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 Chapter 06

Communications, Networks, and Cyberthreats: The Wired and

Wireless World

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Communications signals represented in a binary format are said to be ________.

A. continuous
B. digital
C. sequential
D. analog

2. Each zero and one signal represents a ________.

A. bit
B. byte
C. kilobyte
D. megabyte

3. Which of the following is NOT an analog device?

A. speedometer
B. tire-pressure gauge
C. thermometer
D. smartphone

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4. Signals such as sound and temperature, which continuously vary in strength and quality, are
said to be _________.

A. spontaneous
B. digital
C. sequential
D. analog

5. The ________ is a device that converts digital computer signals into analog signals so that
they can be sent over a telephone line.

A. printer
B. scanner
C. modem
D. digitizer

6. A person sending a document over a phone line by converting a computer's digital signals to
analog signals uses a ________.

A. printer
B. scanner
C. digitizer
D. modem

7. A ________ is a system of interconnected computers, telephones, or communications devices

that can communicate and share resources.

A. terminal
B. router
C. network
D. server

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8. A network that covers a wide geographical area is called a ________.

A. LAN
B. WAN
C. MAN
D. HAN

9. A network that covers a city or a suburb is called a ________.

A. WAN
B. LAN
C. MAN
D. Internet

10. Networks are structured in two principle ways: client/server and ________.

A. intranet
B. host computer
C. extranet
D. peer to peer

11. A network that operates without relying on a server is the ________ network.

A. peer-to-peer
B. client/server
C. host-to-host
D. master/slave

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12. A computer that acts like a disk drive, storing the programs and data files shared by users on
a LAN, is the ________ server.

A. file
B. web
C. host
D. mail

13. If an organization's internal private network uses the same infrastructure and standards of
the Internet, then the private network is a(n) ________.

A. extranet
B. intranet
C. LAN
D. MAN

14. A virtual private network may include ________.

A. a company intranet
B. a company extranet
C. a company LAN
D. any of these

15. A(n) ________ is a system of hardware and/or software that protects a computer or a network
from intruders.

A. VPN
B. intranet
C. firewall
D. protocol

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16. A ________ is the set of rules that govern the exchange of data between hardware and/or
software components in a communications network.

A. host
B. protocol
C. database
D. packet

17. A mainframe computer that controls a large network is called the ________ computer.

A. slave
B. host
C. client
D. node

18. Any device that is attached to a network is referred to as a ________.

A. server
B. host
C. node
D. router

19. A ________ is a fixed-length block of data for transmission.

A. node
B. protocol
C. packet
D. backbone

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20. A common connection device that connects computers to a network and that sends
messages (checks packets) between sender and receiver nodes is called a ________.

A. router
B. gateway
C. switch
D. bridge

21. To create larger networks, a bridge connects the same types of networks, and a ________
connects dissimilar networks.

A. router
B. gateway
C. hub
D. host

22. A device that joins multiple wired and/or wireless networks in a home office is a ________.

A. node
B. router
C. bridge
D. firewall

23. In an organization, all computer networks are connected to the Internet by a "main highway"
called a ________.

A. skeleton
B. backbone
C. gateway
D. router

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24. Which of these is NOT a network topology?

A. ring
B. bus
C. hub
D. star

25. In the ________ network topology, communications devices are connected to a single cable
with two endpoints.

A. ring
B. bus
C. star
D. peer-to-peer

26. What kind of topology (layout) is used by a network that connects all computers and
communications devices in a continuous loop?

A. ring
B. bus
C. star
D. peer-to-peer

27. What kind of topology (layout) is used by a network that connects all its computers and
communications devices to a central server?

A. ring
B. bus
C. star
D. peer-to-peer

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28. ________ is the most common and most widely used LAN technology, with networked devices
in close proximity; it can be used with almost any kind of computer. Most microcomputers
come with a port for this type of network connection, which uses cable.

A. Fiber-optic
B. Internet
C. Token ring
D. Ethernet

29. A communications medium is a channel; there are three types of wired communications
media. The one consisting of two strands of insulated copper wire, used by tradition
telephone systems, is known as ________.

A. twisted-pair
B. coaxial
C. fiber-optic
D. straight wire

30. What wired channel, commonly used for cable TV, consists of an insulated copper wire
wrapped in a solid or braided shield placed in an external cover?

A. twisted-pair
B. coaxial
C. straight wire
D. fiber-optic

31. A type of wired communications technology used to connect equipment in a home network is
the following:

A. Ethernet
B. HomePNA
C. HomePlug
D. any of these

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32. What wired communications medium consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass
or plastic?

A. twisted-pair
B. coaxial
C. fiber-optic
D. straight wire

33. The ________ is the basis for ALL telecommunications signals.

A. bandwidth
B. electromagnetic spectrum
C. radio-frequency spectrum
D. wireless application protocol

34. The ________ is the range of frequencies that a transmission medium (channel) can carry in a
particular period of time.

A. bandwidth
B. electromagnetic spectrum
C. radio-frequency spectrum
D. wireless application protocol

35. What set of rules is used to link nearly all mobile devices to a telecommunications carrier's
wireless network and content providers?

A. LAN
B. WAN
C. WAP
D. HAN

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36. Which of the following is NOT a type of wireless communications media?

A. infrared transmission
B. satellite
C. coaxial
D. microwave radio

37. What form of wireless transmission sends data to an AM or FM receiver?

A. broadcast radio
B. infrared radio
C. GPS
D. microwave radio

38. Which of these types of wireless transmission is limited to line-of-sight communications?

A. broadcast radio
B. broadband
C. microwave
D. WAP

39. Transmitting a signal from a ground station to a satellite is called ________.

A. broadcasting
B. high-frequency
C. uplinking
D. downlinking

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40. The highest level that a satellite can occupy in space is known as ________.

A. geostationary earth orbit (GEO)

B. high-earth orbit (HEO)
C. medium-earth orbit (MEO)
D. low-earth orbit (LEO)

41. GPS uses satellites orbiting at a(n) ________ level; they transmit timed radio signals used to
identify earth locations.

A. GEO
B. MEO
C. LEO
D. HEO

42. Broadband technology (wireless digital services) is also referred to as ________-generation

wireless services.

A. first
B. second
C. third
D. fourth

43. Which of the following is NOT a type of long-distance wireless two-way communications
device?

A. Bluetooth
B. CDMA
C. 1G analog cellular phone
D. 2G digital cellphone

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44. What short-distance wireless standard is used to link portable computers and handheld
wireless devices so they may communicate at high speeds at distances of 100-228 feet?

A. Bluetooth
B. HomeRF
C. Wi-Fi
D. 3G

45. What short-distance wireless standard is used to link cell phones, computers, and
peripherals at distances of up to about 33 feet?

A. Bluetooth
B. Wi-Fi
C. HomeRF
D. WISP

46. A ________ attack disables a computer system or network by making so many requests of it
that it overloads it and keeps other users from accessing it.

A. worm
B. virus
C. denial-of-service
D. Trojan horse

47. A ________ is a program that copies itself repeatedly into a computer's memory or onto a
disk/flash drive.

A. worm
B. rootkit
C. Trojan horse
D. patch

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48. Which of these is NOT a type of malware?

A. worm
B. virus
C. Trojan horse
D. denial-of-service attack

49. A botmaster uses malware to hijack hundreds or thousands of computers and controls them
remotely; the controlled computers are called ________.

A. robots
B. zombies
C. worms
D. logic bombs

50. Which of the following is NOT a way to spread a virus?

A. flash drives
B. scanning a picture
C. e-mail attachment
D. downloaded games or other software

51. Antivirus software protects files and computer systems in all of these ways EXCEPT which
one?

A. scans the hard drive for signatures that uniquely identify a virus
B. looks for suspicious viruslike behavior
C. goes out on the Internet and looks for viruses
D. destroys the virus

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52. What is the science, often used in computer security systems, of measuring individual body
characteristics?

A. encryption
B. decryption
C. rootkit
D. biometrics

53. What is the process of altering readable data (plain text) into unreadable form to prevent
unauthorized access?

A. encryption
B. decryption
C. password
D. biometrics

True / False Questions

54. Analog refers to communications signals represented in a binary format.

True False

55. Signals such as sound and temperature, which continuously vary in strength and quality, are
said to be digital.

True False

56. A thermometer and a speedometer are examples of analog devices.

True False

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57. Telephones have always been digital devices.

True False

58. A modem converts digital signals into analog signals so they can be sent over a telephone
line.

True False

59. "Modem" is short for modulate/demodulate.

True False

60. Capturing music digitally means that one has an exact duplicate of the music.

True False

61. A network is a system of interconnected computers and communications devices that can
communicate and share resources.

True False

62. The Internet is a WAN.

True False

63. A LAN is a type of network that covers a wide geographical area.

True False

64. Client/server networks and peer-to-peer networks are the same except that the first type of
network uses a mainframe and the second type uses only microcomputers.

True False

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 Fig. 93.—Robert Koch, Born 1843.
Koch, with the rigorous scientific spirit for which he is noteworthy,
established four necessary links in the chain of evidence to show
that a particular organism is connected with a particular disease.
These four postulates of Koch are: First, that a microscopic organism
of a particular type should be found in great abundance in the blood
and the tissue of the sick animal; second, that a pure culture should
be made of the suspected organism; third, that this pure culture,
when introduced into the body of another animal, should produce
the disease; and, fourth, that in the blood and tissues of that animal
there should be found quantities of the particular organism that is
suspected of producing the disease. In the case of some diseases
this entire chain of evidence has been established; but in others,
such as cholera and typhoid fever, the last steps have not been
completed, for the reason that the animals experimented upon,
namely, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and mice, are not susceptible to these
diseases.
 Fig. 94.—Sir Joseph Lister, Born 1827.
Lister.—The other member of the great triumvirate of bacteriology
is Sir Joseph Lister (Fig. 94); born in 1827, he has been successively
professor of surgery in the universities of Glasgow (1860) and of
Edinburgh (1869), and in King's College, London (1877). His
practical application of the germ-theory introduced aseptic methods
into surgery and completely revolutionized that field. This was in
1867. In an address given that year before the British Medical
Association in Dublin, he said: "When it had been shown by the
researches of Pasteur that the septic property of the atmosphere
depended, not on oxygen or any gaseous constituent, but on minute
organisms suspended in it, which owed their energy to their vitality,
it occurred to me that decomposition in the injured part might be
avoided without excluding the air, by applying as a dressing some
material capable of destroying the life of the floating particles." At
first he used carbolic acid for this purpose. "The wards of which he
had charge in the Glasgow Infirmary were especially affected by
gangrene, but in a short time became the healthiest in the world;
while other wards separated by a passageway retained their
infection." The method of Lister has been universally adopted, and
at the same time has been greatly extended and improved.
The question of immunity, i.e., the reason why after having had
certain contagious diseases one is rendered immune, is of very great
interest, but is of medical bearing, and therefore is not dealt with
here.
Bacteria and Nitrates.—One further illustration of the connection
between bacteria and practical affairs may be mentioned. It is well
known that animals are dependent upon plants, and that plants in
the manufacture of protoplasm make use of certain nitrites and
nitrates which they obtain from the soil. Now, the source of these
nitrites and nitrates is very interesting. In animals the final products
of broken-down protoplasm are carbon dioxide, water, and a
nitrogenous substance called urea. These products are called
excretory products. The animal machine is unable to utilize the
energy which exists in the form of potential energy in these
substances, and they are removed from the body.
The history of nitrogenous substance is the one which at present
interests us the most. Entering the soil, it is there acted upon by
bacteria residing in the soil, these bacteria possessing the power of
making use of the lowest residuum of energy left in the nitrogenous
substance. They cause the nitrogen and the hydrogen to unite with
oxygen in such a way that there are produced nitrous and nitric
acids, and from these two acids, through chemical action, result the
nitrites and the nitrates. These substances are then utilized by the
plant in the manufacture of protoplasm, and the plant is fed upon by
animal organisms, so that a direct relationship is established
between these lower forms of life and the higher plant and animal
series; a relationship that is not only interesting, but that helps to
throw an important side-light upon the general nature of vital
activities, their kind and their reach. In addition to the soil bacteria
mentioned above, there are others that form association with the
rootlets of certain plants and possess the power of fixing free
nitrogen from the air.
The nitrifying bacteria, are, of course, of great importance to the
farmer and the agriculturist.
It is not our purpose, however, to trace the different phases of the
subject of bacteriology to their conclusions, but rather to give a
picture of the historical development of this subject as related to the
broader one of general biology.

CHAPTER XIV
HEREDITY AND GERMINAL CONTINUITY—MENDEL, GALTON,
WEISMANN
It is a matter of common observation that in the living world like
tends to produce like. The offspring of plants, as well as of animals,
resembles the parent, and among all organisms endowed with mind,
the mental as well as the physical qualities are inherited. This is a
simple statement of the fact of heredity, but the scientific study of
inheritance involves deep-seated biological questions that emerged
late in the nineteenth century, and the subject is still in its infancy.
In investigating this question, we need first, if possible, to locate the
bearers of hereditary qualities within the physical substance that
connects one generation with the next; then, to study their behavior
during the transmission of life in order to account for the inheritance
of both maternal and paternal qualities; and, lastly, to determine
whether or not transiently acquired characteristics are inherited.
Hereditary Qualities in the Germinal Elements.—When we
take into consideration the fact established for all animals and plants
(setting aside cases of budding and the division of unicellular
organisms), that the only substance that passes from one generation
to another is the egg and the sperm in animals, and their
representatives in plants, we see that the first question is narrowed
to these bodies. If all hereditary qualities are carried in the egg and
the sperm—as it seems they must be—then it follows that these
germinal elements, although microscopic in size, have a very
complex organization. The discovery of this organization must
depend upon microscopic examination. Knowledge regarding the
physical basis of heredity has been greatly advanced by critical
studies of cells under the microscope and by the application of
experimental methods, while other phases of the problems of
inheritance have been elucidated by the analysis of statistics
regarding hereditary transmissions. The whole question, however, is
so recent that a clear formulation of the direction of the main
currents of progress will be more helpful than any attempt to
estimate critically the underlying principles.
Early Theories.—There were speculations regarding the nature of
inheritance in ancient and mediæval times. To mention any of them
prior to the eighteenth century would serve no useful purpose, since
they were vague and did not form the foundation upon which the
modern theories were built. The controversies over pre-formation
and epigenesis (see Chapter X) of the eighteenth century embodied
some ideas that have been revived. The recent conclusion that there
is in the germinal elements an inherited organization of great
complexity which conditions inheritance seems, at first, to be a
return to the doctrine of pre-formation, but closer examination
shows that there is merely a general resemblance between the ideas
expressed by Haller, Bonnet, and philosophers of their time and
those current at the present time. Inherited organization, as now
understood, is founded on the idea of germinal continuity and is
vastly different from the old theory of pre-formation. The meaning of
epigenesis, as expressed by Wolff, has also been modified to include
the conception of pre-localization of hereditary qualities within
particular parts of the egg. It has come now to mean that
development is a process of differentiation of certain qualities
already laid down in the germinal elements.
Darwin's Theory of Pangenesis.—In attempting to account for
heredity, Darwin saw clearly the necessity of providing some means
of getting all hereditary qualities combined within the egg and the
sperm. Accordingly he originated his provisional theory of
pangenesis. Keeping in mind the fact that all organisms begin their
lives in the condition of single cells, the idea of inheritance through
these microscopic particles becomes difficult to understand. How is it
possible to conceive of all the hereditary qualities being contained
within the microscopic germ of the future being? Darwin supposed
that very minute particles, which he called gemmules, were set free
from all the cells in the body, those of the muscular system, of the
nervous system, of the bony tissues, and of all other tissues
contributing their part. These liberated gemmules were supposed to
be carried by the circulation and ultimately to be aggregated within
the germinal elements (ovum and sperm). Thus the germinal
elements would be a composite of substances derived from all
organs and all tissues.
With this conception of the blending of the parental qualities within
the germinal elements we can conceive how inheritance would be
possible and how there might be included in the egg and the sperm
a representative in material substance of all the qualities of the
parents. Since development begins in a fertilized ovum, this complex
would contain minute particles derived from every part of the bodies
of both parents, which by growth would give rise to new tissues, all
of them containing representatives of the tissues of the parent form.
Theory of Pangenesis Replaced by that of Germinal
Continuity.—This theory of Darwin served as the basis for other
theories founded upon the conception of the existence of pangens;
and although the modifications of Spencer, Brooks, and others were
important, it is not necessary to indicate them in detail in order to
understand what is to follow. The various theories founded upon the
idea of pangens were destined to be replaced by others founded on
the conception of germinal continuity—the central idea in
nineteenth-century biology.
The four chief steps which have led to the advancement of the
knowledge of heredity, as suggested by Thomson, are as follows: "
(a) The exposition of the doctrine of germinal continuity, (b) More
precise investigation of the material basis of inheritance, (c)
Suspicions regarding the inheritance of acquired characteristics, (d)
Application of statistical methods which have led to the formulation
of the law of ancestral heredity." We shall take these up in order.
Exposition of the Doctrine of Germinal Continuity.—From
parent to offspring there passes some hereditary substance;
although small in amount, it is the only living thread that connects
one generation with another. It thus appears that there enters into
the building of the body of a new organism some of the actual
substance of both parents, and that this transmitted substance must
be the bearer of hereditary qualities. Does it also contain some
characteristics inherited from grandparents and previous
generations? If so, how far back in the history of the race does
unbroken continuity extend?
Briefly stated, genetic continuity means that the ovum and its
fertilizing agent are derived by continuous cell-lineage from the
fertilized ovum of previous generations, extending back to the
beginning of life. The first clear exposition of this theory occurs in
the classical work of Virchow on Cellular Pathology, published in
1858. Virchow (1821-1902), the distinguished professor of the
University of Berlin, has already been spoken of in connection with
the development of histology. He took the step of overthrowing the
theory of free cell-formation, and replacing it by the doctrine of cell-
succession. According to the theory of Schleiden and Schwann, cells
arose from a blastema by a condensation of matter around a
nucleus, and the medical men prior to 1858 believed in free cell-
formation within a matrix of secreted or excreted substance. This
doctrine was held with tenacity especially for pathological growths.
Virchow demonstrated, however, that there is a continuity of living
substance in all growths—that cells, both in health and in disease,
arise only by the growth and division of previously existing living
cells; and to express this truth he coined the formula "omnis cellula
e cellula." Manifestly it was necessary to establish this law of cell-
succession before any idea of germinal continuity could prevail.
Virchow's work in this connection is of undying value.
When applied to inheritance the idea of the continuity of living
substance leads to making a distinction between germ-cells and
body-cells. This had been done before the observations of Virchow
made their separation of great theoretical value. Richard Owen, in
1849, pointed out certain differences between the body-cells and the
germinal elements, but he did not follow up the distinction which he
made. Haeckel's General Morphology, published in 1866, forecasts
the idea also, and in 1878 Jaeger made use of the phrase "continuity
of the germ protoplasm." Other suggestions and modifications led to
the clear expression by Nussbaum, about 1875, that the germinal
substance was continued by unbroken generations from the past,
and is the particular substance in which all hereditary qualities are
included. But the conception finds its fullest expression in the work
of Weismann.
Weismann's explanation of heredity is at first sight relatively simple.
In reply to the question, "Why is the offspring like the parent?" he
says, "Because it is composed of some of the same stuff." In other
words, there has been unbroken germinal continuity between
generations. His idea of germinal continuity, i.e., unbroken
continuity, through all time, of the germinal substance, is a
conception of very great extent, and now underlies all discussion of
heredity.
In order to comprehend it, we must first distinguish between the
germ-cells and the body-cells. Weismann regards the body,
composed of its many cells, as a derivative that becomes simply a
vehicle for the germ-cells. Owen's distinction between germ-cells
and body-cells, made in 1849, was not of much importance, but in
the theory of Weismann it is of vital significance. The germ-cells are
the particular ones which carry forward from generation to
generation the life of the individual. The body-cells are not inherited
directly, but in the transmission of life the germ-cells pass to the
succeeding generation, and they in turn have been inherited from
the previous generation, and, therefore, we have the phenomenon
of an unbroken connection with all previous generations.
When the full significance of this conception comes to us, we see
why the germ-cells have an inherited organization of remarkable
complexity. This germinal substance embodies all the past history of
the living, impressionable protoplasm, which has had an unbroken
series of generations. During all time it has been subjected to the
molding influence of external circumstances to which it has
responded, so that the summation of its experiences becomes in
some way embedded within its material substance. Thus we have
the germinal elements possessing an inherited organization made up
of all the previous experiences of the protoplasm, some of which
naturally are much more dominant than the others.
We have seen that this idea was not first expressed by Weismann; it
was a modification of the views of Nussbaum and Hertwig. While it
was not his individually, his conclusions were apparently reached
independently. This idea was in the intellectual atmosphere of the
times. Several investigators reached their conclusions independently,
although there is great similarity between them. Although the credit
for the first formulation of the law of germinal continuity does not
belong to Weismann, that of the greatest elaboration of it does. This
doctrine of germinal continuity is now so firmly embedded in
biological ideas of inheritance and the evolution of animal life that
we may say it has become the corner-stone of modern biology.
The conclusion reached—that the hereditary substance is the germ-
plasm—is merely preliminary; the question remains, Is the germ-
plasm homogeneous and endowed equally in all parts with a mixture
of hereditary qualities? This leads to the second step.
The More Precise Investigation of the Material Basis of
Inheritance.—The application of the microscope to critical studies
of the structure of the germ-plasm has brought important results
which merge with the development of the idea of germinal
continuity. Can we by actual observation determine the particular
part of the protoplasmic substance that carries the hereditary
qualities? The earliest answer to this question was that the
protoplasm, being the living substance, was the bearer of heredity.
But close analysis of the behavior of the nucleus during development
led, about 1875, to the idea that the hereditary qualities are located
within the nucleus of the cell.
This idea, promulgated by Fol, Koelliker, and Oskar Hertwig,
narrowed the attention of students of heredity from the general
protoplasmic contents of the cell to the nucleus. Later investigations
show that this restriction was, in a measure, right. The nucleus takes
an active part during cell-division, and it was very natural to reach
the conclusion that it is the particular bearer of hereditary
substance. But, in 1883, Van Beneden and Boveri made the
discovery that within the nucleus are certain distinct little rod-like
bodies which make their appearance during cell-division. These little
bodies, inasmuch as they stain very deeply with the dyes used in
microscopic research, are called chromosomes. And continued
investigation brought out the astounding fact that, although the
number of chromosomes vary in different animals (commonly from
two to twenty-four), they are of the same number in all the cells of
any particular animal or plant. These chromosomes are regarded as
the bearers of heredity, and their behavior during fertilization and
development has been followed with great care.
Brilliant studies of the formation of the egg have shown that the egg
nucleus, in the process of becoming mature, surrenders one-half its
number of chromosomes; it approaches the surface of the egg and
undergoes division, squeezing out one-half of its substance in the
form of a polar globule; and this process is once repeated.[8] The
formation of polar globules is accompanied by a noteworthy process
of reduction in the number of chromosomes, so that when the egg
nucleus has reached its mature condition it contains only one-half
the number of chromosomes characteristic of the species, and will
not ordinarily undergo development without fertilization.
The precise steps in the formation of the sperm have also been
studied, and it has been determined that a parallel series of changes
occur. The sperm, when it is fully formed, contains also one-half the
number of chromosomes characteristic of the species. Now, egg and
sperm are the two germinal elements which unite in development.
Fertilization takes place by the union of sperm and egg, and
inasmuch as the nuclei of each of these structures contain one-half
of the number of chromosomes characteristic of the species, their
union in fertilization results in the restoration of the original number
of chromosomes. The fertilized ovum is the starting-point of a new
organism, and from the method of its fertilization it appears that the
parental qualities are passed along to the cells of every tissue.
The complex mechanism exhibited in the nucleus during
segmentation is very wonderful. The fertilized ovum begins to divide,
the nucleus passing through a series of complicated changes
whereby its chromosomes undergo a lengthwise division—a division
that secures an equable partition of the substance of which they are
composed. With each successive division, this complicated process is
repeated, and the many cells, arising from continued segmentation
of the original cell, contain nuclei in which are embedded
descendants of the chromosomes in unbroken succession. Moreover,
since these chromosomes are bi-parental, we can readily understand
that every cell in the body carries both maternal and paternal
qualities.
The careful analysis of the various changes within the nuclei of the
egg proves to be the key to some of the central questions of
heredity. We see the force of the point which was made in a
previous chapter, that inheritance is in the long run a cellular study,
and we see in a new light the importance of the doctrine of germinal
continuity. This conception, in fact, elucidates the general problem of
inheritance in a way in which it has never been elucidated by any
other means.
For some time the attention of investigators was concentrated upon
the nucleus and the chromosomes, but it is now necessary to admit
that the basis of some structures is discoverable within the
cytoplasm that surrounds the nucleus. Experimental observations
(Conklin, Lillie, Wilson) have shown the existence of particular areas
within the apparently simple substance of the egg, areas which are
definitely related to the development of particular parts of the
embryo. The removal of any one of these pre-localized areas
prevents the development of the part with which it is genetically
related. Researches of this kind, necessitating great ingenuity in
method and great talents in the observers, are widening the field of
observation upon the phenomena of heredity.
The Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.—The belief in the
inheritance of acquired characteristics was generally accepted up to
the middle of the nineteenth century, but the reaction against it
started by Galton and others has assumed great proportions.
Discussions in this line have been carried on extensively, and
frequently in the spirit of great partizanship. These discussions
cluster very much about the name and the work of Weismann, the
man who has consistently stood against the idea of acquired
characteristics. More in reference to this phase of the question is
given in the chapter dealing with Weismann's theory of evolution
(see p. 398). Wherever the truth may lie, the discussions regarding
the inheritance of acquired characteristics provoked by Weismann's
theoretical considerations, have resulted in stimulating experiment
and research, and have, therefore, been beneficial to the advance of
science.
The Application of Statistical Methods and Experiments to
the Ideas of Heredity. Mendel.—This feature of investigating
questions of heredity is of growing importance. The first to complete
experiments and to investigate heredity to any purpose was the
Austrian monk Mendel (1822-1884) (Fig. 95), the abbot of a
monastery at Brünn. In his garden he made many experiments upon
the inheritance, particularly in peas, of color and of form; and
through these experiments he demonstrated a law of inheritance
which bids fair to be one of the great biological discoveries of the
nineteenth century. He published his papers in 1866 and 1867, but
since the minds of naturalists at that time were very much occupied
with the questions of organic evolution, raised through the
publications of Darwin, the ideas of Mendel attracted very little
attention. The principles that he established were re-discovered in
1900 by De Vries and other botanists, and thus naturalists were led
to look up the work of Mendel.
 Fig. 95.—Gregor Mendel, 1822-1884.
Permission of Professor Bateson.
The great discovery of Mendel may be called that of the purity of the
germ-cells. By cross-fertilization of pure breeds of peas of different
colors and shapes he obtained hybrids. The hybrid embodied the
characteristics of the crossed peas; one of the characteristics
appearing, and the other being held in abeyance—present within the
organization of the pea, but not visible. When peas of different color
were cross-fertilized, one color would be stronger apparently than
the other, and would stand out in the hybrids. This was called the
dominant color. The other, which was held in abeyance, was called
recessive; for, though unseen, it was still present within the young
seeds. That the recessive color was not blotted out was clearly
shown by raising a crop from the hybrid, a condition under which
they would produce seeds like those of the two original forms, and
in equal number; and thereafter the descendants of these peas
would breed true. This so-called purity of the germ-cells, then, may
be expressed in this way: "The hybrid, whatever its own character,
produces ripe germ-cells, which produce only the pure character of
one parent or of the other" (Castle).
Although Mendel's discovery was for a long time overlooked, happily
the facts were re-discovered, and at the present time extensive
experiments are being made with animals to test this law:
experiments in the inheritance of poultry, the inheritance of fur in
guinea-pigs, of erectness in the ears of rabbits, etc., etc. In this
country the experiments of Castle, Davenport, and others with
animals tend to support Mendel's conclusion and lift it to the position
of a law.
Rank of Mendel's Discovery.—The discovery by Mendel of
alternative inheritance will rank as one of the greatest discoveries in
the study of heredity. The fact that in cross-breeding the parental
qualities are not blended, but that they retain their individuality in
the offspring, has many possible practical applications both in
horticulture and in the breeding of animals. The germ-cells of the
hybrids have the dominant and the recessive characters about
equally divided; this will appear in the progeny of the second
generation, and the races, when once separated, may be made to
breed true.
Mendel's name was not recognized as a prominent one in the annals
of biological history until the re-discovery of his law in 1900; but
now he is accorded high rank. It may be remarked in passing that
the three leading names in the development of the theories of
heredity are those of Mendel, Galton, and Weismann.
 Fig. 96.—Francis Galton, Born 1822.
Galton.—The application of statistical methods is well illustrated in
the theories of Francis Galton (Fig. 96). This distinguished English
statistician was born in 1822, and is still living. He is the grandson of
Dr. Erasmus Darwin and the cousin of Charles. After publishing
books on his travels in Africa, he began the experimental study of
heredity and, in 1871, he read before the Royal Society of London a
paper on Pangenesis, in which he departed from that theory as
developed by Darwin. The observations upon which he based his
conclusions were made upon the transfusion of blood in rabbits and
their after-breeding. He studied the inheritance of stature, and other
characteristics, in human families, and the inheritance of spots on
the coat of certain hounds, and was led to formulate a law of
ancestral inheritance which received its clearest expression in his
book, Natural Inheritance, published in 1889.
He undertook to determine the proportion of heritage that is, on the
average, contributed by each parent, grandparent, etc., and arrived
at the following conclusions: "The parents together contribute one-
half the total heritage, the four grandparents together one-fourth,
the eight great-grandparents one-sixteenth, and all the remainder of
the ancestry one-sixteenth."
Carl Pearson has investigated this law of ancestral inheritance. He
substantiates the law in its principle, but modifies slightly the
mathematical expression of it.
This field of research, which involves measurements and
mathematics and the handling of large bodies of statistics, has been
considerably cultivated, so that there is in existence in England a
journal devoted exclusively to biometrics, which is edited by Carl
Pearson, and is entitled Biometrika.
The whole subject of heredity is undergoing a thorough revision.
What seems to be most needed at the present time is more exact
experimentation, carried through several generations, together with
more searching investigations into the microscopical constitution of
egg and sperm, and close analysis of just what takes place during
fertilization and the early stages of the development of the
individual. Experiments are being conducted on an extended scale in
endowed institutions. There is notably in this country, established
under the Carnegie Institution, a station for experimental evolution,
at Cold Spring Harbor, New York, of which C.B. Davenport is director.
Other experimental stations in England and on the Continent have
been established, and we are to expect as the result of coördinated
and continuous experimental work many substantial contributions to
the knowledge of inheritance.

FOOTNOTES:
[8] There are a few exceptions to this rule, as in the eggs of
plant-lice, etc., in which a single polar globule is produced.
 CHAPTER XV
THE SCIENCE OF FOSSIL LIFE
It gradually dawned on the minds of men that the crust of the earth
is like a gigantic mausoleum, containing within it the remains of
numerous and varied forms of life that formerly existed upon the
surface of the earth. The evidence is clear that untold generations of
living forms, now preserved as fossils, inhabited the earth, disported
themselves, and passed away long before the advent of man. The
knowledge of this fossil life, on account of its great diversity, is an
essential part of biology, and all the more so from the circumstance
that many forms of life, remains of which are exhibited in the rocks,
have long since become extinct. No history of biology would be
complete without an account of the rise and progress of that
department of biology which deals with fossil life.
It has been determined by collecting and systematically studying the
remains of this ancient life that they bear testimony to a long,
unbroken history in which the forms of both animals and plants have
been greatly altered. The more ancient remains are simple in
structure, and form with the later ones, a series that exhibits a
gradually increasing complexity of structure. The study of the fossil
series has brought about a very great extension of our knowledge
regarding the age of the world and of the conditions under which life
was evolved.
Strange Views Regarding Fossils.—But this state of our
knowledge was a long time coming, and in the development of the
subject we can recognize several distinct epochs, "well-marked by
prominent features, but like all stages of intellectual growth, without
definite boundaries." Fossils were known to the ancients, and by
some of the foremost philosophers of Greece were understood to be
the remains of animals and plants. After the revival of learning,
however, lively controversies arose as to their nature and their
meaning.
Some of the fantastic ideas that were entertained regarding the
nature of fossil remains may be indicated. The fossils were declared
by many to be freaks of nature; others maintained that they were
the results of spontaneous generation, and were produced by the
plastic forces of nature within the rocks in which they were found
embedded. Another opinion expressed was that they were generated
by fermentations. As the history of intellectual development shows,
the mind has ever seemed benumbed in the face of phenomena that
are completely misconceived; mystical explanations have accordingly
been devised to account for them. Some of the pious persons of that
period declared that fossils had been made and distributed by the
Creator in pursuance of a plan beyond our comprehension. Another
droll opinion expressed was that the Creator in His wisdom had
introduced fossil forms into the rocks in order that they should be a
source of confusion to the race of geologists that was later to arise.
And still another fantastic conception suggested that the fossils were
the original molds used by the Creator in forming different varieties
of animals and plants, some of which had been used and others
discarded. It was supposed that in preparing for the creation of life
He experimented and discarded some of His earliest attempts; and
that fossils represented these discarded molds and also, perhaps,
some that had been used in fashioning the created forms.
When large bones, as of fossil elephants, began to be exhumed,
they became for the most part the objects of stupid wonder. The
passage in the Scriptures was pointed out, that "there were giants in
those days," and the bones were taken to be evidences of the
former existence of giants. The opinions expressed regarding the
fossil bones were varied and fantastic, "some saying that they were
rained from Heaven, others saying that they were the gigantic limbs
of the ancient patriarchs, men who were believed to be tall because
they were known to be old." Following out this idea, "Henrion in
1718 published a work in which he assigned to Adam a height of
123 feet 9 inches, Noah being 20 feet shorter, and so on."
Determination of the Nature of Fossils.—In due course it came
to be recognized that fossils were the remains of forms that had
been alive during earlier periods of time; but in reaching this position
there was continual controversy. Objections were especially vigorous
from theological quarters, since such a conclusion was deemed to be
contradictory to the Scriptures. The true nature of fossils had been
clearly perceived by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and certain
others in the sixteenth century.
The work, however, that approached more nearly to scientific
demonstration was that of Steno (1638-1686), a Dane who migrated
to Italy and became the court physician to the dukes of Tuscany. He
was a versatile man who had laid fast hold upon the new learning of
his day. Eminent as anatomist, physiologist, and physician, with his
ever active mind he undertook to encompass all learning. It is
interesting that Steno—or Stensen—after being passionately devoted
to science, became equally devoted to religion and theology, and,
forsaking all scientific pursuits, took orders and returned to his
native country with the title of bishop. Here he worked in the service
of humanity and religion to the end of his life.
In reference to his work in geology, his conclusions regarding fossils
(1669) were based on the dissection of the head of a shark, by
which means he showed an almost exact correspondence between
certain glossy fossils and the teeth of living sharks. He applied his
reasoning, that like effects imply like causes, to all manner of fossils,
and clearly established the point that they should be regarded as the
remains of animals and plants. The method of investigation practiced
by Steno was that "which has consciously or unconsciously guided
the researches of palæontologists ever since."
Although his conclusions were well supported, they did not
completely overthrow the opposing views, and become a fixed basis
in geology. When, at the close of the eighteenth century and the
beginning of the nineteenth, fossil remains were being exhumed in
great quantities in the Paris basin, Cuvier, the great French
naturalist, reëstablished the doctrine that fossils are the remains of
ancient life. An account of this will be given presently, and in the
mean time we shall go on with the consideration of a question raised
by the conclusions of Steno.
Fossil Deposits Ascribed to the Flood.—After it began to be
reluctantly conceded that fossils might possibly be the remains of
former generations of animals and plants, there followed a period
characterized by the general belief that these entombed forms had
been deposited at the time of the Mosaic deluge. This was the
prevailing view in the eighteenth century. As observation increased
and the extent and variety of fossil life became known, as well as
the positions in which fossils were found, it became more difficult to
hold this view with any appearance of reason. Large forms were
found on the tops of mountains, and also lighter forms were found
near the bottom. Miles upon miles of superimposed rocks were
discovered, all of them bearing quantities of animal forms, and the
interpretation that these had been killed and distributed by a deluge
became very strained. But to the reasoners who gave free play to
their fancies the facts of observation afforded little difficulty. Some
declared that the entire surface of the earth had been reduced to
the condition of a pasty mass, and that the animals drowned by the
Deluge had been deposited within this pasty mass which, on the
receding of the waters, hardened into rocks.
The belief that fossil deposits were due to the Deluge sensibly
declined, however, near the close of the eighteenth century, but was
still warmly debated in the early part of the nineteenth century.
Fossil bones of large tropical animals having been discovered about
1821, embedded in the stalagmite-covered floor of a cavern in
Yorkshire, England, some of the ingenious supporters of the flood-
theory maintained that caves were produced by gases proceeding
from the bodies of decaying animals of large size; that they were like
large bubbles in the crust of the earth, and, furthermore, that bones
found in caverns were either those from the decayed carcasses or
others that had been deposited during the occurrence of the Flood.
Even the utterances of Cuvier, in his theory of catastrophism to
which we shall presently return, gave countenance to the conclusion
that the Deluge was of universal extent. As late as 1823, William
Buckland, reader in geology in Oxford, and later canon (1825) of
Christ Church, and dean (1845) of Westminster, published his
Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, or Observations on the Organic Remains
Attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge.
The theory that the Mosaic deluge had any part in the deposit of
organic fossils was finally surrendered through the advance of
knowledge, owing mainly to the labors of Lyell and his followers.
The Comparison of Fossil and Living Animals.—The very great
interest connected with the reëstablishment of the conclusion of
Steno, that fossils were once alive, leads us to speak more at length
of the discoveries upon which Cuvier passed his opinion. In the
gypsum rocks about Paris the workmen had been turning up to the
light bones of enormous size. While the workmen could recognize
that they were bones of some monsters, they were entirely at loss to
imagine to what kind of animals they had belonged, but the opinion
was frequently expressed that they were the bones of human giants.
Cuvier, with his extensive preparation in comparative anatomy, was
the best fitted man perhaps in all the world to pass judgment upon
these particular bones. He went to the quarries and, after observing
the remains, he saw very clearly that they were different from the
bones of any animals now existing. His great knowledge of
comparative anatomy was founded on a comprehensive study of the
bony system as well as the other structures of all classes of living
animals. He was familiar with the anatomy of elephants, and when
he examined the large bones brought to light in the quarries of
Montmartre, he saw that he was confronted with the bones of
elephant-like animals, but animals differing in their anatomy from
those at present living on the earth.
The great feature of Cuvier's investigations was that he instituted
comparisons on a broad scale between fossil remains and living
animals. It was not merely that he followed the method of
investigation employed by Steno; he went much further and reached
a new conclusion of great importance. Not only was the nature of
fossil remains determined, but by comparing their structure with that
of living animals the astounding inference was drawn that the fossil
remains examined belonged to forms that were truly extinct. This
discovery marks an epoch in the development of the knowledge of
extinct animals.
Cuvier the Founder of Vertebrate Palæontology.—The
interesting discovery that the fossil relics in the Eocene rocks about
Paris embraced extinct species was announced to the Institute by
Cuvier in January, 1796; and thereafter he continued for a quarter of
a century to devote much attention to the systematic study of
collections made in that district. These observations were, however,
shared with other labors upon comparative anatomy and zoölogy,
which indicates the prodigious industry for which he was notable. In
1812-1813 he published a monumental work, profusely illustrated,
under the title Ossemens Fossiles. This standard publication entitles
him to recognition as the founder of vertebrate palæontology.
In examining the records of fossil life, Cuvier and others saw that
the evidence indicated a succession of animal populations that had
become extinct, and also that myriads of new forms of life appeared
in the rocks of succeeding ages. Here Cuvier, who believed that
species were fixed and unalterable, was confronted with a puzzling
problem. In attempting to account for the extinction of life, and what
seemed to him the creation of new forms, he could see no way out
consistent with his theoretical views except to assume that the earth
had periodically been the scene of great catastrophes, of which the
Mosaic deluge was the most recent, but possibly not the last. He
supposed that these cataclysms of nature resulted in the extinction
of all life, and that after each catastrophe the salubrious condition of
the earth was restored, and that it was re-peopled by a new creation
of living beings. This conception, known as the theory of
catastrophism, was an obstacle to the progress of science. It is to be
regretted that Cuvier was not able to accept the views of his
illustrious contemporary Lamarck, who believed that the variations in
fossil life, as well as those of living forms, were owing to gradual
transformations.
Lamarck Founds Invertebrate Palæontology.—The credit of
founding the science of palæontology does not belong exclusively to
Cuvier. Associated with his name as co-founders are those of
Lamarck and William Smith. Lamarck, that quiet, forceful thinker
who for so many years worked by the side of Cuvier, founded the
science of invertebrate palæontology. The large bones with which
Cuvier worked were more easy to be recognized as unique or as
belonging to extinct animals than the shells which occurred in
abundance in the rocks about Paris. The latter were more difficult to
place in their true position because the number of forms of life in the
sea is very extended and very diverse. Just as Cuvier was a
complete master of knowledge regarding vertebrate organization, so
Lamarck was equally a master of that vast domain of animal forms
which are of a lower grade of organization—the invertebrates. From
his study of the collections of shells and other invertebrate forms
from the rocks, Lamarck created invertebrate palæontology and this,
coupled with the work of Cuvier, formed the foundations of the
entire field.
Lamarck's study of the extinct invertebrates led him to conclusions
widely at variance with those of Cuvier. Instead of thinking of a
series of catastrophes, he saw that not all of the forms of life
belonging to one geological period became extinct, but that some of
them were continued into the succeeding period. He saw, therefore,
that the succession of life in the rocks bore testimony to a long
series of gradual changes upon the earth's surface, and did not in
any way indicate the occurrence of catastrophes. The changes,
according to the views of Lamarck, were all knit together into a
continuous process, and his conception of the origin of life upon the
earth grew and expanded until it culminated in the elaboration of the
first consistent theory of evolution.
These two men, Lamarck and Cuvier, form a contrast as to the
favors distributed by fortune: Cuvier, picturesque, highly honored,
the favorite of princes, advanced to the highest places of recognition
in the government, acclaimed as the Jove of natural science;
Lamarck, hard-working, harassed by poverty, insufficiently
recognized, and, although more gifted than his confrère, overlooked
by the scientific men of the time. The judgment of the relative
position of these two men in natural science is now being reversed,
and on the basis of intellectual supremacy Lamarck is coming into
general recognition as the better man of the two. In the chapters
dealing with organic evolution some events in the life of this
remarkable man will be given.
The Arrangement of Fossils in Strata.—The other name
associated with Lamarck and Cuvier is that of William Smith, the
English surveyor. Both Lamarck and Cuvier were men of extended
scientific training, but William Smith had a moderate education as a
surveyor. While the two former were able to express scientific
opinions upon the nature of the fossil forms discovered, William
Smith went at his task as an observer with a clear and unprejudiced
mind, an observer who walked about over the fields, noticing the
conditions of rocks and of fossil forms embedded therein. He noted
that the organic remains were distributed in strata, and that
particular forms of fossil life characterized particular strata and
occupied the same relative position to one another. He found, for
illustration, that certain particular forms would be found underlying
certain other forms in one mass of rocks in a certain part of the
country. Wherever he traveled, and whatever rocks he examined, he
found these forms occupying the same relative positions, and thus
he came to the conclusion that the living forms within the rocks
constitute a stratified series, having definite and unvarying
arrangement with reference to one another.
In short, the work of these three men—Cuvier, Lamarck, and William
Smith—placed the new science of palæontology upon a secure basis
at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Summary.—The chief steps up to this time in the growth of the
science of fossil life may now be set forth in categories, though we
must remember that the advances proceeded concurrently and were
much intermingled, so that, whatever arrangement we may adopt, it
does not represent a strict chronological order of events:
I. The determination of the nature of fossils. Owing to the labors of
Da Vinci, Steno, and Cuvier, the truth was established that fossils are
the remains of former generations of animals and plants.
II. The comparison of organic fossils with living forms that was
instituted on a broad scale by Cuvier resulted in the conclusion that
some of the fossils belong to extinct races. The belief of Cuvier that
entire populations became extinct simultaneously, led him to the
theory of catastrophism. The observations of Lamarck, that, while
some species disappear, others are continued and pass through
transmutations, were contrary to that theory.
III. The recognition that the stratified rocks in which fossils are
distributed are sedimentary deposits of gradual formation. This
observation and the following took the ground from under the theory
that fossils had been deposited during the Mosaic deluge.
IV. The discovery by William Smith that the arrangement of fossils
within rocks is always the same, and the relative age of rocks may
be determined by an examination of their fossil contents.
Upon the basis of the foregoing, we come to the next advance, viz.:
V. The application of this knowledge to the determination of the
history of the earth.
Fossil Remains as an Index to the Past History of the Earth.
—The most advanced and enlightened position that had been taken
in reference to the fossil series during the first third of the
nineteenth century was that taken by Lamarck, he being the first to
read in the series the history of life upon the globe, weaving it into a
connected story, and establishing thereon a doctrine of organic
evolution. It was not until after 1859, however, that the truth of this
conclusion was generally admitted, and when it was accepted it was
not through the earlier publications of Lamarck, but through the
arguments of later observers, founded primarily upon the hypothesis
set forth by Darwin. There were several gradations of scientific
opinion in the period, short as it was, between the time of Cuvier
and of Darwin; and this intermediate period was one of contention
and warfare between the theologians and the geologists. Cuvier had
championed the theory of a succession of catastrophes, and since
this hypothesis did not come into such marked conflict with the
prevailing theological opinion as did the views of Lamarck, the
theologians were ready to accept the notion of Cuvier, and to point
with considerable satisfaction to his unique position as an authority.
Lyell.—In 1830 there was published an epoch-making work in
geology by Charles Lyell (Fig. 97), afterward Sir Charles, one of the
most brilliant geologists of all the world. This British leader of
scientific thought showed the prevalence of a uniform law of
development in reference to the earth's surface. He pointed out the
fact that had been maintained by Hutton, that changes in the past
were to be interpreted in the light of what is occurring in the
present. By making a careful study of the work performed by the
waters in cutting down the continents and in transferring the eroded
material to other places, and distributing it in the form of deltas; by
observing also the action of frost and wind and wave; by noting,
furthermore, the conditions under which animals die and are
subsequently covered up in the matrix of detritus—by all this he
showed evidences of a series of slow, continuous changes that have
occurred in the past and have molded the earth's crust into its
present condition.
 Fig. 97.—Charles Lyell, 1797-1875.
He showed, further, that organic fossils are no exception to this law
of uniform change. He pointed to the evidences that ages of time
had been required for the formation of the rocks bearing fossils; and
that the regular succession of animal forms indicates a continual
process of development of animal life; and that the disappearance of
some forms, that is, their becoming extinct, was not owing to
sudden changes, but to gradual changes. When this view was
accepted, it overthrew the theory of catastrophism and replaced it
by one designated uniformatism, based on the prevalence of uniform
natural laws.
This new conception, with all of its logical inferences, was scouted
by those of theological bias, but it won its way in the scientific world
and became an important feature in preparing for the reception of
Darwin's great book upon the descent of animal life.
We step forward now to the year 1859, to consider the effect upon
the science of palæontology of the publication of Darwin's Origin of
Species. Its influence was tremendous. The geological theories that
had provoked so much controversy were concerned not merely with
the disappearance of organic forms, but also with the introduction of
new species. The Origin of Species made it clear that the only
rational point of view in reference to fossil life was that it had been
gradually developed, that it gave us a picture of the conditions of life
upon the globe in past ages, that the succession of forms within the
rocks represented in outline the successive steps in the formation of
different kinds of animals and plants.
Owen.—Both before and after Darwin's hypothesis was given to
science, notable anatomists, a few of whom must be mentioned,
gave attention to fossil remains. Richard Owen (1804-1892) had his
interest in fossil life stimulated by a visit to Cuvier in 1831, and for
more than forty years thereafter he published studies on the
structure of fossil animals. His studies on the fossil remains of
Australia and New Zealand brought to light some interesting forms.
The extinct giant bird of New Zealand (Fig. 98) was a spectacular
demonstration of the enormous size to which birds had attained
during the Eocene period. Owen's monograph (1879) on the oldest
known bird—the archæopteryx—described an interesting form
uniting both bird-like and reptilian characteristics.
 Fig. 98.—Professor Owen and the Extinct Fossil Bird (Dinornis) of
New Zealand.
Permission of D. Appleton & Co.
Agassiz.—Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) (Fig. 99) also came into close
personal contact with Cuvier, and produced his first great work partly
under the stimulus of the latter. When Agassiz visited Paris, Cuvier
placed his collections at Agassiz's disposal, together with numerous
drawings of fossil fishes. The profusely illustrated monograph of
Agassiz on the fossil fishes (1833-1844) began to appear in 1833,
the year after Cuvier's death, and was carried on eleven years before
it was completed.
 Fig. 99.—Louis Agassiz, 1807-1873.
Agassiz, with his extensive knowledge of the developmental stages
of animals, came to see a marked parallelism between the stages in
development of the embryo and the successive forms in the
geological series. This remarkable parallelism between the fossil
forms of life and the stages in the development of higher forms of
recent animals is very interesting and very significant, and helps
materially in elucidating the idea that the fossil series represent
roughly the successive stages through which animal forms have
passed in their upward course of development from the simplest to
the highest, through long ages of time. Curiously enough, however,
Agassiz failed to grasp the meaning of the principle that he had
worked out. After illustrating so nicely the process of organic
evolution, he remained to the end of his life an opponent of that
theory.
Huxley.—Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) was led to study fossil
life on an extended scale, and he shed light in this province as in
others upon which he touched. With critical analysis and impartial
mind he applied the principles of evolution to the study of fossil
remains. His first conclusion was that the evidence of evolution
derived from palæontology was negative, but with the advances in
discovery he grew gradually to recognize that palæontologists, in
bringing to light complete evolutionary series, had supplied some of
the strongest supporting evidence of organic evolution. By many
geologists fossils have been used as time-markers for the
determination of the age of various deposits; but, with Huxley, the
study of them was always biological. It is to the latter point of view
that palæontology owes its great importance and its great
development. The statement of Huxley, that the only difference
between a fossil and a recent animal is that one has been dead
longer than the other, represents the spirit in which the study is
being carried forward.

Fig. 100.—E.D. Cope, 1840-1897.

With the establishment of the doctrine of organic evolution
palæontology entered upon its modern phase of growth; upon this
basis there is being reared a worthy structure through the efforts of
the recent votaries to the science. It is neither essential nor
desirable that the present history of the subject should be followed
here in detail. The collections of material upon which
palæontologists are working have been enormously increased, and
there is perhaps no place where activity has been greater than in the
United States. The rocks of the Western States and Territories
embrace a very rich collection of fossil forms, and, through the
generosity of several wealthy men, exploring parties have been
provided for and immense collections have been brought back to be
preserved in the museums, especially of New Haven, Conn., and in
the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
Leidy, Cope, and Marsh.—Among the early explorers of the fossils
of the West must be named Joseph Leidy, E.D. Cope (Fig. 100), and
O.C. Marsh. These gentlemen all had access to rich material, and all
of them made notable contributions to the science of palæontology.
The work of Cope (1840-1897) is very noteworthy. He was a
comparative anatomist equal to Cuvier in the extent of his
knowledge, and of larger philosophical views. His extended
publications under the direction of the United States Government
have very greatly extended the knowledge of fossil vertebrate life in
America.
O.C. Marsh (Fig. 101) is noteworthy for similar explorations; his
discovery of toothed birds in the Western rocks and his collection of
fossil horses, until recently the most complete one in existence, are
all very well known. Throughout his long life he contributed from his
own private fortune, and intellectually through his indefatigable
labors, to the progress of palæontology.
 Fig. 101.—O.C. Marsh, 1831-1899.
Zittel.—The name most widely known in palæontology is that of the
late Karl von Zittel (1839-1904), who devoted all his working life to
the advancement of the science of fossils. In his great work,
Handbuch der Palaeontologie (1876-1893), he brought under one
view the entire range of fossils from the protozoa up to the
mammals. Osborn says: "It is probably not an exaggeration to say
that he did more for the promotion and diffusion of palæontology
than any other single man who lived during the nineteenth century.
While not gifted with genius, he possessed extraordinary judgment,
critical capacity, and untiring industry." His portrait (Fig. 102) shows
a face "full of keen intelligence and enthusiasm."
Zittel's influence was exerted not only through his writings, but also
through his lectures and the stimulus imparted to the large number
of young men who were attracted to Munich to study under his
direction. These disciples are now distributed in various universities
in Europe and the United States, and are there carrying forward the
work begun by Zittel. The great collection of fossils which he left at
Munich contains illustrations of the whole story of the evolution of
life through geological ages.
Recent Developments.—The greatest advance now being made in
the study of fossil vertebrate life consists in establishing the lineage
of families, orders, and classes. Investigators have been especially
fortunate in working out the direct line of descent of a number of
living mammals. Fossils have been collected which supply a
panoramic view of the line of descent of horses, of camels, of
rhinoceroses, and of other animals. The most fruitful worker in this
field at the present time is perhaps Henry F. Osborn, of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York City. His profound and
important investigations in the ancestry of animal life are now
nearing the time of their publication in elaborated form.
Palæontology, by treating fossil life and recent life in the same
category, has come to be one of the important lines of investigation
in biology. It is, of course, especially rich in giving us a knowledge of
the hard parts of animals, but by ingenious methods we can arrive
at an idea of some of the soft parts that have completely
disappeared. Molds of the interior of the cranium can be made, and
thus one may form a notion of the relative size and development of
the brain in different vertebrated animals. This method of making
molds and studying them has shown that one characteristic of the
geological time of the tertiary period was a marked development in
regard to the brain size of the different animals. There was
apparently, just prior to the quaternary epoch, a need on the part of
animals to have an increased brain-growth; and one can not doubt
that this feature which is demonstrated by fossil life had a great
influence in the development of higher animal forms.
 Fig. 102.—Karl von Zittel, 1839-1904.
The methods of collecting fossils in the field have been greatly
developed. By means of spreading mucilage and tissue paper over
delicate bones that crumble on exposure to the air, and of wrapping
fossils in plaster casts for transportation, it has been made possible
to uncover and preserve many structures which with a rougher
method of handling would have been lost to science.
Fossil Man.—One extremely interesting section of palæontology
deals with the fossil remains of the supposed ancestors of the
present human race. Geological evidence establishes the great
antiquity of man, but up to the present time little systematic
exploration has been carried on with a view to discover all possible
traces of fossil man. From time to time since 1840 there have been
discovered in caverns and river-gravels bones which, taken together,
constitute an interesting series. The parts of the skull are of especial
importance in this kind of study, and there now exists in different
collections a series containing the Neanderthal skull, the skulls of
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