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Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists 1st Edition
Cliff L Stein Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Cliff L Stein, Robert Drysdale, Kenneth Bogart
ISBN(s): 9780132122719, 0132122715
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 3.77 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
FOR COMPUTER SCIENTISTS
This page intentionally left blank
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
FOR COMPUTER SCIENTISTS

Clifford Stein
Columbia University

Robert L. Drysdale
Dartmouth College

Kenneth Bogart

Addison-Wesley
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-212271-9
ISBN-10: 0-13-212271-5
This book is dedicated to our friend and co-author, Ken Bogart, whose
untimely death on March 30, 2005 prevented him from seeing the original
book in published form. Ken was the driving force behind the creation of
the book. We miss him and we wish that we had been able to collaborate
with him on this version.
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents

List of Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries xix

Preface xxi

CHAPTER 1 Counting 1

CHAPTER 2 Cryptography and Number Theory 59

CHAPTER 3 Reflections on Logic and Proof 117

CHAPTER 4 Induction, Recursion, and Recurrences 161

CHAPTER 5 Probability 249

CHAPTER 6 Graphs 359

APPENDIX A Derivation of the More General

Master Theorem 449

APPENDIX B Answers and Hints

to Selected Problems 461

Bibliography 477
Index 479

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries xix

Preface xxi

CHAPTER 1 Counting 1
1.1 Basic Counting 1
The Sum Principle 1
Abstraction 3
Summing Consecutive Integers 3
The Product Principle 4
Two-Element Subsets 6
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 7
Problems 8
1.2 Counting Lists, Permutations, and Subsets 10
Using the Sum and Product Principles 10
Lists and Functions 12
The Bijection Principle 14
k-Element Permutations of a Set 15
Counting Subsets of a Set 16
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 18
Problems 20
1.3 Binomial Coefficients 22
Pascal’s Triangle 22
A Proof Using the Sum Principle 24
The Binomial Theorem 26
Labeling and Trinomial Coefficients 28
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 29
Problems 30
ix
x Contents

1.4 Relations 32
What Is a Relation? 32
Functions as Relations 33
Properties of Relations 33
Equivalence Relations 36
Partial and Total Orders 39
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 41
Problems 42
1.5 Using Equivalence Relations in Counting 43
The Symmetry Principle 43
Equivalence Relations 45
The Quotient Principle 46
Equivalence Class Counting 46
Multisets 48
The Bookcase Arrangement Problem 50
The Number of k-Element Multisets
of an n-Element Set 51
Using the Quotient Principle to Explain a Quotient 52
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 53
Problems 54

CHAPTER 2 Cryptography and Number Theory 59

2.1 Cryptography and Modular Arithmetic 59
Introduction to Cryptography 59
Private-Key Cryptography 60
Public-Key Cryptosystems 63
Arithmetic Modulo n 65
Cryptography Using Addition mod n 68
Cryptography Using Multiplication mod n 69
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 71
Problems 72
 Contents xi

2.2 Inverses and Greatest Common Divisors 75

Solutions to Equations and Inverses mod n 75
Inverses mod n 76
Converting Modular Equations to Normal Equations 79
Greatest Common Divisors 80
Euclid’s Division Theorem 81
Euclid’s GCD Algorithm 84
Extended GCD Algorithm 85
Computing Inverses 88
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 89
Problems 90
2.3 The RSA Cryptosystem 93
Exponentiation mod n 93
The Rules of Exponents 93
Fermat’s Little Theorem 96
The RSA Cryptosystem 97
The Chinese Remainder Theorem 101
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 102
Problems 104
2.4 Details of the RSA Cryptosystem 106
Practical Aspects of Exponentiation mod n 106
How Long Does It Take to Use the RSA Algorithm? 109
How Hard Is Factoring? 110
Finding Large Primes 110
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 113
Problems 114

CHAPTER 3 Reflections on Logic and Proof 117

3.1 Equivalence and Implication 117
Equivalence of Statements 117
Truth Tables 120
DeMorgan’s Laws 123
xii Contents

Implication 125
If and Only If 126
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 129
Problems 131
3.2 Variables and Quantifiers 133
Variables and Universes 133
Quantifiers 134
Standard Notation for Quantification 136
Statements about Variables 138
Rewriting Statements to Encompass Larger Universes 138
Proving Quantified Statements True or False 139
Negation of Quantified Statements 140
Implicit Quantification 143
Proof of Quantified Statements 144
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 145
Problems 147
3.3 Inference 149
Direct Inference (Modus Ponens) and Proofs 149
Rules of Inference for Direct Proofs 151
Contrapositive Rule of Inference 153
Proof by Contradiction 155
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 158
Problems 159

CHAPTER 4 Induction, Recursion,

and Recurrences 161
4.1 Mathematical Induction 161
Smallest Counterexamples 161
The Principle of Mathematical Induction 165
Strong Induction 169
Induction in General 171
A Recursive View of Induction 173
 Contents xiii

Structural Induction 176

Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 178
Problems 180
4.2 Recursion, Recurrences, and Induction 183
Recursion 183
Examples of First-Order Linear Recurrences 185
Iterating a Recurrence 187
Geometric Series 188
First-Order Linear Recurrences 191
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 195
Problems 197
4.3 Growth Rates of Solutions to Recurrences 198
Divide and Conquer Algorithms 198
Recursion Trees 201
Three Different Behaviors 209
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 210
Problems 212
4.4 The Master Theorem 214
Master Theorem 214
Solving More General Kinds of Recurrences 217
Extending the Master Theorem 218
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 220
Problems 221
4.5 More General Kinds of Recurrences 222
Recurrence Inequalities 222
The Master Theorem for Inequalities 223
A Wrinkle with Induction 225
Further Wrinkles in Induction Proofs 227
Dealing with Functions Other Than nc 230
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 232
Problems 233
xiv Contents

4.6 Recurrences and Selection 235

The Idea of Selection 235
A Recursive Selection Algorithm 236
Selection without Knowing the Median in Advance 237
An Algorithm to Find an Element in the Middle Half 239
An Analysis of the Revised Selection Algorithm 242
Uneven Divisions 244
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 246
Problems 247

CHAPTER 5 Probability 249

5.1 Introduction to Probability 249
Why Study Probability? 249
Some Examples of Probability Computations 252
Complementary Probabilities 253
Probability and Hashing 254
The Uniform Probability Distribution 256
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 259
Problems 260
5.2 Unions and Intersections 262
The Probability of a Union of Events 262
Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion for Probability 265
The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion for Counting 271
Important Concepts, Formulas, and Theorems 273
Problems 274
5.3 Conditional Probability and Independence 276
Conditional Probability 276
Bayes’ Theorem 280
Independence 280
Independent Trials Processes 282
Tree Diagrams 284
Primality Testing 288
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inside of its margin, opening out into the river at the point where the
bluff turns toward the north-east. It was a trenching more complete
and more satisfactory than any of which I had ever dreamed. At no
point for the entire length of the bluff did the excavation depart
more than forty feet from the line of the terrace face—from the
upper margin of the slope upon which such plentiful evidence of a
supposed gravel man had been obtained. The accompanying map
and section, Figs. 1 and 2, will indicate the location of the trench,
and show the exact relations of the natural and artificial exposures
of the gravels.

Fig. 2. Sections made by the river and by the sewer, the former yielding many
"implements," the latter yielding none.

I made several visits to the place, descended frequently into the

great cut and examined the gravels and their contents with the
utmost care, but without securing a trace of art. Recognizing the
vital importance of utilizing to the fullest extent this opportunity of
testing the art-bearing nature of the gravels at this point, I resolved
to undertake a systematic study of the subject. Summoning my
assistant, Mr. William Dinwiddie, from his field of operations in the
South, I had him spend upwards of a month at the great trench,
faithfully watching the gravels as they were exposed. Mr. Dinwiddie
had worked three years under my personal direction, and had
helped open upwards of twenty trenches through similar gravel
deposits, and was therefore well qualified for the work. Prof. W. J.
McGee, Prof. R. D. Salisbury, Dr. Stewart Culin and Dr. Abbott also
visited the place one or more times each. Relics of art were found
upon the surface and in such portions of the talus as happened to
be exposed, but nothing whatever was found in the gravels in place,
and the search was closed when it became fully apparent that the
case was hopeless.
It may be claimed that the conditions under which gravels are
exposed in trenching as it progresses, are not as favorable for the
collection of enclosed relics as where exposed by natural processes
of weathering. This is true in a certain measure, as specimens may
be obscured by the damp clinging sand which forms the matrix of
the gravels. This, however, would interfere but little with the
discovery of large flaked stones, such as we were led to expect in
this place, and this slight disadvantage in detecting shaped pieces in
fresh exposures is more than over-balanced by the treachery of
weathered surfaces which often give to intrusive objects the
appearance of original inclusion. The opportunity for studying the
gravels in all their phases of bedding, composition and contents, was
really excellent, and no one could watch the constantly renewed
exposures hour after hour for a month without forming a most
decided notion as to the implement bearing qualities of the
formation. Not the trace of a flaked stone, or of a flake or artificial
fragment of any kind was found, and we closed the work with the
firm conviction that the gravels exposed by this trench were
absolutely barren of art. But Dr. Abbott claims to have found
numerous implements in the bluff face a few feet away and in the
same gravels. If this is true, the conditions of glacial occupation of
this site must have been indeed remarkable. It is implied that during
the whole period occupied by the melting of the ice sheet within the
drainage of the Delaware valley the hypothetical rude race lived on a
particular line or zone afterwards exposed by the river to the depth
of 30 feet, leaving his strange "tools" there by the hundreds, while
another line or zone, not more than forty feet away at most,
exposed to the same depth by an artificial trench, was so avoided by
him that it does not furnish the least memento of his presence. One
vertical slice of the gravels twelve feet thick does not yield even a
broken stone, while another slice not probably one-half as thick, cut
obliquely through the gravels near by, has furnished subject-matter
for numerous books and substantiation for a brace of theories. That
no natural line of demarcation between the two section lines is
possible, is shown by the fact that the formations are continuous,
and that the deposits indicate a constant shifting of lines and areas
of accumulation; thus it was impossible for any race to dwell
continuously upon any spot, line or plane. This is well shown in the
section, Fig. 3, which gives the relations of the art-producing section
of Dr. Abbott to the non-art-producing section of the sewer. The
gravels were laid down entirely irrespective of subsequent cutting,
natural or artificial; yet we are expected to believe that a so-called
gravel man could have resorted for a thousand years to the space a,
leaving his half shaped or incipient tools at all stages of the gravel
building from base to top, failing entirely to visit a neighboring space
b, or to leave there a single flake to reward the most faithful search.
It is much easier to believe that one man should err than that a
guileless race should thus conspire with a heartless nature to
accomplish such extraordinary results. The easier explanation of the
whole matter is that the objects found by Dr. Abbott were not really
in the gravels, but that they are Indian shop-refuse settled into the
old talus deposits of the bluff, and that his eager eyes, blinded by a
prevailing belief in a paleolithic man for all the world alike, failed to
observe with their wonted keenness and power.
 Fig. 3. a, Reputed "implement" producing zone of the river front. b,
Barren zone of sewer.

But this case does not stand alone. The first discoveries of
supposed gravel implements are said to have been made when the
Pennsylvania Railway opened a road bed through the creek terrace
on the site of the present station. At first numerous specimens of
rudely flaked stones were reported, and the locality became widely
known to archeologists, but the implement bearing portions of the
gravels—and this is a most significant fact—were limited in extent,
and the deposit was soon completely removed, the horizontal
extension containing nothing. At present there are excellent
exposures of the full thickness of the gravels at this point, but the
most diligent search is vain, the only result of days of examination
being a deep conviction that these gravels are and always were
wholly barren of art.
It thus appears that here as well as upon the river front, the
works of art were confined to local deposits, limited horizontally but
not vertically, and a strong presumption is created that the finds
were confined to redistributed gravels settled upon the terrace face
in the form of talus. Dr. Abbott states that "at that point where I
gathered the majority of specimens there is a want of stratification."
[2] It is well known that such rearranged deposits are often difficult
to distinguish from the original gravels. In trenching an implement
producing terrace at Washington—where the conditions were
probably quite similar to those at the Trenton railroad station—I
passed through eighty feet of redistributed talus gravels before
encountering the gravels in place, and so deceptively were portions
of these deposits re-set that experts in gravel phenomena were
unable to decide whether they were or were not portions of the
original formation (cretaceous). The question was finally settled by
the discovery of artificially shaped stones in and beneath the
deposits.
[2] Abbott, C. C. 10th Annual Report of the Peabody Museum,
p. 41.

Again, an implement bearing deposit of gravel was recently

discovered by the late Miss F. E. Babbitt at Little Falls, Minnesota,
and sufficient (a very little) digging was done to satisfy the
discoverer, and all paleolithic archeologists as well, that the objects
were really imbedded in the glacial gravels. In the summer of 1892 I
visited the place and carried a trench twenty feet horizontally into
the terrace face on the "implement bed" level before encountering
the gravels in place. The talus deposits were several feet thick, and
were of such a nature that their true character could not be
determined without careful and extensive trenching. The whole talus
deposit was here well stocked with Indian quartz quarry-shop
rejects, which were as usual of paleolithic types, and it was but
natural that Miss Babbitt's conclusions, although based as they
necessarily were upon inexpert observations, backed by such well
known "types" of "implements" should be unhesitatingly accepted by
believers.
The occurrence of these telling examples of the deceptive
appearance of re-set gravels would seem to justify and emphasize
the conviction created by a critical examination of the two leading
so-called paleolithic sites at Trenton, that Dr. Abbott, notwithstanding
his asseverations to the contrary, has been deceived. Very strong
support, it seems to me, is given to this conclusion by the recently
published opinion of the late Dr. H. Carvill Lewis, a glacialist familiar
with the Trenton region, and with the work of Dr. Abbott at the
period of his paleolithic castle building. Dr. Lewis is reported to have
maintained before an open meeting of the Academy of Science in
Philadelphia "that what Dr. Abbott believed to be undisturbed layers
(of gravel) were those of an ancient talus."[3] This remark may refer
to both the main sites—the one at the railroad station and the other
at the river front—or possibly only to the former. I have also heard it
stated that that eminent scholar, Dr. Leidy, who must have had
ample opportunities of forming correct opinions upon the subject,
held pretty much the same views of Dr. Abbott's finds.
[3] Brinton, D. G., Science, Oct. 28, p. 249.

Fig. 4. A freshly formed gravel bluff.

Fig. 5. Early stage of talus formation.

 Fig. 6. An ancient talus.

To make the above criticism entirely clear, a few words of

explanation of talus phenomena may be added. As a river cuts its
channel deeper and deeper into deposits of gravel a section is
gradually exposed, but the gravels break down readily under
atmospheric influences and the exposed face does not retain a high
angle. The upper part crumbles and descends toward the base,
there to rest against the slope or to be carried away by the stream.
A supposititious case will be convenient for illustration. A gravel
terrace twenty feet in height is encroached upon by the river at high
water and undermined, and the face breaks down vertically, leaving
an exposure as illustrated in Fig. 4. In a very short time the upper
portions become loosened and fall below, giving a steep slope as
seen in Fig. 5. The process goes on with gradually decreasing
rapidity, and if the river does not again encroach seriously, a
practically stable slope is reached, as shown in Fig. 6. Such a talus
may be hundreds or even thousands of years old, but there is rarely
any means of determining its exact age. If the gravels are
homogeneous in character, the talus will simulate their normal
condition so completely that the distinction cannot be made out in
ordinary gullies or by unsystematic digging. If the gravels contain
varied strata the talus will be composite, and will be more readily
distinguished from at least portions of the material in place.
Now it is important to observe what may be the possible art
contents of such a talus as that shown in Fig. 6. It may contain all
objects of art originally included in that portion of the gravels
represented by a, b, c, together with all articles that happened to be
upon the surface b, c, beside such objects as may have accumulated
from dwelling or shop work upon its own surface, after the slope
became sufficiently reduced to be occupied for these purposes. A
talus is therefore liable to contain, and in the utmost confusion,
relics of all periods of occupation, supposing always that there were
such periods, from the beginning of the formation of the gravel
deposits down to the present moment. As a rule such a talus, if art-
containing, will have a large percentage of shop and quarry-shop
refuse, for the reason that the exposed gravels, and the banks and
beds of rivers cutting them, furnish, as a rule, a good deal of the raw
material utilized by workers in stone, and the shops in which the
work was done are usually located upon the slopes and outer
margins of the terraces. Although there is the possibility of very
considerable age for these talus deposits, it is unlikely that any of
them date back as far as the close of the glacial epoch or at all near
it, for rivers change back and forth constantly, undermining first one
bank and then the other, so that a very large percentage of our talus
deposits have been formed well within the historic period.
At Trenton the constantly exposed gravel banks afforded
considerable argillite in bowlders, fragments and heavy masses, as
well as some other flakable stones of inferior quality little used, and
it is inevitable that the Indian who dwelt upon the shores of the river
should have sought the workable pieces along the bluff, leaving the
refuse everywhere; and it is a necessary consequence that the
terrace margin, the bluff face, and the talus deposits, places little
fitted for habitation, should for long distances contain no trace of
any art shapes save such as pertain to manufacture. Thus are fully
and satisfactorily accounted for all the turtle backs and other rude
forms that our paleolith hunters have been so assiduously gathering.
Nothing can be more fully apparent than that no other race than the
Indian in his historic character and condition need be conjured up to
reasonably account for every phase and every article of the
recovered art. Mistaken interpretations of the nature of shop rejects,
and the common association of these objects with redistributed
gravels, are probably accountable for the many misconceptions that
have arisen. Talus deposits form exceedingly treacherous records for
the would-be chronologist. They are the reef upon which more than
one paleolithic adventurer has been wrecked.
Relics of art attributed to gravel man have been collected, so far
as I can gather from museum labels and from incidental references
in various publications, from a number of sites aside from the two
already referred to. These are scattered over the city, and the finds
were made mostly in exposures of the gravels that remained visible
for a short time only, as in street and cellar excavations and well
pits. These reported finds can never be brought within the range of
re-examination, and the searcher after unimpeachable testimony
must content himself with placing them in the doubtful column on
general principles. Urban districts are so subject to disturbance
through cutting down of hills, filling in of depressions, grading of
streets, digging of foundations, cellars, sewers, wells and graves that
no man can, from a limited exposure such as those producing the
reported tools necessarily were, speak with certainty of the
undisturbed nature of the deposits penetrated. It is doubtful if any
one is justified in publishing such observations at all without serious
query. Such testimony is liable to fall of its own inherent weakness,
being absolutely valueless if unsupported by collateral evidence of
real weight. It can only be made permanently available to science by
the discovery of something unusual or unique with which to couple
it, something decidedly un-Indian in character or type, as for
example the two skulls now in the Peabody Museum. These objects
and the antler knife-handle exhibited with them may be alluded to
as the only finds so far made at Trenton, having of themselves the
least potentiality as proof and these skulls and this knife-handle
must yet be subjected to the rigid examination made necessary by
the importance of the conclusions to be based upon them.
Something may now be said concerning the art remains upon
which this discussion hinges, and upon which conclusions of the
greatest importance to anthropology are supposed to depend. Let us
pass over all that has been said with regard to their manner of
occurrence and association with the gravels and ask them simply
what story they tell of themselves. Does this story, so far as we are
able clearly to read it, speak of a great antiquity and a peculiar
culture, or does it hint rather at vital weaknesses in the position
taken by the advocates of these ideas? We shall see. The history of
the utilization of rudely flaked stones in the attempt to establish a
gravel man in America has never been written, but as read between
the lines of paleolithic literature, it runs about as follows: The theory
of a very rude and ancient people, having a unique culture and
certain peculiar art limitations, was developed in Europe many years
ago in a manner well known and often rehearsed. This people was
associated with the ice age in Europe, and this epoch, with its
moraines and till and sedimented gravels, was found to have been
repeated in America. It was the most natural thing possible that
these discoveries should carry with them the suggestion that man
may have existed here as in Europe during that epoch, and that his
culture was of closely corresponding grade. These were legitimate
inferences and warranted the instituting of careful researches, but it
was a dangerous suggestion to put into the minds of enthusiastic
novices with fertile brains and ready pens. The idea was hardly
transplanted to American soil before finds began to be made. The
so-called "types" of European paleoliths suggested the lines upon
which finds here should be made, and everything in the way of
flaked stones connected directly or indirectly with the glacial gravels
which had not yet been fully credited to and absorbed by the
inconvenient Indian, was seized upon as representing the ancient
time and its hypothetic people and culture. In the early days of the
investigation the various rude forms of flaked stones, resulting from
failures in manufacture, had not been studied, and were shrouded in
convenient mystery, and they thus became the foundation of the
new archeologic dynasty in America, the dynasty of the turtle-back.
Dr. Abbott states in his first work[4] that these rude "implements"
are not especially characteristic of any one locality, but seem to be
scattered uniformly over the state. Specimens of every type, he
says, are "found upon the surface, and are plowed up every spring
and autumn; but this in no way militates against the opinion that
these ruder forms are far older than the well-chipped jasper and
beautifully-polished porphyry stone-work."[5] At that stage of the
investigation it was not at all necessary that a specimen should
come from the gravels in place or from any given depth, since the
"type" was supposed to be easily recognized and was a sufficient
means of settling the question of age.
[4] Abbott, C. C. The Stone Age in N. J., Sm. Rep. 1875, p.
247.
[5] Ibid, p. 252.

Rude "implements" were called for and they were found. The
only requirements were that they should not be of well-known
Indian types, that they should be rude and have some sort of
resemblance to what were known as paleolithic implements abroad.
Since most of these so-called gravel implements of Europe are also
doubtless the rejects of manufacture resemblances were readily
found. The early attempts to utilize these rejects in support of the
theory, and make them masquerade creditably as "implements" with
specialized features and self-evident adaptation to definite ice-age
uses, now appear decidedly amusing. Gradually, however, the lines
have been drawn upon this early license, and it is to-day well
understood by all careful students, that since the rude forms are so
often repeated in modern neolithic refuse, the only reliable test of a
gravel "implement" is its occurrence in the gravels in place. That a
particular "implement," said to have been obtained from the gravels,
is of "paleolithic type," does not in the least strengthen its claims to
being a bona fide gravel implement; nor does its easy assignment to
a "type" give any additional value to the collector's claim that the
gravels said to contain it are implement bearing. The very names,
"rude implement," "paleolithic implement," etc., carry with them a
certain amount of mysterious suggestion; one thinks of unique,
significant shapes and of strange, archaic uses. At their mere
mention, the great ice sheet looms up with startling realism, and the
reindeer and the mighty mammoth appear upon the scene. The
reader of our paleolithic literature is led to feel that these antiquated
objects carry volumes of history in their worn and weather-beaten
faces, but this is all the figment of fertile brains. These objects have
without exception the appearance of the most commonplace every-
day rejects of manufacture without specialization and without hidden
meaning. They tell of themselves no story whatsoever, save that of
the oft-repeated failure of the aboriginal blade maker in his struggle
with refractory stones. This will be shown with greater clearness
farther on.
But the scheme does not end with the repetition of a European
state of affairs. Our gravel archeologists have not been content to
adopt that feature of the foreign scheme which utterly destroys the
paleolithic race before a higher culture is brought upon the scene. It
was thought to improve upon the borrowed plan by allowing for a
gradual development upward from the paleolithic stage, represented
exclusively by a class of meaningless bits of flaked stone, through a
period less rude, characterized by productions so far advanced as to
be assigned to a definite use. These latter productions consist mainly
of rather large and often rude blades, sometimes plain, but generally
notched or modified at the broader end as if to be set in a handle, or
attached to a spear or arrow shaft. These were assigned to post-
glacial times in such a way as to bridge or partly bridge the great
space between the glacial epoch and the present. They were
separated arbitrarily from the body of the collections of the region,
and referred to as probably the work of an Eskimo race. This
arrangement produced a pleasing symmetry and completeness, and
brought the history of man down to the beginning of the Indian
epoch, which is represented by all of those forms of art with which
the red man is historically associated.
Three principal periods are thus thought to be represented by the
finds at Trenton; and in the arrangement of the collections these
grand divisions are illustrated by three great groups of relics, which
are looked upon by the founders of the scheme as an epitome of
native American art and culture. By others this grouping is looked
upon as purely empirical, as an arbitrary separation of the normal art
remains of the historic Indian, not suggested by anything in the
nature or condition of the objects, nor in the manner of their
discovery.
The "Eskimo" feature of the scheme requires a more detailed
examination than can be given it here. It may be stated, however,
that the separation of the so-called Eskimo spear points, or whatever
they may be, from the great body of associated articles of flaked
stone, appears to be a highly arbitrary proceeding. That they were
extensively made by the Indians is proved by the occurrence of
refuse resulting from their manufacture on modern shop sites, and
that they were used by the Indian, is equally apparent from their
common occurrence on modern dwelling sites. The exceptionally
large size of the argellite points is readily accounted for by the
nature of the material. It was the only stone of the region well
adapted to the manufacture of long blades or projectile points.
Jasper, quartz and flint have such minute cleavage that, save in rare
cases, small implements only could be made from them. Their
peculiar manner of occurrence, described at so much length by Dr.
Abbott,[6] has been given undue consideration and weight. The
phenomena observed may all be accounted for as a result of the
vicissitudes of aboriginal life and occupation within the last few
hundred years as fully and satisfactorily as by jumping thousands of
years backward into the unknown.
[6] Abbott, C. C. Popular Science Monthly, Dec., 1889.

Whatsoever real support there may be for the "Eskimo" theory,

either in the published or the unpublished evidence, it is apparent
that under the present system of solitary and inexpert research, the
scientific world will gain little that it can utilize without distrust and
danger. Whatsoever may be the final outcome—which outcome is
bound to be the truth—it is clear that there is little in the present
evidence to warrant the separation of a "paleolithic" and an "Eskimo"
period of art from that of the Indian.
 That the art remains of the Trenton region are essentially a unit,
having no natural separation into time, culture or stock groups, is
easily susceptible of demonstration. I have already presented strong
reasons for concluding that all the finds upon the Trenton sites are
from the surface or from recent deposits, and that all may
reasonably be assigned to the Indian. A find has recently been made
which furnishes full and decisive evidence upon this point. At Point
Pleasant, on the Delaware, some twenty-five miles above Trenton,
there are outcrops of argillite, and here have been discovered
recently the shop sites upon which this stone was worked. There are
two features of these shops to which the closest attention must be
given. The first is that they are manifestly modern; they are situated
on the present flood plain of the Delaware, and but a few feet above
average water level, the glacial terrace here being some forty or fifty
feet in height. These shops, therefore, represent the most modern
phases of aboriginal industry, and may have been occupied at the
coming of William Penn. The second point is that every type of
flaked argillite found in the Trenton region, associated with the
gravels or otherwise, is found on this site. It was to a certain extent
a quarry site, for the great masses of argillite brought down by the
floods were here broken up and removed from the river banks or
bed. It was a shop site, for here the articles, mainly blades, were
roughed out, and it was also a dwelling place—a village site—where
all the specialized forms of flaked stones made from the blades were
prepared for use. Here are found great numbers of the rude failures,
duplicating every feature of the mysterious "paleolith" with which
our museums are stocked, and exhibiting the same masterly quitting
at just the point "where no further shaping was possible."[7] Here
we see the same boldly manipulated "cutting edge," the "flat
bottom" and "high peak," and the same mysteriously weathered and
disintegrated surfaces, so skillfully made, by a nice balancing of
accidents,[8] to tell the story of chronologic sequence in deposition.
[7] Abbott, C. C. Smithsonian Report, 1875, p. 248.
[8] Ibid. Primitive Industry, p. 487.
 Beside the failures, we have here, as on other quarry shop sites,
the evidence of more advanced work, the wide, thick, defective
blades, and many of the long, thin blades broken at or near the
finishing point. Here, too, just back of the roughing-out shops, are
the dwelling sites from which many specialized forms are obtained.
The "Eskimo" type is fully represented as well as the ordinary spear
point, the arrow point, and the perforator of our Indian. There is not
a type of flaked argillite known in the Delaware valley that may not
be duplicated here on this modern Indian site, and this has been
known by local archeologists for years. Why so little has been said
about the matter is thus explained. Dr. Abbott, in 1890, discovering
this site, and finding "typical paleolithic implements" (the ordinary
ruder forms of rejects) among the refuse, was so entirely at a loss to
explain the occurrence that he felt compelled to again "take up the
examination of the gravel deposits of the valley of the Delaware"
with the hope of "finally solving the problem."[9] The true conditions
would have been at once apparent to any one not utterly blinded by
the prevailing misconceptions.
[9] Abbott, C. C. Annual Report of the Curator of the Museum
of American Archeology, University of Pennsylvania. No. 1, p. 7.

The entire simplicity of the archeologic conditions in the

Delaware valley may be further illustrated. Had William Penn paused
in his arduous traffic with the tawny Delawares, and glanced out
with far-sighted eyes from beneath the pendant branches of the
great elm at Shackamaxon, he might have beheld an uncouth
savage laboriously fabricating rude ice age tools, making the clumsy
turtle-back, shaping the mysterious paleolith, thus taking that first
and most interesting theoretical step in human art and history. Had
he looked again a few moments later he might have beheld the
same tawny individual deeply absorbed in the task of trimming a
long rude spear point of "Eskimo" type from the refractory argillite.
If he had again paused when another handful of baubles had been
judiciously exchanged, he would have seen the familiar redskin
carefully finishing his arrow points and fitting them to their shafts
preparatory to a hunting and fishing cruise on the placid Delaware.
Thus in a brief space of time Penn might have gleaned the story of
the ages—the history of the turtle-back, the long spear point and
their allies—as in a single sheaf. But the opportunity was wasted,
and the heaps of flinty refuse left upon the river bank by the
workmen were the only record left of the nature of the work of that
day. Two hundred years of aboriginal misfortune and Quaker
inattention and neglect have resulted in so mixing up the simple
evidence of a day's work, that it has taken twenty-five years to
collect the scattered fragments, to sift, separate and classify them,
and to assign them to theoretic places in a scheme of culture
evolution that spans ten thousand years.
Yet is there really nothing in it all, in the theories, the
observations, the collections and the books? Do I speak too
positively in condemnation of the results of years of earnest
investigation? Perhaps so, but the voluminous testimony is so
overloaded with inaccuracies, the relics of unscientific method and
misleading hypotheses, that every item must be sharply questioned;
and the conclusions reached so far overstep the limits warranted by
the evidence, that heroic measures alone can be effectual in
determining their exact value. If, as many believe, vital errors have
been embodied in the evidence presented by the advocates of the
theory, it is impossible to state the case too strongly. Error once fully
absorbed into the literature of science has many advantages over
the tardy truth; it is strongly fortified and must be attacked and
exposed without fear or favor. Truth involved with it cannot
permanently suffer. If the twin theories of a gravel and a paleolithic
man in eastern America are to be assailed as unsound or as not
properly supported, it should be done now while the originators and
upholders are alive and alert to sustain their positions or to yield to
the advances of truth. I do not wish to wrongly characterize or to
unduly minimize the evidence brought to bear in favor of these
theories. I do intend, however, to assist the world so far as possible
in securing an exact estimate of all that has been said and done, and
all that is to be done.
 In a previous article I have examined the evidence relating to
paleolithic art in the eastern United States, and have indicated its
utter inadequacy and unreliability. In this paper the testimony
relating to the occurrence of gravel art, in the locality most fully
relied upon by advocates of the theory, has been partially reviewed
and subjected to the strong light of recent observations. It is found
that the whole fabric, so imposing in books and museums, shrinks
away surprisingly as it is approached. The evidence furnished by the
bluff face and by the railway cutting, the two leading sites, is fatally
weakened by the practical demonstration of the fact that the gravels
proper are at these points barren of art remains. In endeavoring to
naturalize an immigrant hypothesis, our gravel searchers,
unacquainted with the true nature of the objects collected and
discussed, and little skilled in the observation of the phenomena by
means of which all questions of age must be determined, have
undoubtedly made grievous mistakes and have thus misled an
expectant and credulous public.
The articles themselves, the so-called gravel finds, when closely
studied are found to tell their own story much more fully and
accurately than it has heretofore been read by students of
archeology. This story is that the art of the Delaware valley is to all
intents and purposes a unit, that there is nothing unique or
especially primitive or ancient and nothing un-Indian in it all. All
forms are found on demonstrably recent sites of manufacture. The
rude forms assigned by some to glacial times are all apparently
"wasters" of Indian manufacture. The large blades of "Eskimo" type
are only the larger blades, knives and spear points of the Indian,
separated arbitrarily from the body of the art-remains to subserve
the ends of a theory, certain obscure phenomena of occurrence
having been found to give color to the proceeding. To place any part
of this art, rude or elaborate, permanently in any other than the
ordinary Indian category will take stronger proofs than have yet
been developed in the region itself.
 The question asked in the beginning, "Are there traces of glacial
man in the Trenton gravels?" if not answered decisively in the
negative, stands little chance, considering present evidence, of being
answered in the affirmative. In view of the fact that numerous
observations of apparent value have been made in other sections,
there is yet sufficient reason for letting the query stand, and we may
continue to cherish the hope that possibly by renewed effort and
improved methods of investigation, something may yet be found in
the Trenton gravels clearly demonstrative of the fascinating belief in
a great antiquity for the human race in America.
The evidence upon which paleolithic man in America depends is
so intangible that, unsupported by supposed analogies with
European conditions and phenomena, and by the suggestions of an
ideal scheme of culture progress, it would vanish in thin air; and if
the theory of a glacial man can summon to its aid no better
testimony than that furnished by the examples examined in this
paper, the whole scheme, so elaborately mounted and so confidently
proclaimed, is in imminent danger of early collapse.
W. H. Holmes.
GEOLOGY AS A PART OF A COLLEGE
CURRICULUM.
The demand for scientific studies as a part of the college
curriculum is felt by all those who have to do with the provision of
higher instruction for American youth. The reasons for this may be
various, but a fundamental reason is found in the tendency among
the American people in particular, and in this age in general, toward
practicality in all things. Applied to education this practicality asks for
a training which shall have a direct bearing upon the business of life
to be followed immediately after the training period is ended. It
means a differentiation of subjects and specialization in methods to
adjust the education to the different functions which the students
taking it are preparing for. It calls for a professional education for
those who expect to become lawyers, doctors, ministers, or
teachers,—a technical education for those who are to engage in the
arts of the mechanical or civil engineer, or of the architect. It results
not only in the establishment of colleges and universities devoted to
this kind of education, but it affects the methods of the high schools
and academies, and is felt down to primary schools, and on the
other hand the older institutions founded on a different plan are
adapted to the popular demand by the addition to the regular
studies of "electives," chosen not always for their value or
disciplinary studies, but because of the practical applicability of the
information to be derived from them, to the business of the student.
Without discussing the relative merits of the two ideas of
education, the chief contrast between them may be found in the
character of the results sought. The knowledge of things and their
uses is of chief importance in the practical education; the knowledge
of ideas and skill in their use is the aim of the liberal education.
Geology is one of the sciences which most men will at once classify
as among the practical sciences. It deals with matters of practical
importance to everybody. Coal, iron, the metals, silver, gold, tin,
lead, building stone, sand, clay, petroleum, and natural gas, and all
geological products are essential materials of modern civilization,
and a knowledge of them and of their modes and places of
occurrence is one of the requisites of an education, either from the
practical or the liberal point of view. So too the dynamics of
atmospheric and hydraulic erosion, the agency of rivers and oceans
in destruction, removal and reconstruction of geological formations
have their eminently practical bearings upon the various arts of
engineering. While the practical value of geology is thus evident and
undisputed, it is not on this account that its importance as a part of
a college course of education is urged. As a practical study geology
becomes the centre of a group of studies requiring years for
mastery. Chemistry and physics are primarily essential to a full
understanding of the most common of geological problems. And to
use geological facts and phenomena, an acquaintance with the
complex methods of engineering, civil and mechanical, which again
call for a thorough mastery of mathematics, is necessary. Mineralogy
and petrography, metallurgy and mining engineering have each
reached a stage of development entitling them to the rank of
separate sciences, but the practical training of the geologist should
include them all. When we add the biological sciences connected
with historical geology, paleontology, zoölogy and botany, with all
the laboratory and field work required for their proper study, we
have a group of affiliated branches of learning requiring four or five
years of continuous study after the student has learned how to
study. It is plain therefore that only a specialist, one who is willing to
neglect other studies, or who has previously had a liberal training,
can perfect himself on the practical side in the science of geology.
But irrespective of its practical uses, as a means of training and
supplementary to the ordinary studies of a college curriculum,
geology is one of the most useful of the sciences of observation. It is
in providing that particular training to which President Eliot has
recently called attention in the Forum (Dec., 1892, Wherein Popular
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