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Instructor Material
Web Development & Design Foundations with HTML5, 8th Edition
Chapter 10

Hands-On Exercises

1. Student answers will vary. Each student attempts to validate a web page. This

may be a good in-class or small group exercise. If the validation is successful,

the student will print the validation results page.

2. Student answers will vary. Each student attempts to validate a web page using

the WebAim Wave and ATRC A Checker online testing tools. Check the textbook

web site, http://www.webdevfoundations.net for additional resources. The

students write an one-page essay about the testing process and results.

3. Student answers will vary. Each student will run a web page through Web Page

Analyzer. Check the textbook web site, http://www.webdevfoundations.net for

additional resources. The students print the test results and write an one-page

essay with their suggestions for improvement.

4. Student answers will vary. Each student attempts to validate a web page at Dr

Watson. Check the textbook web site, http://www.webdevfoundations.net for

additional resources. The students print the test results and write an one-page

essay with their suggestions for improvement.

5. Student answers will vary. Students complete a small-scale usability test on the
school’s web site.

6. Student answers will vary. Students design and complete a small scale usability
test on two similar web sites.

7. Student answers will vary. Students choose a job role that interests them and
explain why they are suited for that role.

Copyright 2002-2016 Terry A. Felke-Morris Page 1

Instructor Material
Web Development & Design Foundations with HTML5, 8th Edition
Chapter 10

Web Research

Your students' answers to these research assignments will vary, but they should contain
most of the information described below.

1. Research: Web Site Hosts

Students find this assignment to be difficult because the choices are overwhelming. You
might get your students started by mentioning web site hosts that you have found to be
reliable as a starting point in their research. Students will create a web page that
displays an organized presentation of three web host companies and their services. The
URLs of the resources should be listed.

2. Research: Web Jobs

Your students’ answers should vary. Each student should create a web page that
presents the three job positions that interested them. This research often provokes an
interesting class discussion on job hunting, the Internet, and the Information Technology
industry.

Focus on Web Design

Student answers will vary. Each student will write a one-page report that summarizes a
chapter topic and describes four guidelines within that topic.

Copyright 2002-2016 Terry A. Felke-Morris Page 2

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 THE AMERICAN CROW.

Corvus americanus.

PLATE CLVI. Male.

The Crow is an extremely shy bird, having found familiarity with man
no way to his advantage. He is also cunning—at least he is so called,
because he takes care of himself and his brood. The state of anxiety,
I may say of terror, in which he is constantly kept, would be enough
to spoil the temper of any creature. Almost every person has an
antipathy to him, and scarcely one of his race would be left in the
land, did he not employ all his ingenuity, and take advantage of all
his experience, in counteracting the evil machinations of his
enemies. I think I see him perched on the highest branch of a tree,
watching every object around. He observes a man on horseback
travelling towards him; he marks his movements in silence. No gun
does the rider carry,—no, that is clear; but perhaps he has pistols in
the holsters of his saddle!—of that the Crow is not quite sure, as he
cannot either see them or "smell powder." He beats the points of his
wings, jerks his tail once or twice, bows his head, and merrily
sounds the joy which he feels at the moment. Another man he spies
walking across the field towards his stand, but he has only a stick.
Yonder comes a boy shouldering a musket loaded with large shot for
the express purpose of killing crows! The bird immediately sounds
an alarm; he repeats his cries, increasing their vehemence the
nearer his enemy advances. All the crows within half a mile round
are seen flying off, each repeating the well known notes of the trusty
watchman, who, just as the young gunner is about to take aim,
betakes himself to flight. But alas, he chances unwittingly to pass
over a sportsman, whose dexterity is greater; the mischievous
prowler aims his piece, fires;—down towards the earth broken-
winged, falls the luckless bird in an instant. "It is nothing but a
crow," quoth the sportsman, who proceeds in search of game, and
leaves the poor creature to die in the most excruciating agonies.
Wherever within the Union the laws encourage the destruction of
this species, it is shot in great numbers for the sake of the premium
offered for each crow's head. You will perhaps be surprised, reader,
when I tell you that in one single State, in the course of a season,
40,000 were shot, besides the multitudes of young birds killed in
their nests. Must I add to this slaughter other thousands destroyed
by the base artifice of laying poisoned grain along the fields to tempt
these poor birds? Yes, I will tell you of all this too. The natural
feelings of every one who admires the bounty of Nature in providing
abundantly for the subsistence of all her creatures, prompt me to do
so. Like yourself, I admire all her wonderful works, and respect her
wise intentions, even when her laws are far beyond our limited
comprehension.
The Crow devours myriads of grubs every day of the year, that might
lay waste the farmer's fields; it destroys quadrupeds innumerable,
every one of which is an enemy to his poultry and his flocks. Why
then should the farmer be so ungrateful, when he sees such services
rendered to him by a providential friend, as to persecute that friend
even to the death? Unless he plead ignorance, surely he ought to be
found guilty at the bar of common sense. Were the soil of the United
States, like that of some other countries, nearly exhausted by long
continued cultivation, human selfishness in such a matter might be
excused, and our people might look on our Crows, as other people
look on theirs; but every individual in the land is aware of the
superabundance of food that exists among us, and of which a
portion may well be spared for the feathered beings, that tend to
enhance our pleasures by the sweetness of their song, the
innocence of their lives, or their curious habits. Did not every
American open his door and his heart to the wearied traveller, and
afford him food, comfort and rest, I would at once give up the
argument; but when I know by experience the generosity of the
people, I cannot but wish that they would reflect a little, and
become more indulgent toward our poor, humble, harmless, and
even most serviceable bird, the Crow.
The American Crow is common in all parts of the United States. It
becomes gregarious immediately after the breeding season, when it
forms flocks sometimes containing hundreds, or even thousands.
Towards autumn, the individuals bred in the Eastern Districts almost
all remove to the Southern States, where they spend the winter in
vast numbers.
The voice of our Crow is very different from that of the European
species which comes nearest to it in appearance, so much so indeed,
that this circumstance, together with others relating to its
organization, has induced me to distinguish it, as you see, by a
peculiar name, that of Corvus Americanus. I hope you will think me
excusable in this, should my ideas prove to be erroneous, when I tell
you that the Magpie of Europe is assuredly the very same bird as
that met with in the western wilds of the United States, although
some ornithologists have maintained the contrary, and that I am not
disposed to make differences in name where none exist in nature. I
consider our Crow as rather less than the European one, and the
form of its tongue does not resemble that of the latter bird; besides
the Carrion Crow of that country seldom associates in numbers, but
remains in pairs, excepting immediately after it has brought its
young abroad, when the family remains undispersed for some
weeks.
Wherever our Crow is abundant, the Raven is rarely found, and vice
versa. From Kentucky to New Orleans, Ravens are extremely rare,
whereas in that course you find one or more Crows at every half
mile. On the contrary, far up the Missouri, as well as on the coast of
Labrador, few Crows are to be seen, while Ravens are common. I
found the former birds equally scarce in Newfoundland.
Omnivorous like the Raven, our Crow feeds on fruits, seeds, and
vegetables of almost every kind; it is equally fond of snakes, frogs,
lizards, and other small reptiles; it looks upon various species of
worms, grubs and insects as dainties; and if hard pressed by hunger,
it will alight upon and devour even putrid carrion. It is as fond of the
eggs of other birds as is the Cuckoo, and, like the Titmouse, it will,
during a paroxysm of anger, break in the skull of a weak or wounded
bird. It delights in annoying its twilight enemies the Owls, the
Opossum, and the Racoon, and will even follow by day a fox, a wolf,
a panther, or in fact any other carnivorous beast, as if anxious that
man should destroy them for their mutual benefit. It plunders the
fields of their superabundance, and is blamed for so doing, but it is
seldom praised when it chases the thieving Hawk from the poultry-
yard.
The American Crow selects with uncommon care its breeding place.
You may find its nest in the interior of our most dismal swamps, or
on the sides of elevated and precipitous rocks, but almost always as
much concealed from the eye of man as possible. They breed in
almost every portion of the Union, from the Southern Cape of the
Floridas to the extremities of Maine, and probably as far westward
as the Pacific Ocean. The period of nestling varies from February to
the beginning of June, according to the latitude of the place. Its
scarcity on the coast of Labrador, furnishes one of the reasons that
have induced me to believe it different from the Carrion Crow of
Europe; for there I met with several species of birds common to
both countries, which seldom enter the United States farther than
the vicinity of our most eastern boundaries.
The nest, however, greatly resembles that of the European Crow, as
much, in fact, as that of the American Magpie resembles the nest of
the European. It is formed externally of dry sticks, interwoven with
grasses, and is within thickly plastered with mud or clay, and lined
with fibrous roots and feathers. The eggs are from four to six, of a
pale greenish colour, spotted and clouded with a purplish-grey and
brownish-green. In the Southern States they raise two broods in the
season, but to the eastward seldom more than one. Both sexes
incubate, and their parental care and mutual attachment are not
surpassed by those of any other bird. Although the nests of this
species often may be found near each other, their proximity is never
such as occurs in the case of the Fish-Crow, of which many nests
may be seen on the same tree.
When the nest of this species happens to be discovered, the faithful
pair raise such a hue and cry that every Crow in the neighbourhood
immediately comes to their assistance, passing in circles high over
the intruder until he has retired, or following him, if he has robbed
it, as far as their regard for the safety of their own will permit them.
As soon as the young leave the nest, the family associates with
others, and in this manner they remain in flocks till spring. Many
crows' nests may be found within a few acres of the same wood,
and in this particular their habits accord more with those of the
Rooks of Europe (Corvus frugilegus), which, as you very well know,
breed and spend their time in communities. The young of our Crow,
like that of the latter species, are tolerable food when taken a few
days before the period of their leaving the nest.
The flight of the American Crow is swift, protracted, and at times
performed at a great elevation. They are now and then seen to sail
among the Turkey Buzzards or Carrion Crows, in company with their
relatives the Fish-Crows, none of the other birds, however, shewing
the least antipathy towards them, although the Vultures manifest
dislike whenever a White-headed Eagle comes among them.
In the latter part of autumn and in winter, in the Southern States,
this Crow is particularly fond of frequenting burnt grounds. Even
while the fire is raging in one part of the fields, the woods, or the
prairies, where tall grass abounds, the Crows are seen in great
numbers in the other, picking up and devouring the remains of mice
and other small quadrupeds, as well as lizards, snakes, and insects,
which have been partly destroyed by the flames. At the same season
they retire in immense numbers to roost by the margins of ponds,
lakes, and rivers, covered with a luxuriant growth of rank weeds or
cat-tails. They may be seen proceeding to such places more than an
hour before sunset, in long straggling lines, and in silence, and are
joined by the Grakles, Starlings, and Reed Birds, while the Fish-
Crows retire from the very same parts to the interior of the woods
many miles distant from any shores.
No sooner has the horizon brightened at the approach of day, than
the Crows sound a reveillé, and then with mellowed notes, as it
were, engage in a general thanksgiving for the peaceful repose they
have enjoyed. After this they emit their usual barking notes, as if
consulting each other respecting the course they ought to follow.
Then parties in succession fly off to pursue their avocations, and
relieve the reeds from the weight that bent them down.
The Crow is extremely courageous in encountering any of its winged
enemies. Several individuals may frequently be seen pursuing a
Hawk or an Eagle with remarkable vigour, although I never saw or
heard of one pouncing on any bird for the purpose of preying on it.
They now and then teaze the Vultures, when those foul birds are
alighted on trees, with their wings spread out, but they soon desist,
for the Vultures pay no attention to them.
The most remarkable feat of the Crow, is the nicety with which it,
like the Jay, pierces an egg with its bill, in order to carry it off, and
eat it with security. In this manner I have seen it steal, one after
another, all the eggs of a wild Turkey's nest. You will perceive,
reader, that I endeavour to speak of the Crow with all due
impartiality, not wishing by any means to conceal its faults, nor
withholding my testimony to its merits, which are such as I can well
assure the farmer, that were it not for its race, thousands of corn
stalks would every year fall prostrate, in consequence of being cut
over close to the ground by the destructive grubs which are called
"cut-worms."
I never saw a pet Crow in the United States, and therefore cannot
say with how much accuracy they may imitate the human voice, or,
indeed, if they possess the power of imitating it at all, which I very
much doubt, as in their natural state they never evince any talents
for mimicry. I cannot say if it possess the thieving propensities
attributed by authors to the European Crow.
Its gait, while on the ground, is elevated and graceful, its ordinary
mode of progression being a sedate walk, although it occasionally
hops when under excitement. It not unfrequently alights on the
backs of cattle, to pick out the worms lurking in their skin, in the
same manner as the Magpie, Fish-Crow, and Cow-bird. Its note or
cry may be imitated by the syllables cāw, cāw, cāw, being different
from the cry of the European Carrion Crow, and resembling the
distant bark of a small dog.
At Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania I saw a pair of Crows perfectly white,
in the possession of Mr Lampdin, the owner of the museum there,
who assured me that five which were found in the nest were of the
same colour.
I have placed the pensive oppressed Crow of our country on a
beautiful branch of the Black Walnut tree, loaded with nuts, on the
lower twig of which I have represented the delicate nest of our
Common Humming Bird, to fulfil the promise which I made when
writing the history of that species for my first volume.
In conclusion, I would again address our farmers, and tell them that
if they persist in killing Crows, the best season for doing so is when
their corn begins to ripen.

Corvus Americanus.
Corvus corone, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 56.—
Nuttall, Manual, p. 209.—Swains. and Richards. Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p.
291.
The Crow, Corvus corone, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iv. p. 79. pl. 35 fig. 3.

Adult Male. Plate CLVI.

Bill longish, straight, robust, compressed; upper mandible with the
dorsal line a little convex, declinate towards the end, the sides
convex; lower mandible straight, the sides inclined obliquely
outwards; the edges of both sharp and inflected. Nostrils basal,
lateral, round, covered by bristly feathers, which are directed
forwards. Head large, neck of ordinary length, body of moderate
proportions, the whole form rather compact and not inelegant. Legs
of moderate length, strong; tarsus anteriorly scutellate, rather longer
than the middle toe; toes scutellate above, separated almost to the
base; first, second, and fourth nearly equal in length, third longest;
claws moderate, arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage of the back compact, of the head and neck blended, and
glossy, of the lower parts rather loose. Stiff bristly feathers with
disunited barbs over the nostrils, directed forwards and adpressed.
Wings long, first primary short, fourth longest; primaries tapering,
secondaries broad, the outer abrupt with a minute acumen, the
inner rounded. Tail rather long, rounded, of twelve nearly straight,
rounded feathers, their shafts distinctly undulated.
Beak, tarsi, toes and claws, black. Iris brown. The general colour of
the plumage is deep black, with purplish-blue reflections, the hind
parts of the neck tinged with purplish-brown; the lower parts less
glossy.
Length 18 inches, extent of wings 3 feet 2 inches; bill along the
ridge 2 2⁄12; tarsus 2½.

The Female differs from the Male in being less glossy, but the
difference is not very perceptible. The young when fully fledged are
of a rather dull brownish-black, with the blue and purple reflections
much less brilliant.
After a careful comparison of specimens of the European Carrion
Crow with others of the American Crow, I have found decided
differences, which to me seem quite sufficient to set the question of
their identity at rest.
The European Crow is larger than the American; the length of the
former being 20 inches, that of the latter 18; and the wing from the
flexure to the extremity is proportional, being in the one 13¼
inches, in the other 12.
The bill is stronger and deeper, more convex on the sides, and with
the edges more involute in the Carrion Crow than in the American
Crow, the depth at the base in the former being 10⁄12, in the latter
8½
⁄12.
The scutella of the tarsus in both are 10, but the feet of the Carrion
Crow are much stronger and its toes and claws larger than those of
the other. In the European Crow, the fourth primary is longest, the
third almost equal, and this is also the case in the American,
although slight differences occur in individuals.
The principal character besides the different form of the bill, is to be
found in the feathers of the neck. In the European bird, the feathers
of the hind neck are narrow, and although blended, have their points
distinct; while in the American bird, they are broad, rounded, and
perfectly blended, so that their individual form cannot be traced. The
feathers of the fore neck in the former are lanceolate, compact at
the end, and, although shorter, resemble those of the Raven; but in
the American Crow they are three times as broad, rounded, and
entirely blended.
Lastly, the American species has a decided purplish-brown tinge on
the neck, while the European bird has that part glossed with green
and blue.
I am happy on this occasion to have an opportunity of referring you
to an excellent paper, on the specific characters of birds, by Mr
Macgillivray, which you will find in the Transactions of the Wernerian
Natural History Society, and in which he shews the great advantage
that may be derived from attending to the structure and form of the
feathers. The characters by which the American Crow is
distinguished from the European Carrion Crow are an exemplification
of his views, in which I cordially agree:—"Allowing," says he, "only a
partial application of the principle of characterizing the species by
the forms of the feathers, even this would be a matter of
importance; and were the attention of ornithologists directed toward
this point, there can be little doubt that discoveries would quickly be
made, which would determine species and varieties with much
greater precision than can be attained by attending to colour alone."

THE BLACK WALNUT.

Juglans nigra, Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. iv. p. 456. Pursh, Flor. Amer. Sept. vol. ii. p.
636. Mich. Arbr. Forest. vol. i. p. 157. pl. i.—Monœcia Polyandria, Linn.
Terebinthaceæ, Juss.

The Black Walnut of the United States is generally a tree of beautiful

form, and often, especially in the Western and Southern States,
attains a great size. Wherever it is found, you may calculate on the
land being of good quality; the wood is very firm, of a dark brown
tint, veined, and extremely useful for domestic purposes, many
articles of furniture being made of it. It is also employed in ship-
building. When used for posts or fence rails, it resists the action of
the weather for many years. The nuts are gathered late in autumn,
and although rather too oily, are eaten and considered good by
many persons. The husking of them is however a disagreeable task,
as their covering almost indelibly stains every object with which it
comes in contact.
See Vol. I. p. 433.
 THE RUSTY GRAKLE.

Quiscalus ferrugineus, Bonap.

PLATE CLVII. Male, Female, and Young.

In the winter months the Rusty Grakle is found as far south as Lower
Louisiana and the Floridas, which it reaches in small flocks, along
with the Cow Bunting and Red-winged Starling, with which it
continues frequently to associate until the return of spring. At this
season it occurs in all the Southern and Western States, as well as in
the Middle and Eastern Districts, where some remain during the
most severe cold.
These Grakles are fond of the company of cattle, and are seen with
them in the pastures or in the farm-yards, searching for food among
their droppings, and picking up a few grains of the refuse corn. They
are less shy than the other species, possibly because less acquainted
with man, as they retire to the north for the purpose of breeding. In
the winter they frequently resort to moist places, such as are met
with round the ponds and low swampy meadows, where you
sometimes find a single one remaining for weeks apart from its
companions. They then feed on aquatic insects and small snails, for
which they search diligently among the rank reeds or sedges, which
they climb with great agility. Their note is a kind of chuck. It is rare
to meet with them in full plumage at this time, even the old males
becoming rather rusty, instead of being of a pure glossy black, as
they are in spring.
About the beginning of March, the males are seen moving
northwards. They cross the greater part of the United States almost
in silence and unheeded, seldom tarrying any where until they reach
the State of Maine, where some few remain to breed, while the
greater number advance farther north. I saw some of these birds on
the Magdeleine Islands, in Newfoundland, as well as in Labrador,
where many breed. Their migrations are performed by day.
In their habits they resemble the Red-winged Starling, becoming
loquacious at this season, and having a lively and agreeable song,
although less powerful in tone than that of the species just
mentioned. Equally fond of the vicinity of meadows or moist places,
they construct their nests in the low bushes that occur there. The
nest is not so large as that of the Redwing, but is composed of much
the same materials. In Labrador I found it lined with moss instead of
coarse grass. The eggs are four or five, of a light blue colour,
streaked and dashed with straggling lines of brown and deep black,
much smaller than those of the Redwing, but in other respects
bearing a considerable resemblance to them. They begin to lay
about the 1st of June, in the State of Maine, and fully a fortnight
later in Labrador. They raise only one brood in the season. The
young, when first able to fly, are nearly of an uniform brown,
brighter on the breast and shoulders. Although they seem to prefer
alder and willow bushes, for the purpose of incubation, I have found
their nests among the tall reeds of the Cat's-tail or Typha, to which
they were attached by interweaving the leaves of the plant with the
grasses and stripes of bark of which they were externally composed.
During early autumn, and before they remove southward, they
frequently resort to the sandy beaches of lakes, rivers, and the sea,
in search of small testaceous mollusca and aquatic insects. They do
little or no mischief in the corn-fields. While walking they frequently
jerk their tail, and move with much grace, in the same manner as
other birds of the genus. Their flight resembles that of the Red-
winged species.
An acquaintance of mine, residing in New Orleans, found one of
these birds, a beautiful male in full plumage, not far from that city,
while on one of his accustomed walks. It had been shot, but was
only slightly injured in one of its wings, and as it was full of vivacity,
and had a clear and brilliant eye, indicating that its health had not
suffered, he took it home and put it in a cage with several Painted
Buntings. They soon became accustomed to each other, the Grakle
evincing no desire to molest its smaller companions. I saw it when it
had already been caged upwards of four months, and had the
satisfaction to hear it sing repeatedly. Its notes, however, were less
sonorous than they usually are when the birds are at liberty. It
frequently uttered its travelling chuck-note. It was fed entirely on
rice. This was the only specimen I ever saw in captivity, and it
proved a very amiable companion.
I have figured four of these birds, to enable you the better to
understand their different states of plumage, and placed them on a
plant of the genus Prunus, which grows in Louisiana, and on the
berries of which they occasionally feed.

Oriolus ferrugineus, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p. 126.

Quiscalus ferrugineus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p.
55.
Scolecophagus ferrugineus, Rusty Maggot-eater, Swains. and Richards. Fauna
Bor.-Amer. part ii. p. 286.
Rusty Grakle, Gracula ferruginea, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 41. pl. 21. fig. 3.
Male.
Rusty Blackbird, Quiscalus ferrugineus, Nuttall, Manual, p. 199.

Adult Male. Plate CLVII. Fig. 1.

Bill of moderate length, straight, tapering, compressed from the
base; upper mandible prolonged on the forehead, forming an acute
angle there, a little declinate at the tip, the dorsal outline slightly
convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected; lower
mandible nearly straight in its dorsal outline, convex on the sides,
the edges sharp and inflected; gap-line deflected at the base.
Nostrils basal, oval, half closed above by a membrane. Head of
ordinary size, neck rather short, body rather slender. Feet of
moderate length, strong; tarsus compressed, with a few long
scutella anteriorly, sharp behind; toes compressed, the lateral nearly
equal, the outer united as far as the second joint to the middle,
which is much longer, hind-toe not much stouter than the inner;
claws rather long, arched, compressed, very acute.
Plumage soft, blended, glossy. Wings rather long, second quill
longest, first and fourth equal. Tail rather long, slightly rounded, of
twelve broad feathers.
Bill and feet black. Iris pale yellow. The general colour is deep black,
with greenish and bluish reflections.
Length 9¼ inches, extent of wings 14¼; bill along the back ¾,
along the edge 11⁄12; tarsus 1¼.

Adult Female. Plate CLVII. Fig. 2.

Bill, iris, and feet as in the male. The general colour is brownish-
black; the sides of the head over the eyes, and a broad band
beneath it light yellowish-brown, the feathers of the lower parts
more or less margined with brownish.
Length 8 11⁄12 inches, extent of wings 13½.

Young bird fully fledged. Plate CLVII. Fig. 3, 3.

Bill and feet brownish-black. Iris pale yellow. Head and neck light
brown, the rest of the upper parts brownish-black, edged with light
reddish-brown, the rump tinged with grey. A band over the eye, and
the fore part and sides of the neck and breast pale yellowish-brown,
sides tinged with brown, under tail-coverts dusky.
 The Black Haw.

Prunus nigra, Pursh, Flor. Amer. Sept. vol. i. p. 331.—Icosandria Monogynia,

Linn. Rosaceæ, Juss.

Leaves deciduous, ovate, acuminate, unequally serrate, smooth on

both sides; umbels sessile, solitary, few-flowered.
This species of Prunus, which is tolerably abundant in Louisiana, the
only State in which I have observed it, grows along the borders of
the forest, and often attains a height of thirty or more feet. Its
leaves fall at a very early period, but its fruits, which are pleasant to
the taste, remain until after the first frosts, or until devoured by
birds, opossums, squirrels, or racoons.
 THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW, OR AMERICAN
SWIFT.

Cypselus pelasgius, Temm.

PLATE CLVIII. Male, Female, and Nest.

Since our country has furnished thousands of convenient places for

this Swallow to breed in, free from storms, snakes, or quadrupeds, it
has abandoned, with a judgment worthy of remark, its former
abodes in the hollows of trees, and taken possession of the
chimneys, which emit no smoke in the summer season. For this
reason, no doubt, it has obtained the name by which it is generally
known. I well remember the time when, in Lower Kentucky, Indiana,
and Illinois, many resorted to excavated branches and trunks, for
the purpose of breeding; nay, so strong is the influence of original
habit, that not a few still betake themselves to such places, not only
to roost, but also to breed, especially in those wild portions of our
country that can scarcely be said to be inhabited. In such instances,
they appear to be as nice in the choice of a tree, as they generally
are in our cities in the choice of a chimney, wherein to roost, before
they leave us. Sycamores of gigantic growth, and having a mere
shell of bark and wood to support them, seem to suit them best, and
wherever I have met with one of those patriarchs of the forest
rendered habitable by decay, there I have found the Swallows
breeding in spring and summer, and afterwards roosting until the
time of their departure. I had a tree of this kind cut down, which
contained about thirty of their nests in its trunk, and one in each of
the hollow branches.
The nest, whether placed in a tree or chimney, consists of small dry
twigs, which are procured by the birds in a singular manner. While
on wing, the Chimney Swallows are seen in great numbers whirling
round the tops of some decayed or dead tree, as if in pursuit of their
insect prey. Their movements at this time are extremely rapid; they
throw their body suddenly against the twig, grapple it with their feet,
and by an instantaneous jerk, snap it off short, and proceed with it
to the place intended for the nest. The Frigate Pelican sometimes
employs the same method for a similar purpose, carrying away the
stick in its bill, in place of holding it with its feet.
The Swallow fixes the first sticks on the wood, the rock, or the
chimney wall, by means of its saliva, arranging them in a
semicircular form, crossing and interweaving them, so as to extend
the framework outwards. The whole is afterwards glued together
with saliva, which is spread around it for an inch or more, to fasten it
securely. When the nest is in a chimney, it is generally placed on the
east side, and is from five to eight feet from the entrance; but in the
hollow of a tree, where only they breed in communities, it is placed
high or low according to convenience. The fabric, which is very frail,
now and then gives way, either under the pressure of the parents
and young, or during sudden bursts of heavy rain, when the whole is
dashed to the ground. The eggs are from four to six, and of a pure
white colour. Two broods are raised in the season.
The flight of this species is performed somewhat in the manner of
the European Swift, but in a more hurried although continued style,
and generally by repeated flappings, unless when courtship is going
on, on which occasion it is frequently seen sailing with its wings
fixed as it were, both sexes as they glide through the air issuing a
shrill rattling twitter, and the female receiving the caresses of the
male. At other times it is seen ranging far and wide at a considerable
elevation over the forests and cities; again, in wet weather, it flies
close over the ground; and anon it skims the water, to drink and
bathe. When about to descend into a hollow tree or a chimney, its
flight, always rapid, is suddenly interrupted as if by magic, for down
it goes in an instant, whirling in a peculiar manner, and whirring with
its wings, so as to produce a sound in the chimney like the rumbling
of very distant thunder. They never alight on trees or on the ground.
If one is caught and placed on the latter, it can only move in a very
awkward fashion. I believe that the old birds sometimes fly at night,
and have reason to think that the young are fed at such times, as I
have heard the whirring sound of the former, and the acknowledging
cries of the latter, during calm and clear nights.
When the young accidentally fall, which sometimes happens,
although the nest should remain, they scramble up again, by means
of their sharp claws, lifting one foot after another, in the manner of
young Wood Ducks, and supporting themselves with their tail. Some
days before the young are able to fly, they scramble up the walls to
near the mouth of the chimney, where they are fed. Any observer
may discover this, as he sees the parents passing close over them,
without entering the funnel. The same occurrence takes place when
they are bred in a tree.
In the cities, these birds make choice of a particular chimney for
their roosting place, where, early in spring, before they have begun
building, both sexes resort in multitudes, from an hour or more
before sunset, until long after dark. Before entering the aperture,
they fly round and over it many times, but finally go in one at a
time, until hurried by the lateness of the hour, several drop in
together. They cling to the wall with their claws, supporting
themselves also by their sharp tail, until the dawn, when, with a
roaring sound, the whole pass out almost at once. Whilst at St
Francisville in Louisiana, I took the trouble of counting how many
entered one chimney before dark. I sat at a window not far from the
spot, and reckoned upwards of a thousand, having missed a
considerable number. The place at that time contained about a
hundred houses, and no doubt existed in my mind that the greater
number of these birds were on their way southward, and had merely
stopped there for the night.
Immediately after my arrival at Louisville, in the State of Kentucky, I
became acquainted with the hospitable and amiable Major William
Croghan and his family. While talking one day about birds, he asked
me if I had seen the trees in which the Swallows were supposed to
spend the winter, but which they only entered, he said, for the
purpose of roosting. Answering in the affirmative, I was informed
that on my way back to town, there was a tree remarkable on
account of the immense numbers that resorted to it, and the place
in which it stood was described to me. I found it to be a sycamore,
nearly destitute of branches, sixty or seventy feet high, between
seven and eight feet in diameter at the base, and about five for the
distance of forty feet up, where the stump of a broken hollowed
branch, about two feet in diameter, made out from the main stem.
This was the place at which the Swallows entered. On closely
examining the tree, I found it hard, but hollow to near the roots. It
was now about four o'clock after noon, in the month of July.
Swallows were flying over Jeffersonville, Louisville, and the woods
around, but there were none near the tree. I proceeded home, and
shortly after returned on foot. The sun was going down behind the
Silver Hills; the evening was beautiful; thousands of Swallows were
flying closely above me, and three or four at a time were pitching
into the hole, like bees hurrying into their hive. I remained, my head
leaning on the tree, listening to the roaring noise made within by the
birds as they settled and arranged themselves, until it was quite
dark, when I left the place, although I was convinced that many
more had to enter. I did not pretend to count them, for the number
was too great, and the birds rushed to the entrance so thick as to
baffle the attempt. I had scarcely returned to Louisville, when a
violent thunder-storm passed suddenly over the town, and its
appearance made me think that the hurry of the Swallows to enter
the tree was caused by their anxiety to avoid it. I thought of the
Swallows almost the whole night, so anxious had I become to
ascertain their number, before the time of their departure should
arrive.
Next morning I rose early enough to reach the place long before the
least appearance of daylight, and placed my head against the tree.
All was silent within. I remained in that posture probably twenty
minutes, when suddenly I thought the great tree was giving way,
and coming down upon me. Instinctively I sprung from it, but when
I looked up to it again, what was my astonishment to see it standing
as firm as ever. The Swallows were now pouring out in a black
continued stream. I ran back to my post, and listened in amazement
to the noise within, which I could compare to nothing else than the
sound of a large wheel revolving under a powerful stream. It was yet
dusky, so that I could hardly see the hour on my watch, but I
estimated the time which they took in getting out at more than thirty
minutes. After their departure, no noise was heard within, and they
dispersed in every direction with the quickness of thought.
I immediately formed the project of examining the interior of the
tree, which, as my kind friend, Major Croghan, had told me, proved
the most remarkable I had ever met with. This I did, in company
with a hunting associate. We went provided with a strong line and a
rope, the first of which we, after several trials, succeeded in
throwing across the broken branch. Fastening the rope to the line
we drew it up, and pulled it over until it reached the ground again.
Provided with the longest cane we could find, I mounted the tree by
the rope, without accident, and at length seated myself at ease on
the broken branch; but my labour was fruitless, for I could see
nothing through the hole, and the cane, which was about fifteen feet
long, touched nothing on the sides of the tree within that could give
any information. I came down fatigued and disappointed.
The next day I hired a man, who cut a hole at the base of the tree.
The shell was only eight or nine inches thick, and the axe soon
brought the inside to view, disclosing a matted mass of exuviæ, with
rotten feathers reduced to a kind of mould, in which, however, I
could perceive fragments of insects and quills. I had a passage
cleared, or rather bored through this mass, for nearly six feet. This
operation took up a good deal of time, and knowing by experience
that if the birds should notice the hole below, they would abandon
the tree, I had it carefully closed. The Swallows came as usual that
night, and I did not disturb them for several days. At last, provided
with a dark lantern, I went with my companion about nine in the
evening, determined to have a full view of the interior of the tree.
The hole was opened with caution. I scrambled up the sides of the
mass of exuviæ, and my friend followed. All was perfectly silent.
Slowly and gradually I brought the light of the lantern to bear on the
sides of the hole above us, when we saw the Swallows clinging side
by side, covering the whole surface of the excavation. In no instance
did I see one above another. Satisfied with the sight, I closed the
lantern. We then caught and killed with as much care as possible
more than a hundred, stowing them away in our pockets and
bosoms, and slid down into the open air. We observed that, while on
this visit, not a bird had dropped its dung upon us. Closing the
entrance, we marched towards Louisville perfectly elated. On
examining the birds which we had procured, a hundred and fifteen
in number, we found only six females. Eighty-seven were adult
males; of the remaining twenty-two the sex could not be
ascertained, and I had no doubt that they were young of that year's
first brood, the flesh and quill-feathers being tender and soft.
Let us now make a rough calculation of the number that clung to the
tree. The space beginning at the pile of feathers and moulded
exuviæ, and ending at the entrance of the hole above, might be fully
25 feet in height, with a breadth of 15 feet, supposing the tree to be
5 feet in diameter at an average. There would thus be 375 feet
square of surface. Each square foot, allowing a bird to cover a space
of 3 inches by 1½, which is more than enough, judging from the
manner in which they were packed, would contain 32 birds. The
number of Swallows, therefore, that roosted in this single tree was
9000.
I watched the motions of the Swallows, and when the young birds
that had been reared in the chimneys of Louisville, Jeffersonville,
and the houses of the neighbourhood, or the trees suited for the
purpose, had left their native recesses, I visited the tree on the 2d
day of August. I concluded that the numbers resorting to it had not
increased; but I found many more females and young than males,
among upwards of fifty, which were caught and opened. Day after
day I watched the tree. On the 13th of August, not more than two
or three hundred came there to roost. On the 18th of the same
month, not one did I see near it, and only a few scattered individuals
were passing, as if moving southward. In September I entered the
tree at night, but not a bird was in it. Once more I went to it in
February, when the weather was very cold; and perfectly satisfied
that all these Swallows had left our country, I finally closed the
entrance, and left off visiting it.
May arrived, bringing with its vernal warmth the wanderers of the
air, and I saw their number daily augmenting, as they resorted to
the tree to roost. About the beginning of June, I took it in my head
to close the aperture above, with a bundle of straw, which with a
string I could draw off whenever I might chuse. The result was
curious enough; the birds as usual came to the tree towards night;
they assembled, passed and repassed, with apparent discomfort,
until I perceived many flying off to a great distance, on which I
removed the straw, when many entered the hole, and continued to
do so until I could no longer see them from the ground.
I left Louisville, having removed my residence to Henderson, and did
not see the tree until five years after, when I still found the Swallows
resorting to it. The pieces of wood with which I had closed the
entrance had rotted, or had been carried off, and the hole was again
completely filled with exuviæ and mould. During a severe storm,
their ancient tenement at length gave way, and came to the ground.
General WIlliam Clark assured me that he saw this species on the
whole of his route to the Pacific, and there can be no doubt that in
those wilds it still breeds in trees or rocky caverns.
Its food consists entirely of insects, the pellets composed of the
indigestible parts of which it disgorges. It is, furnished with glands
which supply the unctuous matter with which it fastens its nest.
This species does not appear to extend its migrations farther east
than the British provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It is
unknown in Newfoundland and Labrador; nor was it until the 29th of
May that I saw some at Eastport in Maine, where a few breed.

Hirundo pelasgia, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 345.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
581.
Cypselus pelasgius, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 63.
Chimney Swallow, Hirundo pelasgia, Wils. Amer. Ornith, vol. v. p. 48. pl. 39. fig.
1.—Nuttall, Manual, p. 609.

Adult Male. Plate CLVIII. Fig. 1.

Bill extremely short, very broad at the base, with a very wide rictus,
compressed towards the tip; upper mandible bent towards the end,
the sides convex, the sharp edges inflected and having an indistinct
sinus near the tip; lower mandible nearly straight; gap line slightly
arched. Nostrils basal, approximate, oblong. Head large and
depressed, neck short, body slender. Feet extremely short and weak;
tarsus rounded, destitute of scutella; toes extremely short, the three
anterior nearly equal, each with only two joints, hind toe puny, with
a much smaller claw; claws strong, shortish, compressed, arched,
very acute.
Plumage short, compact, rather blended, slightly glossed; wings
extremely elongated, falciform, quills narrow with excessively strong
shafts, the first longest. Tail of ten feathers, very short, slightly
rounded, the shaft of extraordinary strength, and projecting beyond
the webs in the form of a stiff prickle.
Bill black. Iris black. Feet dusky, with black claws. The general colour
is brownish-black, lighter on the rump, and with slight greenish
reflections on the head and back; the throat greyish-white, gradually
shaded into the greyish-brown colour of the under parts, which have
a peculiar grey and greenish lustre; the space from the eye to the
bill black; a greyish-white line over the eye.
Length 4¾ inches, extent of wings 12; bill along the back 2⁄12, along
the edge 7⁄12; tarsus 5⁄12.

Adult Female. Plate CLVIII. Fig. 2.

The Female is similar to the male.
Two views of the nest are also given in the plate.
 THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK.

Fringilla cardinalis, Bonap.

PLATE CLIX. Male and Female.

In richness of plumage, elegance of motion, and strength of song,

this species surpasses all its kindred in the United States. It is known
by the names of Red Bird, Virginia Nightingale, Cardinal Bird, and
that at the head of the present article. It is very abundant in all our
Southern States, as well as in the peninsula of the Floridas. In the
western country a great number are found as far up on the Ohio as
the city of Cincinnati, and they extend to considerable distances into
Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. They are found in the maritime
districts of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where they breed, and
where a few remain the whole year; some are also seen in the State
of New York, and now and then a straggler proceeds into
Massachusetts; but farther eastward this species has never been
observed.
This fine songster relishes the interior of the forest, and the heart of
the deepest cane-brakes or retired swamps, as well as the
neighbourhood of cities. It is constantly found in our fields, orchards
and gardens; nay, it often enters the very streets of our southern
towns and villages to breed; and it is rare that one goes into a
planter's yard without observing the Red Bird skipping about the
trees or on the turf beneath them. Go where it may, it is always
welcome, and every where a favourite, so rich is its song, and so
brilliant its plumage.
The Cardinal Bird breeds in the Floridas. In the beginning of March I
found them already paired in that country, and on the 8th of
February near General Hernandez's. In the neighbourhood of
Charleston, as well as in Louisiana, they are nearly a month later,
and much the same lapse of time takes place again before they form
a nest in the State of New Jersey or in that of Kentucky.
The nest is placed, apparently without much consideration, in some
low briar, bush, or tree, often near the fence, the middle of a field,
or the interior of a thicket, not far from a cooling stream, to which
they are fond of resorting, for the purpose of drinking and bathing.
Sometimes you find it placed close to the planter's house or in his
garden, a few yards from that of the Mocking Bird or the Thrasher. It
is composed of dry leaves and twigs, together with a large
proportion of dry grass and slips of grape-vines, and is finished
within with bent-grass, wrought in a circular form. The eggs are
from four to six, of a dull white colour, marked all over with touches
of olive-brown.
In the Southern Districts they now and then raise three broods in
the season, but in the Middle States seldom more than one. The
young on leaving the nest, frequently follow their parents on the
ground for several days, after which they disperse and seek for food
apart. During the pairing season, the males are so pugnacious, that
although they breed near birds of other species, they never allow
one of their own to nestle in their vicinity. One male may be seen
following another from bush to bush, emitting a shrill note of anger,
and diving towards the fugitive antagonist whenever an opportunity
offers, until the latter has escaped quite beyond his jurisdiction,
when the conqueror, elated, returns to his grounds, ascends his
favourite tree, and pours out his song in full exultation.
Those which migrate to the eastward begin to move about the
commencement of March, usually in the company of the Towhe
Bunting and other Sparrows, hopping and passing from bush to bush
during the whole day, announcing to the traveller and husbandman
the approach of a more genial season, and resting at night in the
secluded swamps. The males precede the females about ten days.
Towards autumn they frequently ascend to the tops of tall trees in
search of grapes and berries, being as fond of succulent or pulpy
fruits as they are of the seeds of corn and grasses. On the least
appearance of danger they at once glide into the interior of the
nearest thickets. During the summer heats they frequently resort to
sandy roads to dust themselves, carelessly suffering people to
approach them until within a few yards, when they only remove to
the nearest bushes, until the intruders pass.
They are easily raised when taken from the nest, and breed when
kept in aviaries. My friend Dr Samuel Wilson of Charleston, has had
them breeding with him, having placed straw-baskets for the
purpose, in which the female deposited her eggs, without improving
the nest any more than by placing in it a few grass blades, perhaps
pilfered from some of her neighbours. The purity of its colouring is
soon lost when it is kept in confinement, where it is gentle, easily
fed on corn or hemp-seed, and it sings when placed in a cage for
several months in the year.
During winter the Cardinal Grosbeak frequently shews itself in the
farm-yard, among Turtle-Doves, Jays, Mocking-Birds, and various
species of Sparrows, picking up its food from the store daily supplied
to the poultry. It now and then seeks refuge at night in the lee of
some hay-stack, or throws itself with many other birds among the
thickest branches of the nearest evergreen tree.
The flight of this species is strong and rapid, although seldom
continued to any great distance. It is performed by glidings and jerks
of the tail. When the bird is alighted it also frequently juts its tail
with grace. Like all birds of the genus it hops, but does not walk.
Its song is at first loud and clear, resembling the finest sounds
produced by the flageolet, and gradually descends into more marked
and continued cadences, until it dies away in the air around. During
the love-season the song is emitted with increased emphasis by this
proud musician, who, as if aware of his powers, swells his throat,
spreads his rosy tail, droops his wings, and leans alternately to the
right and left, as if on the eve of expiring with delight at the
delicious sounds of his own voice. Again and again are those
melodies repeated, the bird resting only at intervals to breathe. They
may be heard from long before the sun gilds the eastern horizon, to
the period when the blazing orb pours down its noonday floods of
heat and light, driving the birds to the coverts to seek repose for a
while. Nature again invigorated, the musician recommences his
song, when, as if he had never strained his throat before, he makes
the whole neighbourhood resound, nor ceases until the shades of
evening close around him. Day after day the song of the Red Bird
beguiles the weariness of his mate as she assiduously warms her
eggs; and at times she also assists with the modesty of her gentler
sex. Few individuals of our own race refuse their homage of
admiration to the sweet songster. How pleasing is it, when, by a
clouded sky, the woods are rendered so dark, that were it not for an
occasional glimpse of clearer light falling between the trees, you
might imagine night at hand, while you are yet far distant from your
home—how pleasing to have your ear suddenly saluted by the well
known notes of this favourite bird, assuring you of peace around,
and of the full hour that still remains for you to pursue your walk in
security! How often have I enjoyed this pleasure, and how often, in
due humbleness of hope, do I trust that I may enjoy it again!
I have represented a pair of these beautiful birds on a branch of the
Wild Olive.

Fringilla cardinalis, Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p.

113.
Cardinal Grosbeak, Loxia cardinalis, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 38. pl. 2. fig.
1. Male; fig. 2. Female.—Nuttall, Manual, p. 519.

Adult Male. Plate CLIX. Fig. 1.

Bill short, very robust, conical, acute, deeper than broad at the base;
upper mandible with its dorsal outline a little convex, the sides
rounded, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip slightly declinate;
lower mandible broader than the upper, with its dorsal line straight,
the back broad, the sides rounded, the edges inflected; the gap-line
deflected at the base. Nostrils basal, roundish, concealed by the
feathers. Head large, neck short, body robust. Legs of moderate
length, rather strong; tarsus compressed, anteriorly covered with a
few scutella, posteriorly sharp; toes scutellate above, free, the lateral
ones nearly equal; claws slender, arched, compressed, acute, that of
the hind toe considerably larger.
Plumage soft and blended, slightly glossed. Wings of moderate
length, broad, much rounded, the fourth quill longest; primaries
rather broad, rounded, from the second to the sixth slightly cut out
on the outer web, secondaries rather narrow and rounded. Tail long,
straight, rounded. Feathers of the crown long, pointed, and erectile.
Bill of a tint approaching to coral-red. Iris dark hazel. Feet pale
umber. The whole upper parts of a deep dusky-red, excepting the
head which is vermillion. The anterior part of the forehead, the lores,
and the upper anterior part of the neck, black. The under parts are
vermillion, which is brightest anteriorly. Inner webs of the quills light
brown, their shafts and those of the tail-feathers blackish-brown.
Length 8¼ inches, extent of wings 11½; bill along the back 7⁄12,
along the edge ¾; tarsus 1½⁄12.

Adult Female. Plate CLIX. Fig. 2.

The female has a crest as well as the male, which it resembles in the
texture of its plumage, but the tail is proportionally shorter. The
general colour of the upper parts is dull greyish-brown slightly tinged
with olive; the longer crest-feathers are streaked with dull red, the
wings, coverts, and outer edges of the quills, are of the same tint;
the edge of the wings and the lower coverts are pale vermillion, and
the inner edges of the quills are of the same tint, but paler. The
parts surrounding the base of the bill, which are black in the male,
are blackish-grey, and the lower parts in general are pale greyish-
brown.
Length 7½ inches.

The Wild Almond.

Prunus caroliniana, Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. ii. p. 987. Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. vol. i. p.
330.—Icosandria Monogynia, Linn. Rosaceæ, Juss.

Flowers in racemes; leaves evergreen, oblong-lanceolate,

mucronate, serrate, without glands at the base. The Wild Almond is
altogether a southern tree. Its height now and then is as much as
twenty-five feet, the stem in that case being a foot or more in
diameter. The usual rounded form of its top, and the persistence of
its foliage, together with its white flowers, and dark coloured fruits,
render it a very agreeable object. Many are planted around the
plantation grounds or the gardens of our southern cities, on account
of their beautiful appearance. The fruits are greedily devoured by
many species of birds, but are unpalatable to man. I have not
observed it to the east of Virginia, nor farther west than the town of
Memphis on the Mississippi. The wood is seldom applied to any
useful purpose.
 THE CAROLINA TITMOUSE.

Parus Carolinensis.
PLATE CLX. Male and Female.

It was not until some time after my drawing of this small southern
species of Titmouse had been engraved and distributed among my
patrons, that I discovered the difference as to size and habits
between it and the one which inhabits the Middle and Northern
States, and which has been so well described by Wilson, Nuttall and
Swainson. Indeed, I never was struck with the difference of size until
I reached Eastport in the State of Maine, early in May 1833, when
one morning my friend Lieutenant Green of the United States army
entered my room and shewed me a Titmouse which he had just
procured. The large size of his bird, compared with those met with in
the south, instantly struck me.
On my return from Labrador, I immediately proceeded to Charleston
in South Carolina, with a view of once more visiting the western
portions of the Floridas and the whole coast of the Gulf of Mexico. In
the course of conversation with my friend, the Reverend John
Bachman, I mentioned my ideas on the subject of Titmice, when he
immediately told me that he had for some time been of the same
mind. We both went to the woods, and procured some specimens. I
wrote to several persons of my acquaintance in Massachusetts,
Maine, and Maryland, and before a month had elapsed, I received an
abundant supply of the Northern species, preserved in spirits, from
my friend John Bethune of Boston, Lieutenant Green, and Colonel