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Lecture Notes in Physics

Andreas Wipf

Statistical
Approach
to Quantum
Field Theory
An Introduction
Second Edition
Lecture Notes in Physics
Founding Editors
Wolf Beiglböck, Heidelberg, Germany
Jürgen Ehlers, Potsdam, Germany
Klaus Hepp, Zürich, Switzerland
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Volume 992

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Gary P. Zank, Huntsville, AL, USA
The Lecture Notes in Physics

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Andreas Wipf

Statistical Approach
to Quantum Field Theory
An Introduction

Second Edition
Andreas Wipf
Theoretical Physics
Friedrich Schiller University Jena
Jena, Germany

ISSN 0075-8450 ISSN 1616-6361 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-83262-9 ISBN 978-3-030-83263-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83263-6
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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To Ingrid, Leonie, Severin, and Valentin
Preface to the Second Edition

This new expanded second edition has been totally revised and corrected. The
reader finds two completely new chapters. One covers the exact solution of the
finite temperature Schwinger model with periodic boundary conditions. This simple
model supports instanton solutions—similarly as QCD—and allows for a detailed
discussion of topological sectors in gauge theories, the anomaly-induced breaking
of chiral symmetry, and the intriguing role of fermionic zero modes. The other
new chapter is devoted to interacting fermions at finite fermion density and finite
temperature. Such low-dimensional models are used to describe long-energy prop-
erties of Dirac-type materials in condensed matter physics. The large-N solutions
of the Gross-Neveu, Nambu-Jona-Lasinio, and Thirring models are presented in
great detail, where N denotes the number of fermion flavors. Towards the end of the
book, corrections to the large-N solution and simulation results of a finite number of
fermion flavors are presented. Further problems are added at the end of each chapter
in order to guide the reader to a deeper understanding of the presented topics. This
book is aimed at advanced students and young researchers who want to acquire the
necessary tools and experience to produce research results in the statistical approach
to quantum field theory.
It is a great pleasure to thank again the many collaborators, teachers, and
colleagues already mentioned in the first edition of this book. In addition, I would
like to thank the group in Frankfurt (Laurin Pannullo, Marc Wagner, and Marc
Winstel) and my more recent PhD students and postdocs for a fruitful collaboration
on interacting Fermi systems in the continuum and on the lattice. Several new
sections in this second edition are based on an early collaboration with I. Sachs and
an ongoing collaboration with the group in Frankfurt and with J. Lenz, M. Mandl,
D. Schmidt, and B. Wellegehausen. I would like to thank Holger Gies and Felix
Karbstein for many inspiring discussions about interacting Fermions, and Julian
Lenz, Michael Mandl, and Ingrid Wipf for proofreading the new chapters.

Jena, Germany Andreas Wipf

June 2021

vii
Preface to the First Edition

Statistical field theory deals with the behavior of classical or quantum systems
consisting of an enormous number of degrees of freedom in and out of equilibrium.
Quantum field theory provides a theoretical framework for constructing quantum
mechanical models of systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. It
is the natural language of particle physics and condensed matter physics. In the
past decades the powerful methods in statistical physics and Euclidean quantum
field theory have come closer and closer, with common tools based on the use of
path integrals. The interpretation of Euclidean field theories as particular systems of
statistical physics opened up new avenues to understand strongly coupled quantum
systems or quantum field theories at zero or finite temperature. The powerful
methods of statistical physics and stochastics can be applied to study for example the
vacuum sector, effective action, thermodynamic potentials, correlation functions,
finite size effects, nature of phase transitions or critical behavior of quantum
systems.
The first chapters of this book contain a self contained introduction to path
integrals in Euclidean quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics. The resulting
high-dimensional integrals can be estimated with the help of Monte-Carlo simula-
tions based on Markov processes. The method is first introduced and then applied to
ordinary integrals and to quantum mechanical systems. Thereby the most commonly
used algorithms are explained in detail. Equipped with theses stochastic methods we
may use high performance computers as an “experimental” tool for a new brand of
theoretical physics.
The book contains several chapters devoted to an introduction into simple lattice
field theories and a variety of spin systems with discrete and continuous spins. An
ideal guide to the fascinating area of phase transitions is provided by the ubiquitous
Ising model. Despite its simplicity the model is often used to illustrate the key
features of statistical systems and the methods available to understand these features.
The Ising model has always played an important role in statistical physics, both at
pedagogical and methodological levels. Almost all chapters in the middle part of
the book begin with introducing methods, approximations, expansions or rigorous
results by first considering the Ising model. In a next step we generalize from
the Ising model to other lattice systems, for example Potts models, O(N) models,
scalar field theories, gauge theories and fermionic theories. For spin models and

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

field theories on a lattice it is often possible to derive rigorous results or bounds.

Important examples are the bounds provided by the mean field approximation,
inequalities between correlation functions of ferromagnetic systems and the proofs
that there exist spontaneously broken phases at low temperature or the duality
transformations for Abelian models which relate the weak coupling and strong
coupling regions or the low temperature and high temperature phases. All these
interesting results are derived and discussed with great care.
As an alternative to the lattice formulation of quantum field theories one may use
a variant of the flexible renormalization group methods. For example, implementing
(spacetime) symmetries is not so much an issue for a functional renormalization
group method as it sometimes is for a lattice regularization and hence the method is
somehow complementary to the ab initio lattice approach. In cases where a lattice
regularization based on a positive Boltzmann factor fails, for example for gauge
theories at finite density, the functional method may work. Thus it is often a good
strategy to consider both methods when it comes to properties of strongly coupled
systems under extreme conditions. Knowledge of the renormalization group method
and in particular the flow of scale dependent functionals from the microscopic to the
macroscopic world is a key part of modern physics and thus we have devoted two
chapters to this method.
According to present day knowledge all fundamental interactions in nature
are described by gauge theories. Gauge theories can be formulated on a finite
spacetime lattice without spoiling the important local gauge invariance. Thereby
the functional integral turns into a finite-dimensional integral which can be handled
by stochastic means. Problems arise when one considers gauge fields in interaction
with fermions at finite temperature and non-zero baryon density. A lot of efforts have
gone into solving or at least circumventing these problems to simulate quantum
chromodynamics, the microscopic gauge theory underlying the strong interaction
between quarks and gluons. The last chapters of the book deal with gauge theories
without and with matter.
This book is based on an elaboration of lecture notes of the course Quantum Field
Theory II given by the author at the Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena. It is designed
for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in physics and applied
mathematics. For this reason, its style is greatly pedagogical; it assumes only some
basics of mathematics, statistical physics, and quantum field theory. But the book
contains some more sophisticated concepts which may be useful to researchers
in the field as well. Although many textbooks on statistic physics and quantum
field theory are already available, they largely differ in contents from the present
book. Beginning with the path integral in quantum mechanics and with numerical
methods to calculate ordinary integrals we bridge the gap to lattice gauge theories
with dynamical fermions. Each chapter ends with some problems which should be
useful for a better understanding of the material presented in the main text. At the
end of many chapters you also find listings of computer programs, either written in
C or in the freely available Matlab-clone Octave. Not only because of the restricted
size of the book I did not want to include lengthy simulation programs for gauge
theories.
Preface to the First Edition xi

Acknowledgments

Over the years I have had the pleasure of collaborating and discussing many of
the themes of this book with several of my teachers, colleagues, and friends.
First of all, I would like to especially thank the late Lochlain O’Raifeartaigh for
the long and profitable collaboration on effective potentials, anomalies, and two-
dimensional field theories, and for sharing his deep understanding of many aspects
of symmetries and field theories. I would like to use this opportunity to warmly
thank the academic teachers who have influenced me most—Jürg Fröhlich, Res Jost,
John Lewis, Konrad Osterwalder, Eduard Stiefel, and especially Norbert Straumann.
I assume that their influence on my way of thinking about quantum field theory and
statistical physics might be visible in some parts of this book.
I have been fortunate in having the benefit of collaborations and discussions
with many colleagues and friends and in particular with Manuel Asorey, Pierre van
Baal, Janos Balog, Steven Blau, Jens Braun, Fred Cooper, Stefan Durr, Chris Ford,
Lazlo Feher, Thomas Filk, Peter Forgacs, Christof Gattringer, Holger Gies, Tom
Heinzl, Karl Jansen, Claus Kiefer, Kurt Langfeld, Axel Maas, Emil Mottola, Renato
Musto, Jan Pawlowski, Ivo Sachs, Lorenz von Smekal, Thomas Strobl, Torsten
Tok, Izumi Tsutsui, Sebastian Uhlmann, Matt Visser, Christian Wiesendanger, and
Hiroshi Yoneyma. On several topics covered in the second and more advanced
part of the book, I collaborated intensively with my present and former PhD
students Georg Bergner, Falk Bruckmann, Leander Dittman, Marianne Heilmann,
Tobias Kästner, Andreas Kirchberg, Daniel Körner, Dominque Länge, Franziska
Synatschke-Czerwonka, Bjoern Wellegehausen, and Christian Wozar. Last but not
least, I am indebted to Holger Gies and Kurt Langfeld for a critical reading of parts
of the manuscript and Marianne Heilmann for translating the German lecture notes
into English.

Jena, Germany Andreas Wipf

June 2012
Contents

1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Path Integrals in Quantum and Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Summing Over All Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Recalling Quantum Mechanics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Feynman–Kac Formula .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Euclidean Path Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Quantum Mechanics in Imaginary Time .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.2 Imaginary Time Path Integral.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Path Integral in Quantum Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Thermal Correlation Functions . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 The Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 High-Dimensional Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Numerical Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Newton–Cotes Integration Method .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Monte Carlo Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 Hit-or-Miss Monte Carlo Method and Binomial
Distribution .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 Sum of Random Numbers and Gaussian Distribution .. . 40
3.3 Importance Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 Some Basic Facts in Probability Theory .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Programs for This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4 Monte Carlo Simulations in Quantum Mechanics . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1 Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.1 Fixed Points of Markov Chains. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

xiii
xiv Contents

4.2 Detailed Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.2.1 Acceptance Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.2 Metropolis–Hastings Algorithm .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.3 Heat Bath Algorithm .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 The Anharmonic Oscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.1 Simulating the Anharmonic Oscillator .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Hybrid Monte Carlo Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.1 Implementing the HMC Algorithm . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4.2 HMC Algorithm for Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.5 Programs for Chap. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5 Scalar Fields at Zero and Finite Temperature . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.1 Quantization .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 Scalar Field Theory at Finite Temperature . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 Free Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3 Schwinger Function and Effective Potential .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3.1 The Legendre–Fenchel Transformation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4 Scalar Field on a Spacetime Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.5 Random Walk Representation of Green Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.6 There Is No Leibniz Rule on the Lattice . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Classical Spin Models: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1 Simple Spin Models for (Anti)Ferromagnets ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1.1 Ising Model .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2 Ising-Type Spin Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.1 Standard Potts Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.2 The Zq Model (Planar Potts Model and Clock
Model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.3 The U(1) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.4 Non-linear O(N) Models .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.5 Interacting Continuous Spins . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.3 Spin Systems in Thermal Equilibrium .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.4 Variational Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.4.1 Gibbs State and Free Energy . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.4.2 Fixed Average Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.5 Programs for Chap. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Contents xv

7 Mean Field Approximation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

7.1 Approximation for General Lattice Models . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.2 The Ising Model.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2.1 An Alternative Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3 Critical Exponents α, β, γ , δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3.1 Susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3.2 Magnetization as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.3 Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.3.4 Magnetization as a Function of the Magnetic Field . . . . . 140
7.3.5 Comparison with Exact and Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . 141
7.4 Mean Field Approximation for Standard Potts Models . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Mean Field Approximation for Zq Models . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.6 Landau Theory and Ornstein–Zernike Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.6.1 Critical Exponents in Landau Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6.2 Two-Point Correlation Function .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.7 Anti-ferromagnetic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.8 Mean Field Approximation for Lattice Field Theories.. . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.8.1 φ 4 and φ 6 Scalar Theories . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.8.2 Non-linear O(N) Models .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.9 Program for Chap. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8 Transfer Matrices, Correlation Inequalities, and Roots of
Partition Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.1 Transfer-Matrix Method for the Ising Chain . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.1.1 Transfer Matrix .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.1.2 The “Hamiltonian” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.1.3 The Anti-Ferromagnetic Chain . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2 Potts Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.3 Perron–Frobenius Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.4 The General Transfer-Matrix Method.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.5 Continuous Target Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.5.1 Euclidean Quantum Mechanics.. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.5.2 Real Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.6 Correlation Inequalities .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.7 Roots of the Partition Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.7.1 Lee–Yang Zeroes of Ising Chain . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.7.2 General Ferromagnetic Systems . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9 High-Temperature and Low-Temperature Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.1 Ising Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.1.1 Low Temperature .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.1.2 High Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
xvi Contents

9.2 High-Temperature Expansions for Ising Models .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

9.2.1 General Results and Two-Dimensional Model . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.2.2 Three-Dimensional Model .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.3 Low-Temperature Expansion of Ising Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.3.1 Free Energy and Magnetization of
Two-Dimensional Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.3.2 Three-Dimensional Model .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.3.3 Improved Series Studies for Ising-Type Models .. . . . . . . . 215
9.4 High-Temperature Expansions of Nonlinear O(N) Models .. . . . . . 216
9.4.1 Expansions of Partition Function and Free Energy .. . . . . 217
9.5 Polymers and Self-Avoiding Walks . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10 Peierls Argument and Duality Transformations . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.1 Peierls Argument.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.1.1 Extension to Higher Dimensions . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.2 Duality Transformation of Two-Dimensional Ising Model . . . . . . . 237
10.2.1 An Algebraic Derivation .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.2.2 Two-Point Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.3 Potts Models .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.2.4 Curl and Divergence on a Lattice. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.3 Duality Transformation of Three-Dimensional Ising Model . . . . . 244
10.3.1 Local Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.4 Duality Transformation of Three-Dimensional Zn Gauge
Model .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.4.1 Wilson Loops .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.4.2 Duality Transformation of U(1) Gauge Model . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.5 Duality Transformation of Four-Dimensional Zn Gauge
Model .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
11 Renormalization Group on the Lattice .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.1 Decimation of Spins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.1.1 Ising Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.1.2 The Two-Dimensional Ising Model . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.2 Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.2.1 The Vicinity of a Fixed Point . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.2.2 Derivation of Scaling Laws . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.3 Block-Spin Transformation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
11.4 Continuum Limit of Noninteracting Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.4.1 Correlation Length for Interacting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.5 Continuum Limit of Spin Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
11.6 Programs for Chap. 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Contents xvii

11.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
12 Functional Renormalization Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.1 Scale-Dependent Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.2 Derivation of the Flow Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.3 Functional Renormalization Applied to Quantum Mechanics .. . . 298
12.3.1 Projection onto Polynomials of Order 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.3.2 Changing the Regulator Function . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.3.3 Solving the Flow Equation for Non-convex
Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.4 Scalar Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.4.1 Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.4.2 Critical Exponents.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
12.5 Linear O(N) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
12.5.1 Large N Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.5.2 Exact Solution of the Flow Equation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.6 Wave Function Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
12.6.1 RG Equation for Wave Function Renormalization . . . . . . 322
12.7 Outlook .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
12.8 Programs for Chap. 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
12.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Appendix: A Momentum Integral .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
13 Lattice Gauge Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
13.1 Continuum Gauge Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
13.1.1 Parallel Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
13.2 Gauge-Invariant Formulation of Lattice Higgs Models .. . . . . . . . . . 342
13.2.1 Wilson Action of Pure Gauge Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
13.2.2 Strong- and Weak-Coupling Limits of Higgs Models .. . 347
13.3 Mean Field Approximation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.3.1 Z2 Gauge Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
13.3.2 U(1) Gauge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.3.3 SU(n) Gauge Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.3.4 Higgs Model .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
13.4 Expected Phase Diagrams at Zero Temperature .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
13.5 Elitzur’s Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
13.5.1 Proof for Pure Z2 Gauge Theory . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
13.5.2 General Argument .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
13.6 Observables in Pure Gauge Theories . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.6.1 String Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
13.6.2 Strong-Coupling Expansion for Pure Gauge
Theories.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
13.6.3 Glueballs .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
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