the habitude of acting, continually tends to the perfection
of action, we may perceive the reason, why the right side acquires a
greater facility in the performance of many motions than the left.
This increased facility is not original, but acquired.
So remarkable a difference then, in the two symmetrical halves of
the body, is not by nature meant as an exception to the general law
of harmony of action in the external functions; for those movements,
which are executed by the whole of the body, are the more precise
in proportion to the smallness of the difference existing in the agility
of the muscles of the two sides. How happens it that certain animals
leap from rock to rock with such admirable precision, where the least
deviation from the intended direction, would plunge them into an
abyss? how happens it that they run with such astonishing address
on planes, which are scarcely equal in breadth to the extremities of
their limbs? how happens it that the walk of the very heaviest of
animals is never attended with those false steps so frequent in the
progression of man? The reason must be, that the difference in their
locomotive organs in both sides of the body is scarcely any thing,
and that in consequence there must be a constant harmony of
action in these organs.
He, whose general movements, or those of the whole of the body
are the most perfect, has the least command in particular over those
of the right side; for, as I shall prove hereafter, the perfection of a
part is never acquired but at the expense of that of the whole. The
child, who should be taught to make an equal use of all his limbs,
would possess a precision in his general movements, which he would
find extremely difficult to acquire for those of the right hand, such as
writing or fencing.
I can easily suppose, that some few natural circumstances may
have exercised upon us an influence in our choice with respect to
the direction of those general motions, which the habits of society
have established. Such may be the slight excess of diameter in the
right subclavian artery, and the sensation of lassitude during
digestion, which is more perceived upon the left side on account of
the situation of the stomach, and may therefore have determined us
to act at such time upon the opposite side in preference. Such also
may be the natural instinct, by which, to express our feelings we
carry the right hand to the heart; but these circumstances are trifling
in comparison with the very great difference of the movements
which from the state of civilization exists between the symmetrical
halves of the body; and from this view of the subject, we cannot but
regard this difference as the effect of social convention, and by no
means the intent of nature.
The voice, together with locomotion, is the last act of the animal
life in the natural order of its functions. Now the greater number of
physiologists, and Haller in particular, have indicated as the causes
of want of harmony in the voice, the dissimilarity of the two portions
of the larynx, the inequality of force in the muscles, which move the
arytenoid cartilages, the same inequality of action in the nerves,
which are distributed to each half of the organ, and the different
reflection of sounds in the nostrils and frontal sinuses. Without doubt
a defective voice must frequently depend upon a faulty ear; when
we hear incorrectly, we sing incorrectly; but when a correct ear is
united with a want of precision in the voice, the cause is then in the
larynx.
The most harmonious voice is that, which the two portions of the
larynx produce in an equal degree; where the vibrations on one side
correspond exactly in number, strength and duration with those
upon the opposite side.[12] In the same manner the most perfect
singing will be produced by two voices exactly similar in tone,
compass, and inflection.
From the numerous considerations which I have offered, the
following general conclusion may be deduced—namely, that one of
the most essential characteristics of the animal life, is a harmony of
action in the two analogous parts, or in the two sides of the simple
organ concurring to the same end. The relation which exists
between this harmony of action, which is the character of the
functions, and symmetry of form, which is the attribute of the
organs of the animal life, will easily be seen.
I wish to observe in finishing this section, that in pointing out the
different derangements, which take place in the animal life, from the
want of harmony in the organs, I have only pretended to assign a
single isolated cause of such derangements; I am well aware that a
thousand other causes besides dissimilarity in the hemispheres of
the brain, may affect the operations of the mind.
 II. Of discordance of action in the organic life.

Along with the phenomena of the animal life, let us now consider
those of the organic life, and we shall find that harmony has nothing
to do with them. Of what detriment would it be to the general health
of the individual, should one of his kidneys be stronger than the
other, and secrete more urine; should one of his lungs be better
unfolded than the other, admit more venous, and send out more
arterial blood; should a less organic force be the lot of the salivary
glands on one side than on the other side of his body? The simple
function, to which both organs concur, would not be performed less
perfectly. Whenever but a slight fulness supervenes on one side of
the liver, spleen, or pancreas, the sound part makes up for the
defect, and the function is little disturbed. The circulation also
remains unaltered among the frequent variations in the vascular
system of each side of the body, whether such variations exist
naturally, or whether they arise from some artificial obliteration of
the larger vessels as in aneurism.
Hence we find those numerous irregularities of structure, those
malconformations, which as I have said may be remarked in the
organic life, and nothing of a morbid nature in consequence arising.
From hence we see that almost continual succession of
modifications, which lessen or increase the circle of the organic
functions. The vital powers, and their exciting causes, are continually
varying, and thus occasion a constant instability in the functions of
the organs, for a thousand causes may at every moment double or
triple the activity of the circulation, and respiration, increase or
diminish the quantity of bile, urine, or saliva, and suspend or
augment the nutrition of the parts. Hunger, food, sleep, motion, rest,
and the passions may all of them impress upon these functions so
great a mobility, as every day to make them run through a hundred
degrees of strength or weakness.
In the animal life on the contrary, every thing is uniform and
constant, the powers of the senses cannot experience these
alternate modifications, or at least, not in so marked a manner.
Indeed they are at all times in a state of relation with the physical
powers, which preside over exterior bodies; now the latter remaining
unaltered, such variations would destroy all relative connexion, and
thus the functions cease.
Besides, if this mobility, which characterises the organic life, were
the attribute of sensation—for the same reason it would be that of
all the operations of the mind. In such case of what would man
consist? The perpetual sport of every thing surrounding him, he
would find his existence at one time little different from that of
inanimate matter, at others superior in perfection and energy to that
even which he now enjoys, allied at one time to the brute, at
another, to spiritual nature.
 FOOTNOTES:
[8] This supposition, though no doubt ingenious, is not true. If
the want of accuracy of hearing arose in fact from the inequality
of the power of the two organs, this defect might be remedied by
using but one ear; but experience gives a different result. We
shall not discuss, in relation to the same principle of inequality of
the organs, the explanation of strabismus; but at least, for every
thing that relates to the just appreciation of colours, this principle
is no more applicable than to the just appreciation of sounds. I
know a man who has never been able to distinguish the blue of
the sky from the green of the sea, and he succeeds no better by
closing one eye.
[9] We cannot, without confounding all the ideas we have formed
of the senses, give this name to the memory, imagination and
judgment; at the most we might give the name of internal senses
to certain sensations which inform us of the particular state of
some internal organ, in the same way as the external senses
make us acquainted with the properties and state of external
bodies.
[10] We cannot conceive how the judgment can be weak or
strong, if we do not understand by it that it is habitually accurate
or inaccurate. His judgment is sound who usually perceives the
true relations between things; and this is independent of the
number and variety of the ideas upon which he has to pronounce.
The man to whose mind there is presented but a small number of
relations, has but little imagination; but if these relations be true,
we cannot say that his judgment is weak.
[11] Bichat, in order to retain for the organs of organic life the
character of irregularity in the forms which he had assigned to
them, has been compelled to avail himself of the inequality of the
size of the congenerous organs. He soon repented having
established an uniform principle; and in this case for example, he
is near being condemned by the very sentence which he has
himself pronounced. The locomotive system, in fact, the
symmetry of which no person before him thought of denying, is
destitute of it according to the principle he has established, since
it presents in its two halves an inequality of size and action. In
order to avoid this consequence, Bichat has maintained that the
inequality of size arose from the inequality of action, and that this
was the result, not of an original disposition, but of our social
habits only. To prove this assertion, he has been compelled to
heap sophism on sophism; he cannot in this case be suspected of
a wish to deceive; he was convinced of the truth of the principle,
and we know that to prove what is believed to be true, the
weakest reasons always seem to be sufficient. But these very
errors should be turned to our advantage, by showing us how
dangerous is the tendency of generalizing upon every thing, since
it was capable of misleading so judicious a mind.
Without stopping to refute in detail all the reasons which he has
advanced to support his opinion, we cannot help saying
something of them; and in the first place, the difference of size
uniformly exists; it is evident that it does not arise from great
exercise, since it is found in the infant at birth, and the nourishing
artery of the right arm is larger than that of the left. If the right
arm be not really stronger than the other, why should we always
use it in preference? If we employ it in writing, should we say
with Bichat, that it is only because it is better situated to move
from left to right, in the order in which the characters of our
writing succeed each other; might it not be said, with more
reason, that our letters go from left to right, because it is the
direction in which the right hand most easily traces them? All this
besides relates merely to the form of our characters, since all the
oriental languages are written from right to left; yet it is always
done with the right hand. Is it still said that the necessity of union
in battle has led to the employment of the right arm to hold the
weapons, as if the Hurons or Algonquins fought in close ranks like
our Grenadiers. If this use of the same arm or the same leg was
only conventional, why among some people, is the left side never
preferred?
[12] The theory of wind instruments is not yet sufficiently well
understood, to enable us to say, what sort of influence would be
exerted upon the sound by the inequality of vibrating plates.
(See the article Voice, in my Elements of Physiology, Vol. 2d.)
 CHAPTER IV.

GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO LIVES WITH RESPECT TO DURATION OF ACTION.

One of the great distinguishing characters of the phenomena of

the animal life in opposition to those of the organic life, has just
been shewn. That, which I am about to examine, is not of less
importance. The functions of the animal life intermit; the functions
of the organic life are performed with an uninterrupted continuity.

I. Of continuity of action in the organic life.

Prolong but little the causes which are capable of suspending

respiration, or the circulation of the blood, and life itself shall be
suspended, nay, even annihilated. All the secretions go on
uninterruptedly; if they intermit at all (and those of the bile and
saliva for instance, when not immediately required for the purposes
of digestion and mastication, may be said to intermit) such
intermissions affect the intensity of the secretion only, and not the
entire exercise of the function. Exhalation and absorption incessantly
succeed each other; the process of nutrition must be continually
carried on; the double movement of assimilation and decomposition
from which it results, can only be terminated with life itself.
In this concatenation of the organic phenomena, each function
depends immediately upon those which precede it. The centre of
them all, the circulation, is immediately connected with the exercise
of them all, for when this is troubled, they languish, when this
ceases, they cease also. Just in the same manner the movements of
a clock all stop with the pendulum. Nor only is the general action of
the organic life connected with the heart; but there cannot exist a
single function of this nature unconnected with all the others, for
without secretion, there can be no digestion, without exhalation no
absorption, without digestion no nutrition. Hence as a general
character of the organic functions may be indicated continuity of
action, and mutual dependence.

II. Of intermission of action in the organic life.

In the exercise of the functions of the animal life, there will be

regularly seen an alternation of activity and repose, complete
intermissions, and not remissions only.
Fatigued by long continued action, the senses all alike become for
a time, incapable of receiving any further impression. The ear loses
its sensibility to sound, the eye to light, the tongue to savours, the
pituitary membrane to smells, the touch to the qualities of bodies
about which it is conversant, and all this for the sole reason that the
respective functions of these different organs, have for a long time
been exercised.
In like manner, the brain fatigued by too great an effort in the
exercise of any of its powers, in order to regain its excitability, must
cease to act for a period proportioned to the duration of its
preceding action. The muscles also after having been strongly
contracted, before they can contract anew, must remain for awhile in
a state of relaxation. Hence in locomotion, and the exertion of the
voice, there must be intermissions.
Such then is the character peculiar to the organs of the animal
life. They cease to act because they have acted. They become
fatigued, their exhausted powers must be renewed.
This intermission is sometimes general, sometimes partial. When a
single organ, for a long time has been exercised, the others
remaining inactive, it relaxes and sleeps, the others continuing to
watch.—Hence, without doubt, proceeds the reason, why there is no
immediate dependence among the functions of this order on each
other. The senses being shut up against sensation, the brain may
still subsist in action, may remember, imagine, or reflect. In such
case the power of locomotion and the voice also, may equally well
be exercised, and these in like manner may remain unexercised, and
the activity of the senses be in no-wise impaired.
Thus the animal at will may fatigue any one of the parts of this
life, and on this very account, such parts must all of them possess a
capability of being relaxed, a power of repairing their forces in an
isolated manner. This is the partial sleep of the organs.

III. Application of the law of intermission of action to the theory

of sleep.

General sleep is the sleep of all the parts. It follows from that law,
which with respect to the functions of the animal life, enchains
intermission with periods of action, from that law, by which this life
is particularly distinguished from the organic life.
Very numerous varieties are remarked in this periodical state, to
which all animals are subject. The most complete sleep is that in
which the outward life is entirely suspended. The least perfect sleep
is that which affects one organ only; it is that of which we have just
been speaking.
Between these two extremes there are many intermediate states.
At times perception, locomotion, and the voice only are suspended;
the imagination, the memory, and the judgment remaining in action.
At other times, to the exercise of the latter faculties are added those
of the locomotive organs and the voice.—Such is the sleep, in which
we dream, for dreams are nothing more than a portion of the animal
life escaped from the torpor, in which the other portion of it is
plunged.
Sometimes but very few of the senses have ceased their
communication with external objects. Such is that species of
somnambulism, in which to the action of the brain, the muscles, and
the larynx, are added the very distinct actions of the ear and the
sense of touch.[13]
 Sleep then cannot be considered as a constant and invariable
state with regard to its phenomena.—Scarcely ever do we sleep in
the same manner twice together. A number of causes modify in
applying to a greater or less portion of the animal life the laws of
intermission of action. Its different degrees should be marked by the
different functions, which these intermissions affect.
But the principle of it is every where the same from the simple
relaxation of a muscle to the entire suspension of the whole of the
animal life. Its application, however, to the different external
functions, varies without end.
These ideas on sleep are different, no doubt, from that narrow
system, where its cause exclusively placed in the brain, in the heart,
in the large vessels, or in the stomach, presents an isolated and
frequently an illusory phenomenon, as the base of one of the great
modifications of life.
And what is the reason why light and darkness in the natural order
of things, coincide so regularly with the activity or intermission of the
external functions? The reason is this, that during the day a
thousand means of excitement perpetually surround the animal, a
thousand causes exhaust the powers of his sensitive and locomotive
organs, fatigue them, and prepare them for a state of relaxation,
which at night is favoured by the absence of every kind of stimulus.
Thus, in the actual state of society, where this order is in part
inverted, we assemble about us at evening, a variety of excitants,
which prolong our waking moments, and put off until towards the
first hours of daylight, the intermission of our animal life, an
intermission, which we favour besides by removing from the place of
our repose whatever might produce sensation.
We may for a certain time, by multiplying the causes of
excitement about them, withdraw the organs of the animal life from
this law of intermission, which should naturally cause them to sleep;
but at last they must undergo its influence, and nothing can any
longer suspend it. Exhausted by watching, the soldier slumbers at
the cannon’s side, the slave under the whip, the criminal in the midst
of torture.
We must carefully make a distinction, however, between the
natural sleep, which is the effect of lassitude, and that, which is the
consequence of some affection of the brain, of apoplexy, or
concussion, for instance. In the latter case the senses watch, receive
impressions, and are affected as usual, but these impressions are
not perceived by the diseased sensorium; we cannot be conscious of
them. On the contrary, in ordinary sleep the senses are affected as
much, or even more than the brain.
From what has now been said, it follows, that the organic life, has
a longer duration than the animal life. In fact the sum of the periods
of the intermissions of the latter, is almost equal to that of the times
of its activity. We live internally almost double the time that we exist
externally.
 FOOTNOTE:
[13] The action of the brain is far from being preserved in
somnambulism. The thread of ideas, on the contrary, is
completely broken, and this is the most striking character which
distinguishes every kind of sleep from wakefulness. The mind
then cannot reflect upon the sensations which it receives, it
abandons itself successively and without any resistance to all
those which are presented, without examining the connexion
which they can have between them. In ordinary sleep, the senses
are almost entirely blunted, the mind receives no other sensations
than those which have been derived from memory; but they
present themselves in a confused manner, without order and in
such a way as often to form the most strange and incoherent
images. In somnambulism the action of many senses, and that of
hearing in particular is preserved; the judgment of the sleeper
can then exercise itself not only upon its reminiscences, but also
upon the impressions which are transmitted to it from without.
The sound of a bell or a drum, being heard while we are in a
dream, will immediately modify it. In this way a person may gain
the attention of a somnambulist, and as the latter possesses the
use of his voice, it will be seen by his answers that his ideas can
be directed at will, and led in this way wherever it is wished; for
the impressions that he receives from without, being stronger
than those which come from memory, he will almost always obey
the first.
 CHAPTER V.

GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO LIVES WITH RESPECT TO HABIT.

Another of the great distinguishing characters of the two lives of

the animal, consists in the independence of the one, and in the
dependence of the other on habit.

I. Of habit in the animal life.

In the animal life every thing is modified by habit. The functions of

this life, whether enfeebled or exhausted by it, according to the
different periods of their activity, appear to assume a variety of
characters: to estimate the influence of habit, it is necessary to
consider two things in the effect of all sensation, the sentiment, or
immediate feeling, which we have of external objects, and the
judgment which is the result of one or more comparisons made with
respect to them. An air, for instance, strikes the ear; the first
impression made upon the organ is, we know not why, agreeable or
painful. This is sentiment—at present let us suppose the air to be
continued. We may now endeavour to appreciate the different
sounds of which it is composed, and to distinguish their accords. In
this we exercise the judgment. Now, on these two things, the action
of habit is inverse. It enfeebles our sentiment of things, it improves
our judgment of them; the more we regard an object, the less are
we sensible of its agreeable or painful qualities, the better, at the
same time, may we judge of its attributes.

II. Habit blunts the sentiment.

Let us dwell a little on the foregoing proposition; we have said

that it is the property of habit to enfeeble our sentiments of things,
to bring us into a state of indifference, the middle term betwixt pain
and pleasure. But before we set about to prove an assertion so
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