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Preface
Web Development and Design Foundations with HTML5 is intended for use
in a beginning web development course. This textbook introduces HTML and
CSS topics such as text configuration, color configuration, and page layout,
with an enhanced focus on the topics of design, accessibility, and Web
standards. The text covers the basics that web developers need to build a
foundation of skills:

Internet concepts

Creating web pages with HTML5

Configuring text, color, and page layout with Cascading Style Sheets
(CSS)

Web design best practices

Accessibility standards

The web development process

Using media and interactivity on web pages

New CSS3 properties

Website promotion and search engine optimization

E-commerce and the Web

JavaScript

A special feature of this text is the Web Developer’s Handbook, which is a

collection of appendixes that provide resources such as an HTML5
Reference, Comparison of XHTML and HTML5, Special Entity Character
List, CSS Property Reference, WCAG 2.0 Quick Reference, FTP Tutorial,
and web-safe color palette.

New to This Edition

Building on this textbook’s successful eighth edition, new features for the
ninth edition include the following:

Updated coverage of HTML5 elements and attributes

Expanded coverage of designing for mobile devices

Updates for HTML5.1 elements and attributes

Expanded coverage of responsive web design techniques and CSS media

queries

Updated code samples, case studies, and web resources

An introduction to CSS Grid Layout

Updated reference sections for HTML5 and CSS

Additional Hands-On Practice exercises

Student files are available for download from the companion website for this
textbook at www.pearson.com/cs-resources. These files include solutions to
the Hands-On Practice exercises, the Website Case Study starter files, and
access to the book’s companion VideoNotes. See the access card in the front
of this textbook for further instructions.

Design for Today and Tomorrow

This textbook has a modern approach that prepares students to design web
pages that work today, in addition to being ready to take advantage of the
new HTML5 and CSS coding techniques of the future.
Organization of the Text
This textbook is designed to be used in a flexible manner; it can easily be
adapted to suit a variety of course and student needs. Chapter 1 provides
introductory material, which may be skipped or covered, depending on the
background of the students. Chapters 2 through 4 introduce HTML and CSS
coding. Chapter 5 discusses web design best practices and can be covered
anytime after Chapter 3 (or even along with Chapter 3). Chapters 6 through 9
continue with HTML and CSS.

Any of the following chapters may be skipped or assigned as independent

study, depending on time constraints and student needs: Chapter 7 (More on
Links, Layout, and Mobile), Chapter 10 (Web Development), Chapter 11
(Web Multimedia and Interactivity), Chapter 12 (E-Commerce Overview),
Chapter 13 (Web Promotion), and Chapter 14 (A Brief Look at JavaScript
and jQuery). A chapter dependency chart is shown in Figure P.1.

Figure P.1
 This textbook is flexible and can be adapted to individual needs

Brief Overview of Each Chapter

Chapter 1: Introduction to the
Internet and World Wide Web
This brief introduction covers the terms and concepts related to the Internet
and the Web with which Web developers need to be familiar. For many
students, some of this will be a review. Chapter 1 provides the base of
knowledge on which the rest of the textbook is built.
Chapter 2: HTML Basics
As HTML5 is introduced, examples and exercises encourage students to
create sample pages and gain useful experience. Solution pages for the
Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 3: Configuring Color and
Text with CSS
The technique of using Cascading Style Sheets to configure the color and text
on web pages is introduced. Students are encouraged to create sample pages
as they read through the text. Solutions for the Hands-On Practice are
available in the student files.
Chapter 4: Visual Elements and
Graphics
This chapter discusses the use of graphics and visual effects on web pages,
including image optimization, CSS borders, CSS image backgrounds, new
CSS3 visual effects, and new HTML5 elements. Students are encouraged to
create web pages as they read through the text. Sample solutions for the
Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 5: Web Design
This chapter focuses on recommended web design practices and accessibility.
Some of this is reinforcement because tips about recommended website
design practices are incorporated into the other chapters.
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Chapter 6: Page Layout
This chapter continues the study of CSS begun earlier and introduces
techniques for positioning and floating web page elements, including a two-
column CSS page layout. New HTML5 semantic elements and techniques to
provide HTML5 compatibility for older browsers are also introduced. Sample
solutions for the Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 7: More on Links, Layout,
and Mobile
This chapter revisits earlier topics and introduces more advanced techniques
related to hyperlinks, using CSS sprites, a three-column page layout,
configuring CSS for print, designing pages for the mobile web, responsive
web design with CSS media queries, responsive images, the new Flexible
Box Layout Module, and the new CSS Grid Layout Module. Students are
encouraged to ​create pages as they read through the text. Sample solutions for
the Hands-On Practice are ​available in the student files.
Chapter 8: Tables
This chapter focuses on the HTML elements used to create tables. Methods
for configuring a table with CSS are introduced. Students are encouraged to
create pages as they read through the text. Sample solutions for the Hands-On
Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 9: Forms
This chapter focuses on the HTML elements used to create forms. Methods
for configuring the form with CSS are introduced. New HTML5 form ​control
elements and attribute values are introduced. Students are encouraged to
create sample pages as they read through the text. Sample solutions for the
Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 10: Web Development
This chapter focuses on the process of website development, including the
job roles needed for a large-scale project, the web development process, and
web hosting. A web host checklist is included in this chapter.
Chapter 11: Web Multimedia and
Interactivity
This chapter offers an overview of topics related to adding media and
interactivity to web pages. These topics include HTML5 video and audio,
Flash®, Java™ applets, CSS3 transform and transition ​properties, interactive
CSS menu, interactive image gallery, JavaScript, jQuery, Ajax, and HTML5
APIs. Students are encouraged to create pages as the topics are discussed.
Sample solutions for the Hands-On Practice are available in the student files.
Chapter 12: E-Commerce
Overview
This chapter introduces e-commerce, security, and order processing on the
Web.
Chapter 13: Web Promotion
This chapter discusses site promotion from the web developer’s point of view
and introduces search engine optimization.
Chapter 14: A Brief Look at
JavaScript and jQuery
This chapter provides an introduction to client-side scripting using JavaScript
and jQuery. Sample solutions for the Hands-On Practice are available in the
student files.
Other documents randomly have
different content
we had visited Haraun, a few miles to the south, whither Abraham
migrated from Ur of the Chaldees.

“Our return trip to Aintab was by the road farther to the south,
which brought us to the Euphrates River at Jerablus, over which the
Germans were building their great railway bridge, an essential link in
the Berlin-to-Bagdad dream. On the western bank, a few hundred
yards from the bridge, was the site of Carchemish, and there we
found the quiet British scholar, who, under the stress of the war, was
soon to turn from his digging among the ancient ruins beside the
Euphrates to become a shereef of Mecca and leader of a vast
Bedouin host in a successful war to throw off the Ottoman yoke.

“Mr. Woolley, the archæologist in charge of the work of excavation

of Carchemish, had just come from the diggings, clad in his business
dress of gray flannel shirt and golf-trousers. Lawrence, his youthful
associate, also fresh from the works, was stepping lightly across the
mounds of earth clad in what we Americans would call a running-suit
and wearing at his belt the ornate Arab girdle with its bunch of
tassels at the front, the mark of an unmarried man. But he was out
of sight in a moment; and when we gathered for supper the freshly
tubbed young man in his Oxford tennis-suit of white flannel
bordered with red ribbon, but still wearing his Arab girdle, launched
into the fascinating story of the excavations; of relations with the
Kurds and Arabs about them; of his trips alone among their villages
in search of rare rugs and antiquities, that gave opportunity for
cultivating that close touch and sympathy with them that
subsequently was the basis of his great service in the time of his
country’s need. The meal was delicious and was served by a
powerful, swarthy Arab in elegant native dress, with enough daggers
and revolvers in his girdle to supply a museum. Soon he entered
with the coffee, delicious as only Turkish coffee rightly made can be.
And our British friends, who were hardly able to find interest in the
Roman nut-dishes merely a couple of thousand years old and part of
the rubbish to be cleared away before reaching the Hittite ruins,
pointed out with pride that our little brown earthenware coffee-cups
were unquestionably Hittite and probably not far from four thousand
years old.

“I should not say ‘buildings,’ or even ‘building,’ but rather ‘room’;

for we learned that the British Government, because of an
understanding with the Turkish authorities, had given permission to
build only one room. Accordingly Woolley and Lawrence had built a
room of two parallel walls about ten feet apart, extending fifty feet
south, then thirty-five feet westward, and again fifty feet north.
Closed at both ends, this giant letter U was indeed a room; and,
although somewhat astonished, the Turkish Government had to
concede the fact. Of course, the honorable inspector could not
object if little partitions were run across to separate the sleeping
portions from the dining-room and office, and in due time
convenience demanded that doors be opened from various parts of
the structure into the court. Thus it was that, when we first saw it,
on the right was a series of rooms for the storage of antiquities and
for photographic work; on the left were the sleeping-rooms of the
excavators and their guests; and in the center was the delightful
living-room with open fireplaces, built-in bookcases filled with well-
worn leather-bound volumes of the classics with which a British
scholar would naturally surround himself, and a long table covered
with the current British papers as well as the archæological journals
of all the world.

“Around the fireplace we learned much of the good faith and

friendship that existed between these two lone Englishmen and the
native people around them. They insisted that they were safer on
the banks of the Euphrates than if they had been in Piccadilly. The
leaders of the two most feared bands of brigands in the region,
Kurdish and Arab, were faithful employees of the excavators, one as
night-watchman, the other in a similar position of trust. Of course
there was no stealing and no danger. Had not these men eaten of
the Englishman’s salt? Moreover, the even-handed justice of the two
Englishmen was so well known and respected that they had come to
be the judges of various issues of all sorts between rival villages, or
in personal disagreement. Never abusing their prerogatives, their
decisions were never questioned. Lawrence had recently been out to
a village to settle the difficulties arising out of the kidnapping of a
young woman by the man who wished to marry her and who had
been unable to overcome her father’s objections. Could any training
have been better for the part he was to play in the great Arab
awakening than these experiences among the native people?

“In the living-room was an ancient wooden chest which may once
have held the dowry of a desert bride, but which now served as
money-box and safety-deposit vault. Larger than a wardrobe-trunk,
there it stood, unlocked and unguarded. It was full of the silver
money with which to pay the two hundred men working on the
excavations. But such was the unwritten law of the community, such
the love of the workers for their leaders, and so sure and summary
the punishment which they themselves would mete out to any of
their number taking advantage of this trust, that the cash could not
have been safer in the vaults of the Bank of England itself.

“All this contrasted sharply with the methods and experiences of

the German engineers half a mile away, building the Bagdad railway-
bridge across the Euphrates. They and their workers seemed fated
to mutual distrust and hatred. The Teuton could not see why the
Arab should not and would not accept his régime of discipline and
punishment. The Germans were always needing more laborers,
while the Englishmen, a few hundred yards away, were overwhelmed
with them. Once when the latter were forced to cut down their staff
they tried in vain to dismiss fifty men. The Arabs and Kurds just
smiled and went on with their work. They were told they would get
no pay, but they smiled and worked on. If not for pay, they would
work for the love of it and of their masters. And so they did. Nor was
the excavation without interest to those simple men. They had
caught the enthusiasms of their leaders, who had taught them to
share in the joy of the work; their digging was not meaningless toil
for foreign money, but was rather a sharing of the joy of
archæology.
 “We retired for the night, our minds filled with the stories of the
East, in which Christian and pagan, Hittite, Greek, and Roman, the
great past and the sordid present of these regions were mingled
with the background of energetic German effort and the calm
achievement by two modest and capable representatives of the
British breed of men. We slept long and well on the familiar folding
cots in our clean, mud-walled room; nor were our slumbers troubled
by our bed-covers, Damascus yorgans of cloth of gold, upon which a
rare arabesque on its background of dull red invited the eye to
journeys without end. These ancient covers were some of
Lawrence’s treasures, brought back from his frequent trips to the
Arab villages, when for weeks his whereabouts were unknown. It
was during these journeys that he in native garb joined in the
conversation of the village elders on the shady side of a tent, or
came to understand and admire the Arab in quiet intercourse before
an open fire, where, sitting cross-legged on the floor, when the
coffee had been made and silently drunk, one and another spoke.
While forty German engineers were building their bridge, which was
to enable them to coerce these people in case they would not obey,
one broad-minded kindly Englishman was unconsciously preparing to
become the man who in the great crisis was to lead this people, not
only to destroy the Teuton dream of conquest, but to break the
centuries-old political servitude of the Turk.

“After breakfast we were examining the mosaic floor of the dining-

room, a Roman fragment that these men had taken out whole rather
than destroy it in their search for the Hittite antiquities hidden
below. But just then word came of excitement at the ‘works.’ We
hurried over to find the Arabs and Kurds closely packed around a
large excavation. The Greek foreman was removing the age-old
earth about a dark stone several feet square; and by the time Mr.
Woolley had reached his side, he had determined which was the real
face of the block. With practised hand, Mr. Woolley began to remove
the last crust of soil which covered the treasure underneath. There
was no one to command those peasants to go back to their work,
for the spiritual fruits of discovery belong to all, to the Englishman
no more than to the water-boy who left his donkey to find the
Euphrates alone, while he joined the breathless group whose eyes
were glued on Woolley’s jack-knife deftly doing its work. A burst of
applause greeted the first appearance of something in relief on the
hard rock. It was a hand! no—a corner of a building!—a lion!—a
camel! Guess and conjecture flew about, to be greeted by approval
or derision, always followed by quick, tense silence, while the jack-
knife did its work. Soon Woolley’s trained eye revealed to him that it
was a large animal standing in a perfect state of preservation and
that he was uncovering its head. His feint to begin at the other end
of the figure was greeted by a babble of protest from his workmen,
not yet sure what the figure was. Woolley’s quick smile
acknowledged the reception of his little joke, and back he went to
the spot already uncovered. Soon head, chest, legs, body, came to
light, and exponents of various theories—cow, horse, sheep—were
still backing their claims in musical gutturals when Woolley’s hand
returned to the head of the animal and with a few quick motions
lifted off the earth which covered the perfect tracery of a
magnificent pair of antlers; alive with the undying art of forty
centuries, there stood revealed before us a superb stag. Such a
discovery was worth a celebration, and unwritten law had ordained
the nature of it. For the excavator nodded in response to the Greek’s
whispered query; and, as he gave the awaited signal, two hundred
boys from fifteen to sixty-five emptied all the chambers of their
revolvers in the air. I wonder what the Germans thought as they
heard the volley from their bridge; for, as I found out a few weeks
later when I had galloped over for another visit with the Englishman,
shots at the German place meant something far different. To-day,
perspiring as much because of their intense excitement over the
discovery of the Hittite stag as from their labors, the Arabs
laughingly sat down to smoke the cigarettes which ended these
celebrations, while the water-boy started wildly in search of his
donkey, followed by the vigorous epithets of his thirsty friends, who
knew that the full flavor of a cigarette comes only with a drink of
cold water.
 “Noon came all too soon; and it was Thursday, the pay-day. Friday
was the Moslem Sabbath, and these Englishmen were too Christian
in their relations with their Moslem workers to make them labor on
their chosen day. Our drive to Aintab was short, and so we delayed
to see the men paid off, on Lawrence’s assurance that it would be
interesting.

“A table was set in the open court of the ‘room,’ and Woolley
handed out the piasters to the line of workers. That was simple, but
the men had learned to bring their discoveries in on pay-days, and
they received cash rewards for everything turned in. Of course, the
result was exceeding care on their part to lose or break no fragment
in their work; and in fact rare discoveries were sent in from all the
country-side on these pay-days. The excavators would glance at the
article offered. One man would receive a ten-piaster bonus for what
he brought in, perhaps more to encourage him than because it had
any real worth; another would have a fragment of pottery smilingly
returned to him by the judge, while his companions laughed at him
for trying to pass off on the alert Woolley part of a modern water-jar.
Never did the Englishman say, ‘I can pay you nothing for this, but I
will keep it just the same!’ It was either paid for or returned to the
owner. Occasionally a gold coin, bright as the Arab’s eyes, would
reward some happy man; but whether he got the gold or a laugh,
never was the decision of his master and friend questioned.

“As we tinkled across the plain to the rhythm of the bells on the
horses’ necks, we had food for thought in what we had seen. If
Britain governs much of the world, we wondered if it did not
because of the merit, capacity, and good sense of her sons in all
lands. Impressions of this chance visit to Carchemish were deepened
by residence in Constantinople throughout the World War, where we
watched the German play for the big stake, of which the Euphrates
Bridge was but an incident. And the German lost because of the way
he went after it.
 “Thomas Lawrence worked another way. His extraordinary
achievement was wonderful beyond measure. But it was not a
miracle. It was but the outworking of intelligence, imagination,
sympathy, character.”

Robert Louis Stevenson in “An Apology for Idlers” deplores that

“many who have ‘plied their book diligently’ and know all about
some branch or other of accepted lore, come out of the study with
an ancient and owl-like demeanor, and prove dry, stockish and
dyspeptic in the better and brighter parts of life.” But in Lawrence
Stevenson would have found a kindred spirit. Though scholar and
scientist, he is neither bookish nor owlish. During the early days of
the Arabian Revolution, a Captain Lloyd, now Sir George Lloyd,
recent governor of Bombay, was in the desert with him for a short
while. He once said to me: “It is difficult to describe the delight of
intimate association with such a man. I found him both poet and
philosopher, but possessor of an unfailing sense of humor.”

Mr. Luther Fowle’s description of that “U-shaped room” at

Carchemish is an illustration of this same sense of humor which
makes Lawrence so thoroughly human, and which saved his life on
more than one occasion. Major Young, of the Near Eastern Secret
Corps, who in pre-war days had known Lawrence in Mesopotamia,
relates another incident. Representatives of England, Germany,
France, Russia, and Turkey met in 1912 and agreed to an
arrangement which gave the Germans control of the important
strategic harbor of Alexandretta, and also permission to continue the
railway which they long had wanted to extend through from Berlin to
Bagdad in order to open up a direct route to the treasure-vaults of
Hindustan and Far Cathay. Lawrence, with his intimate knowledge of
history, saw in this a bold Prussian threat against British power in
Asia. Upon learning of the agreement he immediately hurried down
to Cairo, demanded an audience with Lord Kitchener, and asked K.
of K. why Germany had been permitted to get control of
Alexandretta, the vital port to which Disraeli referred when he said
that the peace of the world would one day depend on the control of
that point on the coast of Asia Minor toward which the finger of
Cyprus pointed. Kitchener replied:

“I have warned London repeatedly, but the Foreign Office pays no

attention. Within two years there will be a World War. Unfortunately,
young man, you and I can’t stop it, so run along and sell your
papers.”

Although deeply chagrined because Britain, wrapped in slumber,

had allowed Germany to extend her sphere of influence all the way
from the Baltic to the Persian Gulf, Lawrence decided to amuse
himself by “pulling the leg” of the German engineers who were
working with feverish haste on the Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway.
Loading sections of drainage-pipe on the backs of mules, he
transported them from Carchemish to the hills which looked down on
the new railroad right of way. There he carefully mounted them on
piles of sand. The German engineers observed them through their
field-glasses, and, as Lawrence had hoped, they mistook these
harmless and innocent pipes for British cannons. Frantically they
wired to both Constantinople and Berlin declaring that the British
were fortifying all the commanding positions. Meanwhile, Lawrence
and Woolley were laughing up their sleeves.

At Jerablus, northeast of Aleppo, the Germans were at work on a

great bridge over the Euphrates. In their typically German way they
painted numbers on the coats of their native workmen as a means
of identifying them. They never even attempted to learn their
names. They even committed the folly of allowing blood-enemies to
dig together. Of course, instead of digging holes for bridge-piles,
they dug holes in each other. This went on for a time, and then the
seven hundred Kurd workmen turned on their German masters and
attacked them. Three hundred of the digging gang at Carchemish
joined their relatives and started a simultaneous attack from the
rear. Fortunately for the kaiser’s myrmidons, Lawrence and Woolley
arrived on the scene in time to prevent a massacre. As a result of
their heroism both archæologists were awarded the Turkish order of
the Medjidieh by the sultan. That was early in 1914, before the
Great War found Lawrence.

One of his first expeditions in the Near East was for the Palestine
Exploration Fund. Lawrence and Woolley attempted to follow the
footsteps of the Israelites through the Wilderness. Along with other
discoveries they found what is believed to be the Kadesh Barnea of
the Bible, the historic spot where Moses brought water gushing from
the rock. First they located a place in the Sinai Peninsula which the
Bedouin called Ain Kadis, where there was one insignificant well; and
perhaps it was there that the Israelites began complaining to Moses
regarding the shortage of water.

“If that really was the place,” remarked Lawrence, “one could
hardly blame the Israelites for grousing.”

Some five miles distant the two archæologists came upon a

number of fine springs in a little valley called Gudurat, and they are
of the opinion that this was where Moses succeeded in regaining the
confidence of the children of Israel, by quenching their thirst with
the sparkling waters of these springs. Later on Woolley and
Lawrence wrote a small book concerning this expedition entitled,
“The Wilderness of Sin.” In it they tell of finding traces of a
civilization dating back to 2500 b. c., the oldest traces of human
habitation ever discovered on the Sinai Peninsula.

Woolley has written a delightful book published by the Oxford

University Press entitled, “Dead Towns and Living Men,” in which he
describes the archæological experiences of Lawrence and himself
before the World War. One story throws considerable light on the
differences between the methods of these two men in dealing with
the natives and the tactics of the Germans at work on the Berlin-
Bagdad line:

Our house-boy, Ahmed, was coming back one day from

shopping in the village, and passed a gang of natives working
on the railway whose foreman owed him money. Ahmed
demanded payment of the debt, the foreman refused, and a
wordy wrangle followed. A German engineer on his rounds saw
that work was being hindered by an outsider, but instead of just
ordering him off, he called up the two soldiers of his bodyguard,
seized the unfortunate Ahmed, and without any inquiry as to
the origin of rights of the dispute, had him soundly flogged.
Ahmed returned to the house full of woe, and as I was away
Lawrence went up to the German camp to seek redress.

He found Contzen and told him that one of his engineers had
assaulted our house-servant and must accordingly apologize.
Contzen pooh-poohed the whole affair. When Lawrence showed
him that he was in earnest, however, he consented to make
inquiries and sent for the engineer in question. After talking to
him he turned angrily on Lawrence: “I told you the whole thing
was a lie,” he said; “Herr X—— never assaulted the man at all;
he merely had him flogged!”

“Well, don’t you call that an assault?” asked Lawrence.

“Certainly not,” replied the German. “You can’t use these

natives without flogging them. We have men thrashed every
day; it’s the only method.”

“We’ve been here longer than you have,” Lawrence retorted,

“and have never beaten one of our men yet, and we don’t
intend to let you start on them. That engineer of yours must
come down with me to the village and apologize to Ahmed in
public.”

Contzen laughed. “Nonsense!” he said, and then, turning his

back; “the incident is closed.”

“On the contrary,” replied Lawrence, “if you don’t do as I ask I

shall take the matter into my own hands.”
 Contzen turned round again. “Which means—” he asked.

“That I shall take your engineer down to the village and there
flog him!”

“You couldn’t and you daren’t do such a thing!” cried the

scandalized German; but Lawrence pointed out that there was
good reason for assuming that he both dared and could; and in
the end the engineer had to make his apology coram publico, to
the vast amusement of the villagers.

For seven years Lawrence wandered up and down the desert,

often accompanied by Woolley but more frequently alone in native
garb. At one time the British Museum sent him on a short expedition
to the interior of the island of Sumatra, where he had escapes from
head-hunters almost as thrilling as his adventures in Arabia. But of
these we could never persuade him to speak. Some day, perhaps, he
may tell us of them in his memoirs.

I had often wondered why he had chosen Arabia as the field for
his archæological work, instead of Egypt, which is the Mecca and
Medina for most men who love to dig among the ruins of antiquity.
His reply was typical of him. He said:

“Egypt has never appealed to me. Most of the important work

there has been done; and most Egyptologists to-day spend too
much of their time trying to discover just when the third whisker was
painted on the scarab!”
 CHAPTER III
THE ARCHÆOLOGIST TURNED SOLDIER

Lord Kitchener’s advice and his own personal observations led

Lawrence to believe that a crash was imminent. When it came he at
once attempted to enlist as a private in the ranks of “Kitchener’s
Mob.” But members of the Army Medical Board looked at the frail,
five-foot-three, tow-headed youth, winked at one another, and told
him to run home to his mother and wait until the next war. Just four
years after he had been turned down as physically unfit for the
ranks, this young Oxford graduate, small of stature, shy and
scholarly as ever, entered Damascus at the head of his victorious
Arabian army. Imagine what the members of the medical board
would have said if some one had suggested to them in 1914 that
three or four years later this same young man would decline
knighthood and the rank of general and would even avoid the
coveted Victoria Cross and various other honors!

After his rejection Lawrence returned to his ancient ruins and

toiled lovingly over inscriptions that unlocked the secrets of
civilizations that flourished and crumbled to dust thousands of years
ago. But, with many other scientists, scholars, and a few young men
of exceptional ability, such as Mark Sykes, Aubrey Herbert,
Cornwallis, Newcombe, and others, he was summoned to
headquarters in Cairo by Sir Gilbert F. Clayton. Though he was then
only twenty-six years old, he was already familiar with Turkey, Syria,
Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia. He had lived with the
wild tribesmen of the interior, as well as with the inhabitants of the
principal cities such as Aleppo, Mosul, Bagdad, Beyrouth, Jerusalem,
and Damascus; in fact, his knowledge of some parts of the Near
East was unique. He not only spoke many of the languages, but he
knew the customs of all the different nationalities and their historical
development. To begin with, he was placed in the map department,
where generals spent hours poring over inaccurate charts, discussing
plans for piercing vulnerable spots in the Turkish armor. After
working out a scheme they would turn, not infrequently, and ask the
insignificant-looking subaltern if, in view of his personal knowledge
of the country, he had any suggestion to offer. Not infrequently his
reply would be:

“While there are many excellent points in your plan, it is not

feasible except at the expense of great loss of time in building roads
for transport of supplies and artillery, and at needless expense of
lives in maintaining lines of communication through the territory of
hostile native tribes.”

Then, as an alternative, he would point out a safer and shorter

route, with which he happened to be familiar because he had
tramped every inch of it afoot while hunting for lost traces of the
invading armies of Assyrians, Greeks, Romans, and Crusaders. The
most staid old army officers on the staff put their confidence in this
quiet-voiced junior lieutenant, and in a short time he had established
a reputation for himself at G. H. Q.

Later on in Arabia, Lawrence frequently outwitted the Turks

because of this same superior knowledge of the topography of the
country. He was better acquainted with many distant parts of the
Turkish Empire than were the Turks themselves.

From the map department he was transferred to another branch

of the Intelligence Service, which dealt mainly with affairs inside the
enemy lines. It was his duty, as one of the heads of the Secret
Corps, to keep the commander-in-chief informed of the movements
of various units of the Turkish army. Sir Archibald Murray, then head
of the British Forces in the Near East, has told me how highly he
valued the knowledge of this youth under whom were the native
secret agents who passed back and forth through the Turkish lines.

It was in the summer of 1915 that the Hedjaz Arabs broke out in
revolt against their Turkish masters in that part of the Arabian
peninsula which lies mainly between the Forbidden City of Mecca
and the southern end of the Dead Sea, known as Holy Arabia.

In order to understand the reasons for the outbreak of this

revolution, and in order to appreciate the delicate and complicated
problems which Lawrence was to face upon his arrival in Arabia after
the Arabs had won a few initial victories and were confronted with
the probability of their revolt collapsing, let us digress for a moment
and glance in retrospect through the pages of Arabian history and
refresh our memories regarding the romantic story of this historic
peninsula and its picturesque peoples.

Legend tells us that Arabia was the home of our common

ancestors, Adam and Eve, the land of the queen of Sheba, home of
the heroes of “The Arabian Nights,” and a country peopled by a race
that lived and hoped and loved before even the prehistoric mound-
builders dwelt on the plains of North America, and before the druids
in woad built their rock temples in Britain. Tradition tells us that it is
a land whose peoples founded empires centuries before Moses led
the children of Israel out of Egypt, perhaps even before Khufu built
the Great Pyramid. Archæologists, who have risked their lives to
solve Arabia’s mysteries, tell us that great cities flourished and fell
there long before the days of Tut-ankh-Amen and that in one distant
corner of the country the great King Hammurabi formulated his code
of justice long before Buddha taught on the banks of the Ganges
and before Confucius enunciated the principle of the Golden Rule.
 Jazirat-ul-Arab, the Peninsula of the Arabs, is larger than England,
Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Belgium, France, and Spain all
combined. The Greeks and Romans traded, fought, and studied
there and divided it into three geographical parts: Arabia Petræa to
the north, Arabia Deserta to the east, and Arabia Felix (Arabia the
blest) to the west.

Although some scholars believe it to have been the birthplace of

the human race, we have better maps of the north pole; in fact, we
have better maps of Mars than we have of some parts of the interior
of Arabia from whence came many of the fighting men of Lawrence’s
army.

The distance from the city of Aleppo, at the extreme north, to the
city of Mecca, half-way down the western coast of Arabia, is as great
as the distance from London to Rome. Yet Lawrence and his men
trekked all the way from Mecca to Aleppo on the backs of camels,
over country as barren as the mountains of the moon.

In order to keep from becoming confused by the strange Arabic

names it would be well for the reader to keep in mind that the
Arabian campaign opened at Mecca and moved steadily north to
Akaba, and then on to Damascus and Aleppo in Syria. Each event
described in this account is a little farther north than the last.

Although some authorities on the Near East estimate that there is

a total population of twenty million people in the whole of Arabia, for
centuries a large portion of them have been held together only by
loose travel alliances, like those which existed between the Red
Indian tribes of America a hundred years ago.

The peoples of Arabia since time immemorial have been divided

into two distinct classes: those who dwell in villages and cities, and
those who wander from place to place with all their worldly
possessions in their camel-bags. Both classes are called Arabs, but
the wandering nomads are referred to as Bedouins whenever it is
desired to differentiate between them and their kinsmen of the
cultivated areas. The true Bedouin knows nothing about the
cultivation of land, and his only animals are his camels and horses.
The Bedouins are the more admirable of the two. They are the Arabs
who have preserved the love of freedom and the ancient virtues of
this virile race.

The foremost of all Arabian travelers was an Englishman, Charles

M. Doughty, poet, philosopher, and author of that great classic,
“Arabia Deserta,” written in quaint Elizabethan style. With the
exception of Colonel Lawrence, he was the only European who ever
spent any considerable length of time traveling about the interior of
Holy Arabia without disguising himself as a Mohammedan. Doughty
found, what all who know them have discovered, that the Bedouins
are kind hosts if visited in their camps. But frequently the stranger
who falls into their hands in the desert, under circumstances which
according to their unwritten law do not cause them to regard him as
a guest, finds them ruthless. In savage wantonness the Shammar
Arabs may even cut his throat. There is a proverb in the desert that
a man will slay the son of his mother for old shoe-leather; but,
despite this, their hospitality is so sweeping that it has become
proverbial throughout the world. “The Bedouin says: ‘Be we not all
guests of Allah?’” Then adds Doughty, “After the guests eat ‘the
bread and salt’ there is a peace established between them for a time
(that is counted two nights and a day, in the most whilst their food is
in him).”

The word “Arab” comes from “Araba,” the name of a small territory
in an ancient province south of the Hedjaz, which is said to have
been named after Yarab, the son of Kahtan, the son of Abeis, the
son of Shalah, the son of Arfakhshad, the son of Shem, the son of
Noah, who they say was the first to speak Arabic, “the tongue of the
angels.” They are a Semitic people, of the same race as the Jews.

The world owes much to the Arabs. Not only did they invent many
of our boyhood games, such as the humming top set spinning by
pulling a cord, but they made great strides in medicine, and their
materia medica was but little different from the modern. Their highly
skilled surgeons were performing difficult major operations with the
use of anesthetics in the day when Europe depended entirely upon
the miraculous healing of the clergy. In chemistry we have them to
thank for the discovery of alcohol, potassium, nitrate of silver,
corrosive sublimate, sulphuric acid, and nitric acid. They even had
experimented in scientific farming and understood irrigation, the use
of fertilizers, and such things as the grafting of fruit and flowers.
They were world-famous for their tanning of leather, their dyeing of
cloth, their manufacture of glass and pottery, of textiles, and of
paper, and for their unsurpassed workmanship in gold, silver, copper,
bronze, iron, and steel.

The richest part of Arabia, excluding Mesopotamia, always has

been, and still is, the province of Yemen in the extreme
southwestern corner, a mountainous region just north of Aden,
famous these thousands of years for its wealth, its delightful climate,
the fertility of its valleys, and as the home of Mocha coffee. Strabo,
the Greek geographer, tells us that Alexander the Great, shortly
before his death, planned to return from India and there establish
his imperial capital. Many scholars believe this rich region to have
been the original habitation of man and the country whence the
early Egyptians came. Beginning earlier than 1000 b. c., highly
organized monarchies existed here such as the Minæan, the
Sabæan, and the Himyaritic. After the destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus, many Jews fled here, and their quaint descendants still reside
in Yemen. But when the Ptolemies introduced the sea-route to India,
the Yemen became less important, and for centuries the best-known
part of Arabia has been the province of Hedjaz on the Red Sea,
north of Yemen, bounded on the east by the Central Arabian region
known as Nejd, and on the northeast and north by Syria, the Dead
Sea, Palestine, and the Sinai Peninsula. The word “Hedjaz” or “Hijaz”
means “barrier.” The fame of this particularly waterless country is
due to its two chief cities: Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, in
olden times called Macoraba; and Medina, the ancient Yathrib, where
the Prophet spent the last ten years of his life and where he was
interred. It is the duty of all Moslems who can afford it to make a
pilgrimage to these sacred cities, just as it was the duty of the
people to journey here in idolatrous pre-Islamic times.

About a thousand years before Columbus discovered America, a

boy was born in the city of Mecca. This boy was destined to shape
very materially the history of the world. As a youth he herded goats
and sheep on the hills around Mecca, and then as a young man he
hired himself out as a camel-driver to a rich widow in Mecca. He
used to drive her camel caravans up to Syria to trade with rich
merchants there. In Syria he became better acquainted with the
religions of the Jews and the Christians and became convinced that
his fellow-Arabs, who were worshipers of idols, did not possess a
true religion. So this camel-driver appropriated some of the tenets of
Christianity, some of the principles of Judaism, a few scraps of
philosophy from the Persian fire-worshipers, a sprinkling of Arabian
tradition, then threw in a number of his own ideas for good
measure, and established a new religion. He encouraged his
followers to regard Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Christ as prophets
of Islam. To-day, however, they are looked upon as of infinitely less
importance than Mohammed himself, whose teachings are regarded
as a later and final revelation of the will of God. Nearly every family
in Arabia has at least one child named after the Prophet. There are
more men in the world bearing the given name “Mohammed” than
there are with such names as “John” and “William.”

Is it so strange, after all, that the desert should be the old

homestead of three of the world’s greatest religions—Judaism,
Christianity, and Mohammedanism? The Arabs call the desert the
Garden of Allah; they say there is no one in the desert but God. Out
in the deserts of Arabia, even more than in many other parts of the
world, “The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament
sheweth His handy-work. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night
unto night sheweth knowledge.” There is no striving in the desert to
amass wealth for wealth’s sake; there is no mad rush to get ahead
of one’s fellow-men. One of the curses of our modern civilization is
that we do not have time to think or meditate. The desert is a fitting
place for one to ponder over man’s destiny and to meditate upon the
things that moth and rust do not corrupt and that thieves do not
break through and steal.

Mohammed, the camel-boy of Mecca, was the first man to bind

together in any sort of unity the peoples of Arabia. He came at the
opportune time when a great leader was needed to drive out foreign
domination. It was by his amazing evangelization that he succeeded
in uniting the Arabs. To an even greater degree than most leaders of
men this camel-boy of Mecca had:

The Monarch mind, the mystery of commanding,

The birth-hour gift, the art Napoleon,
Of wielding, moulding, gathering, welding, bending,
The hearts of thousands till they moved as one.

Following the death of Mohammed came that great wave of

fanatical fury when the Arabian peoples, filled with religious fervor,
swept out of the desert, overran a great part of the world, and built
up that huge Moslem Empire which was even greater than the
empire of the Romans. In those triumphant days of Islam, the Arabs
supplied the dominant religious, political, and military leaders for all
the countries they conquered. They seemed irresistible. “When the
Arabs, who had fed on locusts and wild honey, once tasted the
delicacies of civilization in Syria, and reveled in the luxurious palaces
of the Khosroes,” writes El Tabari, the Moslem historian, “they said,
‘By Allah, even if we cared not to fight for the cause of God, yet we
could not but wish to contend and enjoy these, leaving distress and
hunger henceforth to others.’” Within a century after the death of
Mohammed the Hedjaz Arabs had built up an empire vaster than
either that of Alexander or of Rome; “Islam swept across the world
like a whirlwind.”
 But the vast empire reached its zenith in the seventh century of
this era, and its decline dates from the battle of Tours, a. d. 732,
when the Arabs were defeated in France by the Christians under
Charles Martel.

Many of the Arabs remained in the lands they had conquered. As

merchants and missionaries they have carried the crisp, brief creed
of Mohammed from Arabia to Gibraltar, Central Africa, Central China,
and the islands of the South Seas. Unlike followers of other faiths,
they shout their creed from the minarets and housetops of every
land where they are to be found: “La-ilahu ilia Allah! Allahu Akbar!”

And even to-day we find thousands of Arabs occupying positions

of affluence in far-off Hong-Kong, Singapore, the East Indies, and
Spain. The others drifted back to their old life in the Arabian Desert.
Once more Arabia stood isolated from the world by the barren
mountain ranges which fringe its coasts and by its trackless belts of
shifting sand. In the twelfth century the descendants of Saladin, who
was half Kurd, conquered the fringes of Arabia. Then three centuries
later a new tribe swept down from the unknown plateaus of Central
Asia. They were of the tribe of Othman, forefathers of the modern
Turks, and they attempted to govern the Arabs as though they were
a people of an inferior race. The Turks claimed possession of Arabia
for four hundred years, simply because they were able to maintain a
few garrisons along the coast. A few of these garrisons were
successful in holding out to the very end of the Great War, but at last
they surrendered, leaving Arabia once again in the undisputed
possession of its freedom-loving inhabitants.

The Hedjaz tribes have never acknowledged the sovereignty of

any foreign ruler. They have preserved their liberty with but little
interruption since prehistoric times, and consequently they regard
their personal freedom above all else. Great armies have been sent
against them, but not even the Assyrians, the Medes, the Persians,
the Greeks, or the Romans were able to conquer them.
 Ever since the decline of the Arabian Empire, more than a
thousand years ago, generals, sultans, and califs have attempted to
unify the peoples of Arabia, and particularly of the province of
Hedjaz, because it contains the two sacred Mohammedan cities.
None were successful, but where they failed, Thomas Edward
Lawrence, the unknown unbeliever, succeeded. It remained for this
youthful British archæologist to go into forbidden Arabia and lead
the Arabs through the spectacular and triumphant campaign which
helped Allenby break the backbone of the Turkish Empire and
destroy the Pan-German dream of world dominion. The way in which
he swept the Turks from Holy Arabia and temporarily built this
mosaic of peoples into a homogeneous nation, now known as the
Kingdom of the Hedjaz, is a story that I should have failed to believe
had I not visited Arabia and come into personal contact with
Lawrence and his associates during their campaign.

Perhaps no factor played a greater part in simplifying Lawrence’s

task in Arabia than the existence of an ancient desert fraternity
which has been called “the cult of the Blood of Mohammed.” We
must know something about this cult and its present-day leaders in
order to understand the diplomacy and strategy of Colonel Lawrence
which we are to follow during the desert war.
 CHAPTER IV
THE CULT OF THE BLOOD OF MOHAMMED

During the long centuries of uncertain Turkish rule, there had

persisted, in the sacred cities of the Hedjaz, “the cult of the Blood of
Mohammed,” with its membership limited to descendants of the
Prophet. These people were called shereefs or nobles by the other
Arabs, and they had never lost their hatred for the Turks, whom they
regarded as intruders. So powerful was this cult that the Ottoman
Government could not destroy it. However, when shereefs living
within reach of the string of fortified Turkish posts along the fringe
of the desert protested openly against Ottoman tyranny, the sultan
usually “invited” them to come and reside near him in
Constantinople. There they would either remain as virtual prisoners
or quietly be put out of the way. Abdul Hamid, the last great sultan,
was an expert in following this private policy of his predecessors,
and among the prominent Arabs he found it the better part of
discretion to have near him at the Sublime Porte was one Shereef
Hussein of Mecca. He was the oldest living descendant of
Mohammed and was therefore believed by many to be the man
really entitled to the califate, the spiritual and temporal head of
Islam. The title of calif had originally been given only to the lineal
descendants of Mohammed but later had been usurped by the Turks.
 No people in the world take more pride in their ancestry than the
Arabs. The births of all the leading princely families are recorded in
Mecca at the mosque built around the black stone which millions of
people regard as the most sacred spot in the world. Here, on a scroll
of parchment, is inscribed the name of Hussein Ibn Ali, direct lineal
descendant of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima and her
eldest son Hassan.

When King Hussein was young, he had too much spirit to live
tamely with his family in Mecca. Instead, he roamed the desert with
the Bedouins and took part in all their raids and tribal wars. His
mother was a Circassian, and much of his vigor is inherited from her.
Abdul Hamid, the Red Sultan, received many disturbing reports
regarding the wild life led by this independent shereef. Abdul had
two ways of dealing with a man whom he feared or distrusted. He
would either tie him in a sack and throw him into the Bosporus or
keep him in Constantinople under close personal observation.
Although he was afraid that Hussein might conspire against him, the
fact that Hussein was a direct descendant of Mohammed made it
difficult for old Abdul to chuck him into the Bosporus. So he gave
him a pension and a little house on the Golden Horn, where the
shereef and his family were compelled to live for eighteen years.
 When the revolution of the Young Turks came in 1912 and Abdul
was overthrown, all political prisoners were released from
Constantinople, and Hussein and other Arab Nationalist leaders
thought they saw the dawn of a new era of freedom and liberty. In
fact, they too had assisted the Young Turks in overthrowing the old
régime. But their hopes were soon dispelled, for the new Committee
of Unity and Progress rashly set out to Ottomanize all the peoples of
that complex of races which made up the Turkish Empire. They even
went so far as to insist that the Arabs should give up their beautiful
language—“the tongue of the angels”—and substitute the corrupt
Ottoman dialect. It was not long before Hussein discovered that the
Committee of Unity and Progress, headed by Enver, Talaat, and
Djemal, was far more tyrannical than old Abdul in his bloodiest
moments. They now looked back on the villainous Abdul as a
harmless old gentleman in comparison with his successors. The
Young Turks even suggested that in the Koran Turkish heroes should
be substituted for the ancient patriarchs. Words of Arabic origin were
deleted from the Turkish vocabulary. In Mecca the exaggerated story
was told that the Turks were reverting to the ancient heathenism of
Othman and that soldiers in Constantinople were required to pray to
the White Wolf, a deity of the barbaric days before the Ottoman
horde left its early home in the wilds of Central Asia.

Although the Arab leaders despaired of seeing a happier day for

their country, Shereef Hussein and his sons concealed their hatred
for the autocratic triumvirate and the whole Young Turk party.
Because of the help he had given the triumvirate before he was
disillusioned as to their real aims, they granted him the title of
Keeper of the Holy Places of Islam, or the sixty-sixth Emir of Mecca
of the Ottoman period.

Miss Gertrude Bell, the only woman staff captain in the British
army and one of the foremost authorities on Near Eastern affairs, in
a letter to “The Times” of London declared that the Arab Nationalist
movement was given vitality by the Young Turks, who as soon as
they came into power changed their whole attitude.

“Liberty and equality are dangerous words to play with in an

empire composed of divergent nationalities,” wrote Miss Bell. “Of
these the Arabs, adaptable and quick-witted, proudly alive to their
traditions of past glory as founders of Islam, and upholders for 700
years of the authority of the Khilafat, were the first to claim the
translation of promise into performance, and in the radiant dawn of
the constitutional era the Arab intelligentsia eagerly anticipated that
their claim would be recognised. If the Turks had responded with a
genuine attempt to allow Arab culture to develop along its own lines
under their ægis, the Ottoman Empire might have taken on new life,
but their inelastic mentality precluded them from embracing the
golden opportunity. Moreover, Prussian militarism made to them a
peculiarly powerful, and, if the political configuration of their Empire
be considered, a peculiarly dangerous appeal. The Committee of
Union and Progress was determined to hack its way through the
sensibilities of subject races, and, not content with this formidable
task, by neglecting the cautious diplomatic methods of Abdul Hamid
it found itself involved in a disastrous and debilitating struggle with
its neighbour States in Europe.

“Before the war of 1914 broke out, not only were the Arab
provinces filled with hatred and desire for vengeance . . .”

In the luxurious atmosphere of the Ottoman metropolis Hussein’s

four sons quite naturally had grown up more like young Turkish
bloods than Arab youths. They had spent most of their time rowing
on the Bosporus and attending court balls. For six years, Prince
Feisal had acted as private secretary to Abdul Hamid. When the
Grand Shereef returned to Mecca he immediately summoned his four
sons and informed them that they were altogether too effete and
too accustomed to the soft ways of Stamboul to suit him.
“Constantinople and its accursed life of luxury are now behind thee.
Praise be to Allah! Henceforth thou art to make thy home under the
canopy of heaven with thy brothers of the black tents in order that
the glory of our house may not be disgraced. Allahu Akbar!” So
saying the aged emir fitted the deed to the word and ordered them
out to patrol the pilgrim routes. These routes are mere camel-tracks
across the burning sands connecting the Red Sea coast with Mecca,
the Holy City, and the summer capital of Taif, and between Medina
and Mecca. With each of his sons he sent a company of his best
fighting men. They were not even permitted to use tents but were
compelled to sleep in their cloaks. They spent their days chasing
robbers. The worst robbers in the desert are the men of the Harith
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