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Web Development & Design
Foundations with HTML5
10th Edition
Web Development & Design
Foundations with HTML5
10th Edition

Terry Ann Felke-Morris, Ed.D.

Professor Emerita Harper College

Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/contactsupport
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Preface
Web Development & Design Foundations with HTML5 is intended for use in

a beginning web development course. This textbook introduces HTML

and CSS topics such as text configuration, color configuration, and page
layout, with an enhanced focus on the topics of design, accessibility, and

Web standards. The text covers the basics that web developers need to

build a foundation of skills:

Internet concepts
Creating web pages with HTML5

Configuring text, color, and page layout with Cascading Style Sheets

(CSS), including the new CSS Flexbox and CSS Grid Layout Systems

Web design best practices

Accessibility standards

The web development process

Using media and interactivity on web pages

Website promotion and search engine optimization

E-commerce and the Web

JavaScript

A special feature of this text is the Web Developer’s Handbook, which is a

collection of appendixes that provide resources including an HTML5

Reference, Special Entity Character List, CSS Property Reference, WCAG

2.1 Quick Reference, FTP Tutorial, and web-safe color palette.

New to This Edition

Building on this textbook’s successful ninth edition, new features for the

tenth edition include the following:

 Updated coverage of HTML5 elements and attributes

Updated code samples, case studies, and web resources

Expanded treatment of page layout design and responsive web design

techniques

Chapter 7  has been renamed Responsive Page Layout, takes a

mobile first approach, and has an expanded focus on new layout

systems including CSS Flexible Layout Module (Flexbox) and CSS

Grid Layout

Form layout with the CSS Flexbox and Grid Layout Systems

Updated reference sections for HTML5 and CSS

Additional Hands-On Practice exercises

Student files are available for download from the companion website for

this textbook at www.pearson.com/felke-morris. These files include

solutions to the Hands-On Practice exercises, the Website Case Study

starter files, and access to the book’s companion VideoNotes. See the

access card in the front of this textbook for further instructions.

Organization of the Text

This textbook is designed to be used in a flexible manner; it can easily be

adapted to suit a variety of course and student needs. Chapter 1 

provides introductory material, which may be skipped or covered,

depending on the background of the students. Chapters 2  through 4 

introduce HTML and CSS coding. Chapter 5  discusses web design best

practices and can be covered anytime after Chapter 3  (or even along
with Chapter 3 ). Chapters 6  through 9  continue with HTML and

CSS.

Any of the following chapters may be skipped or assigned as independent

study, depending on time constraints and student needs: Chapter 10 

(Web Development), Chapter 11  (Web Multimedia and Interactivity),
Chapter 12  (E-Commerce Overview), Chapter 13  (Web Promotion),

and Chapter 14  (A Brief Look at JavaScript and jQuery). A chapter

dependency chart is shown in Figure P.1 .
Figure P.1 This textbook is flexible and can be adapted to
individual needs

Brief Overview of Each Chapter

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Internet and World Wide
Web
This brief introduction covers the terms and concepts related to the
Internet and the Web with which Web developers need to be familiar. For
many students, some of this will be a review. Chapter 1  provides the
base of knowledge on which the rest of the textbook is built.
Chapter 2: HTML Basics
As HTML5 is introduced, examples and exercises encourage students to
create sample pages and gain useful experience. Students use a variety of
structural, grouping, and text-level HTML elements to create web pages
with hyperlinks. Solution pages for the Hands-On Practice are available

in the student files.

Chapter 3: Configuring Color and Text with CSS
The technique of using Cascading Style Sheets to configure the color and

text on web pages is introduced. Students are encouraged to create

sample pages as they read through the text. Solutions for the Hands-On
Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 4: Visual Elements and Graphics
This chapter discusses the use of graphics and visual effects on web

pages, including image optimization, CSS borders, CSS image

backgrounds, CSS visual effects, and HTML5 visual elements. Students

are encouraged to create web pages as they read through the text. Sample
solutions for the Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
(αα) In this respect we find throughout Christendom that rhyme is
introduced into Latin versification at a very early date with much
insistence, although, as observed, it rested on other principles.
These principles, however, are rather adapted from the Greek
language; and, so far from testifying to the fact that they originated
from the Latin speech itself, rather prove, under the modified
character they possess, a tendency which itself approaches the
romantic type. In other words, the poetry of Rome, on the one hand
and in its earliest days, discovered its source not in the natural
length and shortness of syllables, but rather measured the value of
syllables relatively to their accent; and in consequence of this it was
only through a more accurate knowledge and imitation of Greek
poetry that the prosodical principle of this was received and
followed. And, moreover, the Romans rendered more obdurate the
flexible, joyous sensuousness of Greek metres, more particularly by
their use of more insistent pauses at the caesura, as we find such
not only in the hexameter, but also in the alcaic and sapphic metres,
hardening the effect thus to a structure of more stringent outline
and more severe regularity. And indeed, apart from this, even in the
full bloom of Latin literature, and from their poets of finest culture,
we have already plenty of rhymes. Thus from Horace, in his Ars
poetica (verses 99-100), we get the following:
Non satis est, pulchra esse poemata: dulcia sunto,
Et quocunque volent, animum auditoris agunto.
Though the poet was probably quite unconscious of the fact, it is
none the less a strange coincidence that, in the very passage in
which Horace enforces the obligation that poems should be dulcia,
we discover a rhyme. Similar rhymes occur in Ovid with still more
frequency. Even assuming such to be accidental, the fact remains
that they appear to have been not offensive to Roman ears, and
might consequently be permitted, although as isolated exceptions, to
slip into the composition. Yet the profounder significance of romantic
rhyme is absent from such playful exceptions. The former does not
assert the recurrent sound merely as sound, but the ideal content or
meaning implied in it. And it is precisely this which constitutes the
fundamental difference between modern rhyme and the very ancient
rhyme of the Hindoos.
As for the classical languages, it was after the invasion of barbarism,
and on account of the destruction of accentuation and the assertion
of that uniquely personal note of emotion referable to Christianity,
that the rhythmical system of verse passed into that of rhyme. Thus,
in his hymn to the Holy Spirit, Ambrosius entirely regulates the
versification according to the accent of the meaning expressed, and
breaks into rhyme. The first work of St. Augustine against the
Donatists is in the same way a rhymed song; and also the so-called
Leonine versicles, as expressly rhymed hexameters and
pentameters, are easily distinguishable from the accidental
exceptions of rhyme previously noticed. These and other examples
like them mark the point of departure of rhyme from the more
ancient rhythmical system.
(ββ) Certain writers have no doubt attempted to trace the origin of
the new principle of versification in Arabian literature. The artistic
education, however, of the famous poets of the East is of later date
than the appearance of rhyme in western Christendom; and any
Mohammedan art of a more early time exercised no real influence on
the West. We should, however, add that we find from the first in
Arabian poetry essential affinities with the romantic principle, in
which the knights of Europe, at the time of the crusades, very
readily made themselves at home; and consequently it is not difficult
to understand how, in the affinity of spiritual tendencies[38] which
they shared, and in which the poetry of Eastern Mohammedanism no
less than Western Christianity finds its source, though removed in
the world from each other, we meet for the first time and on its own
independent footing a novel type of verse writing.
(γγ) A third source, to which again, independently of either the
influence of the classic languages or the Arabic, we may trace the
origins of rhyme and all that it implies, are the Germanic languages,
as we find them in their earliest Scandinavian development. As
illustration of this we have the songs of the ancient Edda, which,
though only in more recent times, collected and edited,
unquestionably date from a former age. In these, as we shall see
later on, it is not, it is true, the genuine rhyme-sound which is
elaborated in its perfection, but rather an effective emphasis upon
particular sounds of language, and a regularity defined by rule, with
a definite repetition of both aspects.
(β) Yet more important than the question of origin is the
characteristic difference between the new system and the old. I have
already adverted to the fundamental feature of importance here; it
only remains to establish it more narrowly.
Rhythmical versification attained its most beautiful and richest
development in the field of Hellenic poetry, in which we may
discover the most eminent features of the type wherever it obtains.
Briefly they are as follows:
First, the sound, as such, of letters, syllables, or words does not here
constitute its material, but rather the syllabic sound in its temporal
duration, so that attention must neither exclusively be directed to
particular syllables or words, nor to the purely qualitative similarity
or identity of their sound. On the contrary, the sound still remains in
inseparable union with the static time-measure of its specific
duration; and in the forward movement of both the ear has to follow
the value of every separate syllable no less than the principle which
obtains in the rhythmical progression of all equally together.
Secondly, the measure of long and short syllables, no less than that
of rhythmical rise and fall, and varied animation derived from more
deliberate caesurae and moments of pause, depends upon the
natural element of the language, without permitting any introduction
of that type of accentuation, by virtue of which the actual meaning
of the word leaves its impress on a syllable or a word. The
versification asserts itself in its collocation of feet, its verse accent,
its caesurae, and so forth in this respect as fully independent as the
language itself, which also, outside the domain of poetry, already
accepts accentuation from the natural quantity of syllables and their
relations of juxtaposition, and not from the significance of the root-
syllable. On this account, thirdly, we have as the vital emphasis of
certain syllables, first, the verse accent and rhythm, and, secondly,
all other accentuation, both of which aspects, in their twofold
contribution to the varied character of the whole, pass in and out of
one another without any mutual derangement or suppression; and in
like manner respectively they satisfy the claim of the poetical
imagination in fully admitting the expressiveness due, by virtue of
the nature of their position and movement, to words which, in
respect to their intelligible meaning, are of a greater importance
than others.
(αα) The first alteration, then, effected by rhymed verse in the
previous system is this indisputable validity of natural quantity,[39] If,
therefore, any time-measure at all is permitted to remain, it is
compelled to seek for a basis for such quantitative pause or
acceleration, which it refuses any longer to find in the natural
quantity, of syllables, in some other province. And this, as we have
seen, can be no other than the intrinsic meaning of syllables and
words. It is this significance which in the final instance determines
the quantitative measure of syllables, so long as such is still
regarded as essential at all, and by doing so transfers the criterium
from the purely objective medium[40] and its natural structure to the
ideal subject-matter.
(ββ) A further result follows from this of yet more importance. As I
have already pointed out, this collocation of the emphasis on the
significant stem-syllable dissipates that other independent diffusion
of it in manifold forms of inflexion, which our rhythmical system is
not yet forced to treat as negligible, in contrast to the stem, because
it deduces neither the natural quantity of syllables nor the accent
which it asserts from the intelligible significance. In the case,
however, where such an explication,[41] with its co-ordination in
verse-feet according to the quantity of syllables in their natural
stability, falls away the entire system therewith necessarily collapses,
which reposes on the time-measure and its laws. Of this type, for
example, is French and Italian poetry, the metre and rhythm of
which are absolutely non-existent as understood by the ancients.
The entire question is here merely one of a definite number of
syllables.
(γγ) For such a loss there is only one possible compensation—that of
rhyme. In other words, if—this is one aspect—it is no longer time-
duration which receives objective expression, by means of which the
sound of syllables flows on freely in the even movement that
intrinsically belongs to them; if, furthermore, the intelligible
significance dominates over the stem-syllables, and coalesces with
the same without further organic expatiation into a determinate
unity, we have no sensuous medium, such as is able to maintain
itself independently of the time-measure, no less than this
accentuation of the stem-syllables, finally left to us other than just
this syllabic sound.
Such a sound, however, if it is to secure an independent attention,
must, in the first place, be of a far more insistent kind than the
interchange of different tones, such as we met with in the older
verse metres; and its assertion must be of a far more overwhelming
character than the stress of syllables can lay claim to in ordinary
speech. What we now require has not only to compensate us for the
loss of the articulate time-measure, but it further undertakes to
reassert the sensuous medium in its opposition to that unqualified
predominance of the accentuated significance. For when once the
conceptive content has essentially attained the ideality and
penetration of mind,[42] for which the sensuous aspect of speech is
of no importance, the verbal sound must enforce itself still more
positively and coarsely as distinct from this ideality in order to arrest
our attention at all. In contrast, therefore, to the gentle movements
of rhythmical euphony, rhyme is a crude expedient,[43] which
requires an ear by no means either so trained or sensitive as that
presupposed by Greek verse. Secondly, though it is true that rhyme
does not here assert itself so much as distinct from the meaning of
the stem-syllables simply as it does from the entire ideal content, yet
it does at the same time so far assist the natural verbal sound as to
win for it a relatively secure stability. But this object can only be
attained if the sound[44] of particular words affirms itself in exclusive
distinction from the resonance of other words, and thus secures an
independent existence, by virtue of which isolation it satisfies the
claims of the formative aspect of the verbal medium in forceful beats
of sound. Rhyme is therefore, at least in its contrast to the evenly
transfused movement of rhythmic euphony, a detached exhibition of
exclusive tonal expression. Thirdly, we found that it was the ideality
of the conscious self which, by virtue of its effort of ideal synthesis,
came into its own, and discovered its personal satisfaction in such
recurrences of sound. If, then, the means used in the older type of
versification, with its copious variety of structure, disappear, there
only remains, if we look at poetry, under the aspect of its medium,
to support this principle of self-recovery, the more formal repetition
of wholly identical or similar sounds, whereby again we are able to
unite under an intelligible scheme[45] the assertion and relation of
closely associated meanings in the rhyme-sounds of expressive
words. The metre of rhythmical verse we may regard as a variously
articulate interrelation of manifold syllabic quantities. Rhyme, on the
contrary, is from one point of view more material;[46] yet, on the
other hand, is itself more abstractly placed within this medium. In
other words, it is the mere recollection of mind and the ear of the
recurrence of identical or related sounds and significations—a
recurrence in which the poet is conscious of his own activity,
recognizes, and is pleased to recognize, himself therein as both
agent and participant.
(γ) Finally, on the question of the particular types under which we
may classify this more modern system of romantic poetry, I only
propose to advert briefly to what appears to me of most importance
in respect to alliteration, assonance, and ordinary rhyme.
(αα) The first, or at least the most thorough, example of alliteration
is that we find elaborated in the earliest Scandinavian poetry, where
it supplies the fundamental basis, whereas assonance and the
terminal rhyme, albeit these two aspects play a by no means
unimportant part, are, however, only present in certain particular
kinds of such poetry. The principle of alliterative rhyme, letter rhyme,
is rhyme in its most incomplete form, because it does not require the
recurrence of the entire syllable, but only that of one identical letter,
and primarily the initial letter only. Owing to the weakness of this
type of recurrent sound it is, in the first place, therefore necessary
that only such words should be used in its service, which already
independently possess an express accent on their first syllable; and,
secondly, these words must not be remote from one another, if the
identity of their commencement is to make a real impression on the
ear. For the rest, alliterative letters may be a vowel, no less than a
double or single consonant; but it is primarily consonants which are
of most importance in the scheme. Based on such conditions, we
find in Icelandic poetry[47] the fundamental rule that all alliterative
rhymes require accentuated[48] syllables, whose initial letters must
not in the same lines occur in other substantives which have the
accent on the first syllable; and, along with this, of the three words,
the initial letters of which constitute the rhyme, two must be found
in the first line, and the third, which supplies the dominant
alliteration, must be placed at the commencement of the second
line. We may add further that, in virtue of the abstract character of
this identical sound of initial letters, words are generally made
alliterative proportionally to the importance of their signification. We
find, therefore, that here, too, the relation of accented sound to the
meaning of words is not entirely absent. I cannot, however, pursue
this subject into more detail.
(ββ) Secondly, assonance has nothing to do with initial letters, but
makes a nearer approach to rhyme in so far as it is a recurrence in
identical sound of the same letters in the middle or at the
termination of different words. It is not necessary, of course, that
these assonant words should in all cases come at the conclusion of a
line; they may fall into other places. Mainly, however, it is the
concluding syllables of lines which come into this mutual relation of
assonance, as contrasted with alliteration which is effective rather at
the line's commencement. In its richest elaboration we may
associate this assonance of language with the Romance nations,
more especially the Spanish, whose full-toned language is peculiarly
adapted to this recurrence of the same vowels. As a rule, no doubt
assonance is here restricted to vowels. But the language further
permits of other variety of assonance, not only that of vowels, but
also that of identical consonants and consonants in association with
one vowel.
(γγ) That which, as above described, alliteration and assonance are
only able to establish with incompleteness is abundantly fulfilled by
rhyme. In it, and expressly to the exclusion of initial letters, we have
asserted the wholly equable sound of entire verb stems,[49] which
are, by virtue of this equability, brought into an express relation with
their tonal utterance. We have no mere question now of the number
of the syllables. Words of one syllable, no less than others of two or
more, may be rhymed. By this means we not only get the masculine
rhyme, which is restricted to words of one syllable, but also the
feminine rhyme, which embraces words of two syllables, as also the
so-called gliding rhyme, which reaches to three or even more
syllables. It is in particular the languages of Northern Europe which
incline to the first type, Southern languages to the second, such as
the Italian and Spanish. The German and French languages would
appear to lie between these two extremes. Rhymes of more than
three syllables are rarely to be met with in any language.
The position of the rhyme is at the conclusion of the lines, in which
the rhyming word, although there is certainly no reason that it
should ever concentrate in itself the ideal expressiveness of the
significance, nevertheless does attract attention to itself so far as the
verbal sound is concerned; and, furthermore, it makes the different
verses or stanzas follow one another either in accordance with the
principle of a wholly abstract recurrence of the same rhyme, or by
uniting, separating, and mutually relating them in a more elaborate
mode of regulated change, and variously symmetrical interweaving
of different rhymes with correspondent relations, sometimes more
near, at others more remote, of every degree of complexity. In such
a process the particular rhymes will at one point stare us in the face
at once, or they will appear to have a game of hide-and seek; so
that in this way our ear, as it listens, will at one time receive instant
satisfaction, at another it will only find it after considerable delay,
wherein the expectation will, as it were, be coquetted with,
deceived, and kept on the stretch, until the assured end from point
to point of artistically arranged recurrence is reached, and with it the
hearer's approval.
Among the various types of the poetic art it is pre-eminently lyric
poetry, which, by virtue of its ideality and personal quality of
expression, most readily avails itself of rhyme, and thereby converts
language itself into a music of emotion and melodic symmetry, a
symmetry not merely of time-measure and rhythmical movement,
but of the kind of resonance which finds a responsive echo in the
inner life itself. To promote this, therefore, the art elaborates in its
use of rhyme a more simple or complex system of strophes, every
one of which is part of one organic whole. Examples of such an
interplay of melodic sound, whether steeped in emotion or rich in
ingenuity, are the sonnet, canzonet, triolet, and madrigal. Epic
poetry, on the contrary, so long as it does not mingle lyrical subject-
matter with its more native character, preserves a more equable
advance in its construction, which does not easily adapt itself to the
strophe. We have an obvious illustration of this in the triplet stanzas
of Dante's "Divine Comedy," as contrasted with the lyrical canzonets
and sonnets of the same poet. However, I must not permit myself to
go further into detail.
(c) Now that we have in the above investigation separated
rhythmical versification from rhyme, and contrasted the same, we
may now proceed, thirdly, to ask ourselves whether a combination
of the two is not also intelligible, and, indeed, actually employed.
The existence of certain more recent languages will render
exceptional and important aid to the solution; in other words, we
cannot deny to these either a partial reassertion of our former
rhythmical system, or, in certain respects, an association of the same
with rhyme. We will, for example, confine our attention to our
mother tongue, and, in reference to the first-mentioned aspect, it
will be sufficient to recall Klopstock, who would have as little of
rhyme as possible; who not merely in epic, but also in lyrical poetry,
set himself to imitate the ancients with the greatest enthusiasm and
persistency. Voss and others have followed in his steps, ever striving
to enforce with increased strictness principles upon which to base
this rhythmical treatment of our language. Goethe, on the contrary,
never felt quite himself in his classical syllabic measures. He asks
himself, not without reason:
Stehn uns diese weiten Falten
Zu Gesichte, wie den Alten?[50]
(α) I will in this connection merely reiterate what I already have
observed upon the distinction which exists between ancient and
more modern languages. Rhythmical versification is based upon the
natural quantity of syllables, possessing therein an essentially stable
criterion, which the ideal expression can neither limit, alter, or
weaken. Such a natural measure is, however, abhorrent to more
recent languages; in these it is only the verbal accent of the ideal
significance, which makes one syllable long in its contrast to others,
which are defective in such significance. Such a principle of
accentuation, however, does not supply any audible compensation
for the absence of the natural quantity, or rather it adds to the
actual uncertainty of such a measure. For the more strongly
emphasized significance of a word can at the same time make
another short, despite the fact that, taken by itself, it possesses a
verbal accent, so that the criterion accepted is wholly one of mutual
relation. Du liebst, can, for instance, according to the stress of the
emphasis which is thrown, according to the sense intended, either
on both words, or one or the other, be a spondee, iambus or
trochee. No doubt the attempt has been made, even in our own
tongue, to return to the natural quantity of syllables, and to create
rules with this intent; but in the presence of the overwhelming
importance that the intelligible significance and the accent it asserts
has secured such a reference to theory is quite impracticable. And in
truth this agrees with the state of the facts. If the natural measure is
really to constitute the essential basis, the language ought not as yet
to have become such an instrument of soul expression as it is of
necessity in our own times. Once allow, however, that it has already
in its course of development thus secured such a mastery of the
intelligible purport over the sensuous or native material, and it
follows that the fundamental test for the value of syllables is not to
be deduced from the objective quantity itself, but rather from that
whereof words are themselves indicative as means. The emotional
impulse of a free intelligence refuses to allow the temporal activity of
language, as such, to establish itself in the independent form of its
native and objective reality.
(β) Such a conclusion, however, does not necessarily imply that we
are forced to oust altogether from our German language the
rhymeless rhythmical treatment of the syllabic measure; it merely in
essential respects points to this, that it is not possible, conformably
with the character of the structure of our modern speech, to retain
the plastic consistency of the metrical medium as it was secured by
the ancient world. We must consequently seek for and elaborate
some further element in poetical composition by way of
compensation, which on its own independent account is of a more
ideal[51] character than the stable natural quantity of syllables. Such
an element is the accent of the verse, no less than the caesura,
which as now constituted, instead of moving independently of the
verbal accent, coalesce with the same, and thereby receive a more
significant, albeit a more abstract assertion, in virtue of the fact that
the variety of that previous threefold accentuation, which we
discovered in the rhythmical type of classical poetry, on account of
this very coalescence necessarily disappears. It, however, equally
follows as a result that we only retain the power with conspicuous
success to imitate the rhythmic movement of such poetry where its
impression on our ear is most emphatic. We no longer possess, that
is to say, the stable quantitative basis for its more subtle distinctions
and manifold connections, and the more crude mode of
accentuation, which we do possess in its place, to emphasize our
measure, is intrinsically no sufficient substitute.
(γ) To state, then, finally, what this actual association of the
rhythmical mode of verse with rhyme is, we may go so far as to
affirm that it is the absorption, although to a limited extent, by the
more modern form of versification of the more ancient one.
(αα) The predominant distinction of the natural syllabic quantity by
means of the verbal accent is in fact not an entirely satisfactory
principle of the mere medium. It does not arrest the ear's attention,
even on the side of sense simply, so far as to make it appear,
absolutely and everywhere unnecessary, where the ideal aspect of
the poetical content is paramount, to summon the complementary
assistance of the sound and response of syllables and words.
(ββ) It is, however, at the same time necessary in the interest of
metre that an equally strong contrasting force should be set up to
that of the rhyme sound. In so far, however, as it is not the
distinction of syllables in their natural quantity and its variety, which
has to be co-ordinated and made predominant, we have, in respect,
to this temporal relation, no other expedient left but the identical
repetition of the same time-measure; in this the element of accented
beat will tend to assert itself in a far more emphatic degree, than is
compatible with the rhythmical system. As an illustration we have
our German rhymed iambics and trochaics, in the recitation of which
far more beat stress is admitted than is proper to the scansion of the
unrhymed iambics of the ancients, although the caesura pause is
capable of bringing into emphatic relief isolated words whose accent
is mainly referable to their meaning, and is capable of further
making all that remains dependent upon them a resisting effect to
the abstract equality of the verse, and by so doing introduces a
varied animation. And as in such a particular case, so we may assert
generally, the time-beat cannot be of actual service in poetry with
the force that is required of it in most musical compositions.
(γγ) Although, however, we may affirm it as a general rule that
rhyme should be associated merely with such verse metres, which,
by virtue of their simple changes of the syllabic quantity and their
continuous recurrence of similar verse feet, do not on their own
independent account give sufficiently effective modality to the
element of sensuous medium in modern languages which admit at
all of rhythmical treatment, yet the application of rhyme to the more
profuse syllabic metres imitated from classical models, as, for
instance, to borrow one example only, the alcaic and sapphic
strophe, will not merely appear superfluous, but even an unresolved
contradiction. Both systems repose on opposed principles, and the
attempt to unite them in the way suggested, can only involve us in a
like opposition, which can produce nothing but a contradiction we
are unable to mediate, and which is therefore untenable. It follows,
therefore, that we ought only to make use of rhyme in cases where
the principle of the older versification merely makes itself effective in
more remote implication, and through a transitional process
essentially deducible from the system of rhyme.
The above, then, are the points which we have sought to establish
as, in a broad sense, of most vital concern to poetical expression in
its contradistinction from prose.

[1] Bildlich, here not so much creative as simply plastic or

constructive.
[2] Vorliebe. His interest must be already centred in it.
[3] Bildlichkeit, i.e. their claims as images of something else.
[4] Vertauscht. I have translated "exchanged," but Hegel may
mean "mistaken for."
[5] It is not very clear what Hegel means by the word
Bezeichnungen. "Turns of expression," which first occurred to me,
appears to be covered by Flexionsformen lower down.
[6] Gedrungenen. The idea is suppression into a compact mass—
a cloud unable to burst save in occasional flashes.
[7] I presume Hegel refers here to the synthetic arrangement of
genuine paragraphs rather than phrases, composition generally.
[8] Das eigentliche Wort. The word, that is, which expresses the
fact in its immediacy.
[9] More literally, "being remoulded with the life and wealth of
Spirit."
[10] Besonnenheit, i.e., real thought-fullness.
[11] Der künstlerischen Ruhe. The personal predilection of Hegel
for classic art here once more asserts itself.
[12] The German word is Sinnen, but I think, though the
emotional sense is partly implied, the main emphasis is on a
presiding mind—or rather a wide-visioned genius.
[13] Eine sprudelnde Anschauung. A view of things that bubbles
forth like a fountain.
[14] That is, the medium of literary form.
[15] Ein hartes Band. The idea is not so much difficult as
unyielding, unmalleable.
[16] Zum Ernste des Inhalts. That is, the earnestness of a product
of mind as such. Hegel seems to contrast with this the
spontaneity of an art which, as inspired by genius, comes to us
with the freshness of Nature herself, take Shakespeare's songs for
example.
[17] Ungebunden. That is, it is contingent.
[18] Hegel calls this the Verstandesaccent, and speaks of this
importance (Bedeutsamkeit) as a product of the syllables.
[19] I presume the words das für sich gestaltete Klingen refer to
rhyme.
[20] Eine Sammlung in sich, that is, an independent collection or
aggregate.
[21] Anheben may possibly mean appearance in the defined
series generally.
[22] By Versen Hegel means rather lines than a number of them.
[23] The dative appears to be a misprint. The passage should be
read der and die, instead of dem and der.
[24] I am not quite sure what Hegel refers to in what he
describes as das Hinübergreifen des Wortes. I presume he means
what are known as weak endings to a line.
[25] Gedrungen. I suppose this is the meaning. The entire
passage is a difficult one to follow.
[26] Ein allgemeines Hören.
[27] That is, the accent of the syllables as a mere medium of
uttered speech.
[28] Lit., has its flank turned, überflügelt.
[29] Die blosse Vergeistigung.
[30] No other means to divert the ears attention. The sentence is
rather involved, and I have not seen my way to simplify it.
[31] Abstract unterworfen. Hegel apparently means abstract as
detached from the natural medium of language—becoming
thereby the abstract symbol of idea exclusively.
[32] As in musical art.
[33] Seelen-tonen, i.e., the wave and flow of the emotional life
itself.
[34] In das Spielen. Hegel repeats his use of the expression
above, beiher Spielen, lit., the playing with not as a toy but as
something serious.
[35] I suppose this is the meaning here of Sharfsinn, but
"subtlety" may be included.
[36] Indifferent, that is, as asserting the creative freedom of the
poet, he can select his own rhymes as he wills. Hegel, however,
seems rather to miss the essential spontaneity of really good
blank verse.
[37] So I translate die innere Subjectivität, but it may refer
perhaps to the entire creative personality.
[38] That is, I presume, their relation to romantic art.
[39] That is, the primary feature changed is that of the validity of
natural quantity.
[40] Dem Äusseren Daseyn. That is, of language.
[41] Entfaltung. Such an explication of rhythmical euphony as the
previous system discloses.
[42] Geistes. All that pertains to conscious life.
[43] Lit., a blunt or coarse sound, ein plumpes Klingen.
 [44] Tonen implies sound no less than accent. I have rendered it
in various ways.
[45] Von Seiten des Geistes. Perhaps rather "as aspects of the
poet's intelligence"—that is, with reference to the self-assertion
above explained.
[46] More nearly related to the natural medium of language.
[47] Die Verslehre der Isländer v. Rask, verd. von Mohnike, Berlin,
1830, pp. 14-17.
[48]Betonte, see above note on Tonen.
[49] Stämme, the stem of verbs, rather than the root of
substantives, which would be more correctly stammwort.
[50] "Do we moderns face broad reaches such as these, as did
the ancients?" Falten, folds, expatiation of subject-matter. I
presume, though I do not recall the context, that the allusion is
mainly to elegiacs.
[51] I.e., more related to active intelligence.

III

THE SEVERAL GENERIC TYPES OF POETRY

The two fundamental aspects, according to which we have hitherto

examined the poetical art were, in the first instance, that of poetical
significance or content in the broadest sense, the nature of the
outlook of a poetical composition and the creative activity of the
poet; secondly, poetical expression, not merely respectively to the
ideas which have to be embodied in words, but also to the modes
under which they are expressed and the character of versification.
I. What we, above all, in these respects endeavoured to enforce
consisted in this, that poetry has to embrace the ideality of
conscious life as its content; yet, in its artistic elaboration of the
same, it cannot rest satisfied with the objective form of direct
perception as other plastic arts; nor can it accept as its form the
emotional ideality which alone reverberates through our soul-life, nor
yet that of thinking and the relations of reflective thought. It has to
maintain a mediate position between the extremes of immediate
objectivity and the inner life of feeling and thought. This
intermediate sphere of conception overlaps both sides. From thought
it borrows the aspect of ideal universality, which binds together the
immediate particularity of the senses in more definitive simplicity;
while, on the other hand, its mode of envisagement shares with
plastic art the haphazard[1] juxtaposition of objects in space. The
poetic imagination, moreover, is essentially distinct from thinking in
that it permits, under the mode of sensuous apprehension from
which it starts, particular ideas to remain in an unrelated series or
contiguity; pure thinking, on the other hand, demands and promotes
the reciprocal dependence of determinate concepts on each other,
an interstructure of relations, consequential or conclusive judgments,
and so forth. When, therefore, the poetical imagination in its art-
products renders necessary an ideal unity of all particularity, such
integration may easily meet with obstruction by virtue of the above-
mentioned diffuseness[2] which the nature of its content forbids it
wholly to eschew; and it is just this which puts it in the power of
poetry to embody and present a content in organic and vital inter-
connection of successive aspects and divisions, yet impressed at the
same time with the apparent independence of these. And by this
means it is possible for poetry to extend the selected content at one
time rather in the direction of abstract thought, at another rather
under the condition of the phenomenal world, and consequently to
include within its survey the most sublime thoughts of speculative
philosophy, no less than the external objects of Nature, always
provided that the former are not put forward in the logical forms of
ratiocination and scientific deduction, or the latter as void of all vital
or other significance. The function, in short, of poetry is to present a
complete world, whose ideal or essential content must be spread
before us under the external guise of human actions, events, and
other manifestations of soul;life, with all the wealth and directness
compatible with such art.
2. This explication, however, does not receive its sensuous
embodiment in stone, wood, or colour, but exclusively in language,
whose versification, accentuation, and the rest are in fact the
trappings[3] of speech, by means of which the ideal content secures
an external form. If we ask ourselves now, to put the thing
somewhat crudely, where we are to look for the material consistency
of this mode of expression, we must reply that language is not
essentially on all fours with a work[4] of plastic art, independent,
that is, of the artistic creator, but it is the life of our humanity itself
the individual speaker alone who is the vehicle of the sensuous
presence and actuality of a poetical work. The compositions of
poetry must be recited, sung, acted, reproduced, in short, by living
people, just as the compositions of music are so reproduced. We are
no doubt accustomed to read epic and lyric poetry, and only to hear
drama recited and to see the same accompanied by gesture. Poetry,
however, is essentially and according to its notion, sonorous
expression, and we may, in particular, not dispense with this, if a
complete exposition of the art is our aim, for the reason that it is the
aspect and the only aspect, under which it comes into genuine
contact with objective existence. The printed or written letter is, no
doubt, also in a sense objectively present, but it is merely as the
indifferent symbol of sounds and words. We no doubt have in a
previous passage regarded words as the purely external means
which give us the signification of ideas. We must not, however,
overlook the fact that poetry, at any rate, so informs the temporal
element and sound of these signs, as to ennoble them in a medium
suffused with the ideal vitality of that, whereof, in their abstractness,
they are the symbols. The printing press merely makes visible to our
eyes this form of animation under a mode which, taken by itself, is
essentially indifferent and no longer coalescent with the ideal
content; it consigns it, in its altered form of visibility, to the element
of time-duration and the sound of ordinary speech,[5] instead of
giving us in fact the accented word and its determinate time-
duration. When we, therefore, content ourselves with mere reading
we do so partly owing to the ease with which we can thus picture to
ourselves what is real as actually uttered in speech, partly because
of the undeniable fact that poetry alone among the arts, in aspects
of fundamental importance, is already completely at home in the life
of spirit, and neither the impression of it on our sense of sight or
hearing give us the root of the matter. Yet for all that, precisely by
virtue of this ideality, poetry, as art, ought not wholly to divest itself
of this aspect of objective expression, if at least it is anxious to avoid
an incompleteness similar to that in which, for instance, the mere
outlined drawing attempts to reproduce the picture of famous
colourists.
3. As an artistically organic whole referred no longer to a specific
type of exclusive execution on account of the onesided character of
its medium, the art of poetry accepts in a general way for its
determinate form various types of art-production, and it is
consequently necessary to borrow the criteria of our classification of
such poetical types or species from the general notion of artistic
production.[6]
(A) In this respect it is, first, and from one point of view, the form of
objective reality, wherein poetry reproduces the evolved content of
conscious life in the ideal image, and therewithal essentially repeats
the principle of plastic art, which makes the immediate object of fact
visible. These plastic figures of the imagination poetry furthermore
unveils as determined in the activities of human and divine beings,
so that every thing, which takes place, issues in part from ethically
self-subsistent human or divine forces, and in part also, by virtue of
obstructive agencies, meets with a reaction, and thus, in its external
form of manifestation, becomes an event, in which the facts in
question disclose themselves in free independence, and the poet
retires into the background. To grasp such events in a consequential
whole is the task of Epic poetry, inasmuch as its aim is just to
declare poetically, and in the form of the actual facts, either an
essentially complete action, or the personalities, from which the
same proceeds in its substantive worth or its eventful complexity
amid the medley of external accidence. And by so doing it
represents the objective fact itself in its objectivity.
And, moreover, the minstrel does not recite this positive world before
conscious sense and feeling in a way that would seem to announce
it as his personal phantasy, and his own heart's passion; rather this
reciter or rhapsodist recites it by heart, in a mechanical sort of way,
and in a metre which, while it repeats something of this monotony
with its uniformity of structure, rolls onward in a tranquil and steady
stream. What, in short, the minstrel narrates must appear as a part
of real life, which, in respect to content no less than presentation,
stands in absolute independence aloof from himself, the narrator; he
is throughout, in relation that is to the facts of his tale no less than
the manner in which he unfolds them, not permitted wholly to
identify his own personality with their substance.
(B) In direct contrast to epic poetry we have our second type, that
namely of lyrical poetry. Its content is that within ourselves, the ideal
world, the contemplative or emotional life of soul, which instead of
following up actions, remains at home with itself in its own ideal
realm, and, consequently, is able to accept self-expression as its
unique and indeed final end. Here we have, therefore, no
substantive totality, self-evolved as external fact or event, but the
express outlook, emotion and observation of the individual's self-
introspective life shares in what is substantive and actual therein as
its own, as its passion, mood or reflection; we have here the birth of
its own loins. Such a fulfilment and ideal process is not adequately
realized in a mechanical delivery such as we saw was conceded as
appropriate to epic poetry. On the contrary the singer must give
utterance to the ideas and views of lyrical art as though they were
the expression of his own soul, his own emotions. And inasmuch as
it is this innermost world, which the delivery has to animate, the
expression of it will above all lean to the musical features of poetical
reproduction; whether permitted as an embellishment or a necessity
we shall here meet with the varied modulation of the voice, either in
recitation or song, and the accompaniment of musical instruments.
(C) Our third and final mode of poetical composition unites the two
previous ones in a new totality. In this we not only discover an
objective exposition, but also can trace its source in the ideal life of
particular people; what is objective here is therefore portrayed as
appertinent to the conscious life of individuals.[7] To put the case
conversely, the conscious life of individuals is on the one hand
unfolded as it passes over into actual life experience, and on the
other as involved in the fatality of events, which brings about
passion in causal and necessary connection with the individual's own
action. We have here, therefore, as in Epic poetry, an action
expanded to our view in its conflicts and issues; spiritual forces
come to expression and battle; the element of contingency is
everywhere involved, and human activity is either brought into
contact with the energy of an omnipotent destiny, or a directive and
world-ruling Providence. Human action, however, does not here only
pass before our vision in the objective form of its actual occurrence,
as an event of the Past resuscitated by the narrative alone; on the
contrary, it is made to appear as actually realized in the particular
volition, morality or immorality of the specific characters depicted,
which thereby become central in the principle of lyric poetry. Add to
this, however, that such individuals are not merely disclosed in their
inner experience as such; they also declare themselves in the
execution of passion directed to ends; whereby they offer a criterion
—in the way that epic poetry asserts what is substantive in its
positive reality[8] for the evaluation of those passions and the aims
which are directed to the objective conditions and rational laws of
the concrete world; and it is, moreover, by this very test of the worth
and conditions, under which such individuals continue in their
resolve to abide, that their destiny is discovered by implication. This
objective presence, which proceeds from the personality itself, no
less than this personal experience,[9] which is reproduced in its
active realization and all that declares its worth in the world, is Spirit
in its own living totality; it is this which, as action, supplies both form
and content to dramatic poetry.
Moreover, inasmuch as this concrete whole is itself no less essentially
conscious life than it is, under the aspect of its external realization,
also a self-manifestation, quite apart from all question of local or
other artistic means of realization, we are bound, in respect to this
representation of actual facts, to meet the claim of genuine poetry
that we should have the entire personality of the individual
envisaged; only as such the living man himself is actually that which
is expressed. For though, on the one hand, in the drama, as in lyric
poetry, a character ought to express the content of its own soul-life
as a veritable possession, yet, from another point of view, it asserts
itself, when, in its entire personality it is confronted with other
personalities, as effective in its practical existence, and comes
thereby into active contact with the world around it, by means of
which it attaches itself immediately to an active disposition,[10]
which, quite as truly as articulate speech, is an expression of the
soul-life, and requires its artistic treatment. Already we find in lyrical
poetry some close approach to the apportionment of various
emotions among different individual speakers, and the distribution of
its subject-matter in acts or scenes.
In the drama, then, subjective emotion passes on likewise to the
expression of action; and, by so doing, renders necessary the
manifestation to our senses of the play of gesture which
concentrates the universality of language in a closer relation with the
expression of personality,[11] and by means of position, demeanour,
gesticulation and other ways is individualized and completed. If,
however, this aspect of deportment is carried forward by artistic
means to a degree of expression, that it can dispense with speech,
we have the art of pantomime, which resolves the rhythmical
movement of poetry in a harmonious and picturesque motion of
limbs, and in this, so to speak, plastic music of bodily position and
movement gives animated life in the dance to the tranquil and cold
figures of sculpture, that it may essentially unite by such means
music and the plastic art.
[1] Gleichgültige, that is, the impressions of sense are received
from without, from a manifold indifferent to ourselves.
[2] Losheit. A word coined by Hegel to denote this relation of
poetry to external objects in their independence.
[3] Die Gebehrden, lit., gestures, in which sense it is used in a
subsequent passage.
[4] We should rather have expected "the material of plastic art."
The contrast is rather between the nature of the medium in each
case than the finished product. So far as the latter is concerned
the musical composition is as dependent, even more dependent
for its presentment on human activity as poetical composition.
[5] Des Klingens unseres Gewohnheit. It is not quite clear what
the meaning is here. The meaning may be as in the interpretation
above. But it is rather difficult to see how, so far as mere print
goes, we can be conscious of actual sound at all, unless it is
intended here to include at least the act of reading; an alternative
interpretation would be the "habitual verbal accent," but we
should in that case have rather expected the substantive
Nachdrucks for Klingens.
[6] Hegel means of course that as that notion stands midway
between the objectivity of sense-perception and the concept of
thought, so too this classification will be based on the attitude of
the art either to the personal life, or the objects of sense, as the
one aspect is more strongly represented or the other.
[7] Dem Subject. That is, I understand, the individual subject
generally, not merely the conscious life of the poet or the singer.
[8] In seiner Gediegenheit, i.e., as concrete.
[9] Dies Subjektive. The realization of self in the world is part of
that world regarded as a rational and self-conscious process,
Spirit.
[10] Sich die Gebehrde anschliesst, i.e. a practical attitude to the
world, involving gesture and other actions.
[11] Hegel's expression is "the personality of expression," i.e., the
personal aspect of expression.
 A. EPIC POETRY
The Epos, word, saga, states simply what the fact is which is
translated into the word. It acquires an essentially self-consistent
content in order to express the fact that it is and how it is. What we
have here brought before consciousness is the object regarded as
object in its relations and circumstances, in their full compass and
development, the object, in short, in its determinate existence.
We propose to treat our subject-matter as follows:
First, we shall attempt to describe the general character of what is
Epical:
Secondly, we shall proceed to some particular features, which in
respect to the real Epos are of exceptional importance:
Thirdly, we shall enumerate by name certain specific methods of
treatment, which have been actually in use in particular epic
compositions within the historical elaboration of the type.

1. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EPIC TYPE

(a) The most simple, but nevertheless in its abstract concentration,

still one-sided and incomplete mode of epic exposition consists in
the assertion of that which is essentially fundamental and necessary
among the facts of the concrete world and the wealth of mutable
phenomena, and in the expression of such on their own account, as
focussed in epic phraseology.
(α) We may begin our consideration of the type with the epigram i,
in so far as it really remains an epigram, that is an inscription on
columns, effects, monuments, gifts and so forth, and at the same
time points with an ideal finger to something else, and by doing so
explains through words, inscribed on an object, somewhat otherwise
plastic, local, something present outside the words expressed. In
such an example the epigram states simply what a definite fact is.
The individual does not as yet express his concrete self; he attaches
a concise interpretation to the object, the locality, which he has
immediate perception of and which claims his interested attention,
an interpretation which goes to the heart of the fact in question.
(β) A yet further advance may be discovered in the case where the
twofold aspect of the object in its external reality and the fact of
inscription disappears, in so far, that is, as poetry, without any actual
representation on the object, expresses its idea of the fact. To this
class belong the gnomes of the ancients, ethical sayings, which
concentrate in concise language that which is more forceable than
material objects, more permanent and universal than the monument
of some definite action, more perdurable than votive offerings,
columns, and temples. Such are duties in human existence, the
wisdom of life, the vision of that which constitutes in action and
knowledge the firm foundations and stable bonds for human kind.
The epic character of such modes of conception consists in this, that
such maxims do not declare themselves as exclusively personal
emotion and reflection, and also, in the matter of their impression,
are quite as little directed with the object even of affecting our
emotions, but rather with the purpose to emphasize what is of
sterling validity, whether as the object of human obligation or the
sense of honour and propriety. The ancient Greek elegiacs have in
some measure this epic tone. We have still extant a few verses of
Solon of this kind, though the transition here into a hortatory tone
and style is easily made. Such include exhortations or warnings with
reference to the common social life, its laws and morality. We may
also mention the gold sayings, which tradition ascribes to
Pythagoras. Yet all such are of a hybrid nature, and referable to this,
that though in general we may associate with them the tone of our
distinct type, yet, owing to the incompleteness of the object, it is not
fully realized, but rather there is a distinct tendency to involve with it
that of another poetical type, in the present case the lyrical.
(γ) Such dicta may, however, thirdly, as already suggested, by being
divested of this fragmentary and self-exclusive isolation, go to form a
larger whole, be rounded off, that is, in a totality, which is altogether
of the Epic type; we have here neither a purely lyrical frame of mind
nor a dramatic action, but a specific and veritable sphere of the
living world whose essential nature, as emphasized in its general
characteristics, no less than as situated to particular aspects, points
of view, occurrences or obligations, supplies us with an integrating
unity and a genuine focal centre. In complete agreement with this
type of epical content, which displays what is of permanent and
universal import along with, as a rule, a distinct ethical purpose of
admonishment, instruction or exhortation to an, in all essentials,
ethically stable life, compositions of this kind receive a didactic
flavour. Nevertheless, by reason of the novelty of their wise sayings,
the freshness of their general outlook and the ingenuousness of their
observation we must keep them quite distinct from more recent
didactic poetry. They wholly justify, inasmuch as they give the
necessary play to matter entirely descriptive, the conclusion that
these two aspects taken together, instruction and description, are
directly deduced as the substantive summary of facts which have
been throughout experienced. As an obvious illustration I will merely
mention the "Works and Days" of Hesiod, the teaching and
descriptive power of which, in its primitive style and as a poetical
composition, exercises a fascination upon us wholly different from
the pleasure we experience in the colder elegance, the scientific or
systematic conclusions of Virgil's poems on agriculture.
(b) The above described modes of epigram, gnome, and didactive
poem accept their specific provinces of Nature or human life as their
subject-matter, while endeavouring to fix attention in concise
language, with more or less limitation of survey, on that which is of
permanent worth and essential truth in this or that object, condition,
or activity; and even under the still more restricted condition which
the art of poetry imposes on such a task the practical result upon
human effort is still maintained. There is, however, a further or
second type of such compositions, which is, on the one hand,
profounder in its penetration, and, on the other, lays less stress on
instruction and reform. Such are the cosmogonies and theogonies,
no less than those most ancient works of philosophy, which are still
unable entirely to liberate themselves from the poetical form.
(α) In this way the exposition of the Eleatic philosophy in the poems
of Xenophanes and Parmenides still remains poetic in form; and this
is exceptionally so in the introduction prefaced by the latter to his
work. The content is here the One, which, in its contrast to the
Becoming or the already Become, all particular phenomena in short,
is eternal and imperishable. No particularity is permitted to bring
content to the human spirit, which strives after truth, and, in the
first instance, is cognizant of the same in its most abstract unity and
concreteness. Expatiating in the greatness of this object, and
wrestling with the might of the same, the impulse of soul inclines
instinctively to the lyrical expression, although the entire explication
of the truths into which the writer's thought here penetrates carries
on its face a wholly practical and thereby epic character.
(β) It is, secondly, the becoming of objective things, in particular
natural objects, the press and conflict of activities operative in
Nature, which supplies the matter of the cosmogonies, and impels
the poetic imagination to disclose in the still more concrete and
opulent mode of actions and events real eventuality. And the way
this faculty does this is by clothing the forces of Nature in relatively
more or less personified or figurative images placed in distinct
stages, and through the symbolical form of human events and
actions. Such a type of epic content and exposition pre-eminently
belongs to Oriental Nature-religions; and above all among them the
poetry of India is to an excessive degree prolific in the invention and
portrayal of such modes of conception, frequently of an unbridled
and extravagant type, concerning the origin of the world and the
powers that are active therein.
(γ) We find, thirdly, similar characteristics in theogonies. Such
occupy their true position mainly in so far as, on the one hand, the
many particular gods are not suffered exclusively to possess the life
of Nature as the more essential content of their power and creation,
nor, conversely, is it one god that creates the world out of thought
and spirit, and who, in the jealous mood of monotheism, will tolerate
no other gods beside himself. This fair mean is alone exemplified in
the religious outlook of the Greeks. It discovers an imperishable