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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
usually sewn with an over-and-over stitch that runs square with the seam
outside and diagonally to it inside the bark. (The harness stitch was used here
by some tribes, as were many forms of the cross-stitch.) The ends of the
canoe and the gores have already been sewn during an earlier stage of the
building process.
Once the sides are pieced out, the bark is ready to be turned up and around
the gunwale frame and clamped perpendicularly. To effect this, small stakes
are made by halving saplings, so that each half is about a half inch thick. The
butt of each half is cut chisel-shaped, with the bevel on the flat side; the
rounded face is smoothed off, and it may be tapered toward the head of the
stake. Between two of the slashes a length of bark is now brought up against
the outer stakes; against the bark the small, inside stake is placed with the
round face of the chisel-pointed butt wedged against the outer face of the
gunwale. The top is then levered against the outside stake, so that the flat
face of each clamps the bark in place. The top of the inner stake is then
bound to the outer.
 Figure 39
Cross Section of canoe on building bed during third
stage of construction (above) and fourth stage.
(Sketch by Adney.)
In setting the inside stakes, care is taken that their points do not pierce the
bark. No inside stakes are required at the ends, as here the outside stakes are
so close together in opposing pairs as to hold the bark in a sharp fold along
the centerline of the cover. This of course is also true of the stakes beyond
the ends of the gunwales.
After a few lengths of bark have been thus secured, they are faired between
the stakes by inserting thin strips of split sapling, or battens of wood or root,
along each side of the bark, under the inside and outside stakes. These
battens are placed about halfway up the upturned bark. Some builders used
long wooden battens, as this gave a very fair side when enough lengths were
secured upright; others got the same results with short battens, the ends of
which were overlapped between a pair of stakes on each side.

Figure 40
Multiple Cross Section through one side of a canoe on the
building bed: at the headboard, middle, first, and second
 thwarts. Gunwale is raised and supported on sheering
posts set under thwarts. Crown of the building bed is
shown by varying heights of bottoms of the four sections.
When the bark has been turned up and clamped, the gores may be trimmed
to allow it to be sewn with edge-to-edge seams at each slash. This is usually
done after the sides are faired, by moving the battens up and down as the
cuts are made, then replacing them in their original position. The gores or
slashes, if overlapped, are not usually sewn at this stage of construction.
With the inside stakes in place, the longitudinal battens secured, and the
gores cut or the overlaps properly arranged, all is ready for sheering the
gunwales. First the weights are removed from the gunwale frame so that it
can be lifted. If the inside stakes have been properly made and fitted this can
be done without disturbing the sides, though the ties across each pair of
outside stakes may have to be slacked off somewhat. Before lifting the frame,
some short posts, usually of sapling or of waste from splitting out the
gunwales and thwarts, are cut in lengths determined by the measuring stick
or from memory, one for each end of each thwart, and one for each end of
the gunwale frame. Those under the middle thwart ends in this canoe are 7½
inches long, those under the next thwarts out from the middle will be 9
inches, those under the end thwarts will be 12 inches, and those at the
gunwale ends will be 17 inches long. These posts, cut with squared butts, are
laid alongside the bed. The gunwale frame is now lifted and the pair of posts
to go under the middle thwart are stepped on the bark cover, the gunwale is
lowered onto them, and while the frame and posts are held steady, stones are
laid on a plank over the middle thwart. Next, the ends of the gunwales are
held and lifted so that a pair of posts can be placed at the thwarts next out
from the middle. More weights are placed over these, the operation is
repeated for the end thwarts and, finally at the gunwale ends, so that the
gunwales now stand on posts on the bark cover, sprung to the correct fore-
and-aft sheer and steadied by the bearing of the outside of the gunwale
frame on the rounded faces of the inside stakes. Now the sheer has been
established and the depth of the canoe is approximated.
Figure 41
Fourth Stage of Canoe Construction: bark cover has been shaped and all
stakes placed. The gunwales have been raised to sheer height; "A"
indicates the sticks which fix the sheer of the gunwales; "B" indicates
blocks placed under ends to form rocker. Side panels are shown in
place, and cover is being sewn to gunwales. (Sketch by Adney.)
To protect the bark cover from the thrust of the weights used to ballast the
frame, some builders inserted small bark or wood shields for padding under
the heels of the posts. By some tribes the posts were notched on one face, to
fit inside the gunwales near the thwarts, and there were also other ways of
assembling the gunwales themselves.
It should be apparent that the operations just described would serve only for
canoes in which the sheer had a gentle, fair sweep. For canoes in which the
sheer turned up sharply at the ends, the gunwale members might have to be
split into laminations and prebent to the required sheer before being
assembled into the gunwale frame. To accomplish this, the laminations were
scalded with boiling water until saturated and then the gunwale members
were staked out on the ground or tied with cords to set the wood in the
desired curves as it dried out. The laminations were then wrapped with cord
and the gunwale was ready to assemble. To produce a hogged sheer, the
gunwales were made of green spruce and then staked out to season in the
form desired; a hogged sheer was also formed by steaming or boiling the
gunwale members at midlength.
The canoe, as now erected on the building bed, has a double-ended, flat-
bottomed, wall-sided form. The gunwales are sprung to the proper breadth
and sheer, and the bark is standing irregularly above them. At this point, on
canoes not having outwales, the bark cover was laced or lashed to the
gunwales. Since the Malecite canoe has outwales, these are now made and
fitted. They consist of two white cedar battens about 19½ feet long, perhaps
1 inch wide, and ½ inch thick. The face that will be the outboard side is
usually somewhat rounded, as are all the corners, and the corner that will be
on the inside and bottom of each batten when it is in place is somewhat
beveled. The outwales are placed between the bark and the outside stakes,
the inside stakes being removed one by one as this is done. The removal of
the inside stakes allows room for the outwale to be inserted in their place,
between the outside stakes and the inner gunwale face, and it allows the bark
to be brought against the outside face of the inner gunwales. In the process
of fitting the outwales, the battens along the sides may have to be removed
and replaced, or shifted, and the cross-ties of each pair of outside stakes may
require adjustment. Beginning at midlength, the outwale is pegged through
the bark cover to the inner gunwales at intervals of 6 to 9 inches. The
pegging is not carried much beyond the end thwarts in any canoe and could
not be in canoes having laminated gunwales near the ends.
The Malecite canoe has bark covers over the ends of the inner gunwales, and
these are now fitted so that they can be passed under the outwales and
clamped in place. The ends of the outwales are forced inside the stakes at
and beyond the ends of the gunwales, assuming a pinched-in appearance
there, and they may reach a few inches beyond the ends of the bark cover;
they will be cut and shaped to the length of the finished canoe later.
The outwale pegs are made by splitting from a balk of birch, larch, or fir
roughly squared dowels about ¼ inch square and 6 to 9 inches long. Each
dowel is then tapered and rounded each way from the middle to form two
shanks that are between ⅛ and 3⁄16 inch in diameter over 2 to 3 inches of
length. The ends may be sharpened by fire. The dowels are then cut in two,
providing a pair of pegs with large heads. These are driven in holes drilled
through the outwales, bark cover, and gunwales, and when well home, the
protruding ends are cut off flush. Toward the ends of the gunwales, the
spaces between the pegs increase, and at the extreme ends, the outwale will
be lashed to the gunwale by widely spaced groupings of root strand. These
are usually temporary, as the final lashing of the bark to the gunwales will
secure the outwales.
After the outwales are secured in place, the bark is fastened to the assembled
gunwales with group lashings. In the Malecite canoe being built, these are
independent, each grouping consisting of eight to ten complete turns of the
root strand. The intervals between, roughly 2 inches, are usually spaced by
means of a special measuring-stick to insure evenness. Before the lashing is
actually begun, however, the excess bark standing above the gunwales is cut
away. The bark either is trimmed flush with the top of the gunwale, or enough
is left for a flap that will fully cover the top of the inner gunwale, to be turned
down under the lashing. The latter method, the stronger, was used by many
builders. In making the turns in the group lashings, two or three turns may be
taken through a single hole in the bark; the Malecites did this to avoid having
the holes too close together. The result is that the group when seen from
outboard appears as a W-form, with only two or three holes in the bark for an
entire group. Care is taken to lay up the turns over the gunwales neatly, turn
against turn without open spacing or overlaps and crossings.
When this is completed, the ends of the thwarts can be lashed, the strand
passing through the holes in the shoulders, around the two gunwale
members, and through one or two holes in the bark cover. The groupings for
the bark cover are spaced so that these lashings do not overlap them, and
thus the lashings serve a dual purpose.
Next, the gores are usually sewn and the ends of the side panels closed. To
do this, the temporary side battens outside the bark are removed. Since this is
a Malecite canoe, the gores are sewn edge-to-edge with an over-and-over
stitch, the strand crossing the seam square outside and diagonally inside.
When these seams and those remaining in the upper panels are sewn, the
rather stiff bark holds the shape formed on the building bed to a remarkable
degree.
The canoe can now be raised from the building bed. To set it up at a most
convenient working height, the weights are first removed from the gunwales
and the remaining stakes are pulled up. The canoe is then lifted from its bed
and turned upside down over a couple of logs, or crude horses. Traditionally,
logs or sapling were rested across two pairs of boulders or the logs were tied
between two pairs of trees at convenient distances apart. More recently,
horses, formed by sticking four legs into auger holes drilled in the bottom of a
4-foot length of timber, were used. After the canoe is on its supports the ends
are ready to be closed in.
The stem-pieces customarily used by the Malecite builder are formed from
two clear white cedar billets a full 36 inches long and in the rough nearly 1½
inches square. The billets are first shaped so that the outboard face of each
stem-piece is about ¾ inch wide, making it a truncated triangle in cross-
section. Then, along lines parallel to the base of the truncated triangle, it is
split into six laminations which are carried to within 6 or 7 inches of the end
selected to be the heel of the stem-piece. Just clear of the laminations a
notch is cut into the top side of the heel, to hold the headboard, as will be
seen. The piece is then treated with boiling water until the laminations are
flexible, and the curve of the stem-piece can be formed and either pegged out
or tied with cords until it dries in the desired shape. When dry the laminations
are tightly wrapped with basswood bark cord, leaving the form of the stem-
piece a quarter arc of a circle, with short tangents at each end, as shown in
the illustration (p. 35).

Figure 42
Fifth Stage of Canoe Construction: canoe is removed from building bed
and set on horse in order to shape ends and complete sewing. Bark
cover has dried out in a flat-bottomed and wall-sided form. (Sketch
by Adney.)
Next, the ends of the outwales are cut to a length determined by the quality
of the bark already in place; if the bark in one end is not very good, it may be
cut away somewhat and the canoe made shorter by this amount at both ends
in finishing. After the ends of the outwales have been cut, both are notched
on the inside at the extreme ends to take the head of the stem-piece. The
outwales may or may not project ¼ or ½ inch beyond the stem and the stem
head may project ½ or 1 inch above the top of the outwales of the canoe;
these matters, at the builder's option, decide the length of the notch and the
fitting of the stem-pieces.
The stem-piece is now placed between the folded bark end of the canoe with
the heel resting for a small distance along its length on the bark bottom; the
head must come to the right height above the outwales, as noted. While one
worker holds the stem-piece in place, another trims away the excess bark at
the end to the profile of the outboard face of the stem-piece. Thus the profile
of each end is cut and the rake of the ends is established. The bark is next
lashed to the stem-piece. In this canoe it is done with a spiral over-and-over
stitch, a batten made of a large split root being placed over the edges of the
bark, as the lashing proceeds, to form a stem band. The turns pass
alternately from outboard around the inboard face of the stem-piece and
through it; the awl inserted in the laminations from one side opens them
enough to allow the strand to be forced through. Care is taken to pull up the
strand very hard each time. As the outwale is approached, the bark is cut
away at the notching in each so that the outwales can be brought snugly
against the sides of the stem-piece. Here the strand is brought up one or two
times over the outwales, abaft the stem head, before the bitter end is tucked,
thus locking the outwales to the stem-piece and the bark. Then a lashing is
placed around the outwales just inboard of the stem-piece, passing through a
hole in the flap of the end deck-piece of bark and through the side bark. This
lashing holds the outboard end of the deck piece flap. At the inboard end of
the flap, another lashing is required, but the pinched-in outwales require
additional securing outboard of this point; hence a lashing is passed just
inboard of the middle of the flap, a little outboard of the ends of the inwales,
and about six inches inboard from this lashing another is passed through the
side bark and around the gunwale and outwale on each side. These three
lashings hold the outwales snug to the ends of the gunwales and against the
projecting bark ends in the pinched-in form of projecting outwales.

Figure 43
Ribs Being Dried and Shaped for Ojibway Canoe. (Canadian Geological
Survey photo.)
The heels of the stem-pieces rest on the bottom bark and the sewing is
carried down to where the cutting of the profile makes an end to the seam,
the solid part of the heels extending about 6 to 8 inches inboard of this. Next,
any sewing required on the bottom is done. When the bark cover has been
given a final inspection on the outside and all sewing has been completed, the
canoe is lifted from its supports, righted, and set on the bed or on a smooth
grassy place.
All seams are now payed with gum on the inside of the bark while this can
still be done without interference from the sheathing or those parts of the
structure remaining to be installed. The Malecites used only spruce gum
tempered with animal fat. The gum, heated until it is sufficiently soft to pour
like heavy syrup, is spread with a small wooden paddle or spoon, and is then
worked into the seam and smoothed by rubbing with the thumb dipped in
water to prevent the gum from sticking and burning. It is first worked into the
ends, between the bark and each side of the stem-pieces, particularly near
the heel below the waterline. When the crevices are filled, a piece of bark (in
later times a piece of cloth was used) wide enough to cover the gum
alongside is well smeared with warm gum and pressed down along the inside
of the stem-pieces. On each seam, at gores, and on side panels a thin narrow
strip of bark is smeared with gum and pressed over the seam after the latter
had been well payed. The bark is now carefully scrutinized for small splits,
holes, or thin spots since these can be easily patched from the inside at this
stage of construction. In fitting bark strips and in gumming, great care is
taken to obtain a flat surface; the edges of the strips inside are faired to the
inside face of the bark by smearing gum along the edges. The canoe is now
ready to be sheathed and ribbed out.
The sheathing for this canoe has been split in advance out of clear white
cedar in splints about 5 to 9 feet long, 3 to 4¼ inches wide, and ⅛ inch thick.
The butts of each piece have been whittled to a feather edge, the bevel
extending back about 2 inches. Also, some pieces of basket ash have been
split out of saplings for temporary ribs to hold the sheathing in place.
A total of 50 or more ribs in five lengths, the longest about 5 feet, have been
made up from white cedar heartwood and bent to the desired shape.
In deciding the rough lengths of the ribs, the builder can resort to various
methods. He can prebend ribs in pairs to a number of arbitrarily chosen
shapes: the first set of six pairs to the desired midsection form; a second set
of five pairs to the form of the section between the middle and first pair of
thwarts; a third, of five pairs, to the section at the first thwarts each way from
the middle; a fourth, of four pairs, to the section between the end and the
first pair of thwarts each way from the middle; a fifth, of three pairs, to the
section at the end thwarts; and a sixth, of two or three pairs, for the section
at or near the headboards. This makes from 50 to 52 frames in a canoe
measuring 18 or 19 feet overall.
Each frame piece is treated with boiling water and then bent, over the knee or
around a tree, to a slightly greater degree than is needed. While thus bent,
each pair is wrapped lengthwise over the end with a strip of basswood or
cedar bark to hold the ribs in shape. Sometimes a strut is placed under the
bark strips to maintain the desired form, or a cross-tie of bark may be
employed. The ribs are then allowed to season in this position.
Another method, which will be illustrated later (p. 53), involves placing ribs of
green spruce in their approximate position and forcing them against the bark.
In this method, a number of long battens are placed over the roughly bent
ribs laid loosely inside the bark cover, and are spread by forcing a series of
short crosspieces, or stays, between them athwartships. The bark is given a
good wetting with boiling water to make it flexible and elastic, so that the
pressure applied to the battens by the temporary crosspieces brings the bark
to the shape desired for the canoe. The rough lengths of the ribs are
determined by use of a measuring stick or by measurements made around the
bark with a piece of flexible root or a batten of basket ash. The ribs, in any
case, are made somewhat longer than required to allow a final fitting when
being placed over the sheathing.
It can be seen that the exact form the canoe takes is largely a matter of
judgment and of the flexibility and elasticity of the bark, rather than of precise
molding on a predetermined model, or lines.
Figure 44
Details of Ribs and method of shaping them in pairs in a bark strap or
thong so that they take a "set" while drying out.
In the Malecite canoe the ribs are wide amidships, 3 or 4 inches, and narrow
to 2½ or 2 inches toward the ends. The thickness is an even ⅜ inch. Most
birch-bark canoes have ribs of even thickness their full length, but in a few
the thickness is tapered slightly above the turn of the bilge, usually when the
tumble-home is high on the sides and rather great. The width, as previously
explained, is usually carried all across the bottom; above the bilges there is a
moderate taper.
The sheathing of the canoe is now first to be put in place. In the Malecite
canoe the center pieces are the longest; they are tapered each way from their
butts, which overlap about 2 inches amidships. The ends are made narrow
enough to fit readily into the sharp transverse curve of the bottom and are
long enough to pass under the heels of the stem pieces for an inch or two.
The pieces of sheathing on each side of the center pieces are fitted in the
same manner, and by the time two or three courses are in place they must be
held in some manner at the ends. This is accomplished by means of the rough
temporary ribs mentioned earlier. The sheathing is laid edge-to-edge, with the
butts overlapping, and, if there are not enough long pieces to complete the
bottom amidships, three or four lengths, with overlapped butts, will be used.
As the sheathing progresses, more temporary ribs will have to be added. At
the turn of the bilge, the sheathing will bend transversely as pressure is
applied by the temporary ribs; the bark must be again wetted so that the
angular bilge can be forced into a roughly rounded form. Particular care is
required in finishing the sheathing below the gunwale to be certain that the
top strake will be close up against the sewing of the bark at gunwales, but no
particular attempt is made to make the edges of the sheathing in the topsides
maintain edge-to-edge contact.
The pressure of the temporary ribs, the heads of which are forced under the
gunwales, and the elasticity of the bark due to treating it with boiling water
are enough to rough-shape the canoe.
Before the permanent ribs are placed the sheer is checked. If it appears to
have straightened, the ends of the gunwales are supported by means of short
posts placed under them, with the heels standing on the heels of the stem
pieces or on the sheathing. Then some stakes, each having a projecting limb
or root, are cut and are driven into the ground with the limb hooked over the
gunwale to force it down.
After measurements have been made for the first rib with a strand of root or
an ash batten, it is now cut to a length slightly more than would permit the rib
to be forced upright when in place. The ends of the rib are set in place in the
bevel, or notch, on the underside of the gunwales, against the bark cover, and
with the bottom part of the rib standing inboard of the head. Then, with one
end of a short batten placed against its inboard side, the rib is driven toward
the end of the canoe with blows from a club on the head of the batten. If the
rib drives too easily it is removed and laid aside; if too hard, it is shortened. It
must go home tightly enough to stretch slightly the bark cover by bringing
pressure to bear on the whole width of the sheathing. Care is taken, in this
operation, to keep moist not only the bark but also the sewing, particularly
along the gunwales, so that all possible elasticity is obtained. The ribs are set,
one by one, working to within two or three frames of the midship thwart; then
the other end of the canoe is begun. The last three or four ribs to be placed
are thus amidships. In every rib driven, the tension is great, but no rib is
driven so that it stands perpendicular to the base. Those first driven stand
with their bottoms nearer the midship thwart than the ends, and this angle, or
slant, continues to amidships; the ribs in the other end of the canoe slant in
the opposite direction.
It will be evident that skill is required to estimate how much pressure the bark
will stand before bursting under the strain of the driven ribs. It is also
apparent that the shape of the canoe is controlled by the shaping given the
ribs in the prebending, for this fixes the amount of tumble-home and the
amount of round, or rounded-V, given to the bottom athwartships. No fixed
rules appear to exist; the eye and judgment of the builder are his only guides.
To show how much strain is placed on the bark, however, it may be noted that
inspection of two old canoes showed that the gunwale pegs had been
noticeably bent between the inner and outer gunwales.
It appears to have been a rather common practice, after all the ribs had been
driven into place, to allow the canoe to stand a few days and then again to
set the frames (where unevenness appears in the topsides) with driving
batten and maul, the bark cover and the root sewing or lashings having been
again thoroughly wetted.
The headboards are now to be made. These are shaped in the form of an
elongate-oval from a wide splint of white cedar about 4 inches wide at
midlength and ¼ inch thick. The narrow end is first cut off square or nearly
so; the bottom end is notched to fit in the notch in the heel of the stem-piece
and the top has a small tenon at the centerline that will be fitted into a hole
drilled or gouged in the underside of the inner gunwales where they join at
the ends. The length of the headboards in the canoe being built is 15¾
inches over all, and when they have been made for each end, they are
checked as to width and height to see that they can be fitted. Next, the
extreme ends of the canoe between the stem and the headboards are stuffed
with dry cedar shavings or dry moss so that the sides stand firm on each side
of the bow outboard of the ends of the sheathing, which ends rather
unevenly, just outboard of where the headboards will stand. This completed,
the headboards are forced into position by first stepping the heel notch in the
stem-piece notch and then bending the board by placing one hand against its
middle and pulling the top toward the worker. This shortens the height of the
board enough so the tenon projecting on its head can be sprung into the
small hole under the inner gunwales, where it becomes rigidly fixed. Its
sprung shape pushes up the gunwales and makes the side bark of the ends
very taut and smooth, while supporting the gunwale ends.
Two thin strips about 19 feet long are next split out of white cedar to form the
gunwale caps; these are ¼ to ⅜ inch thick, and taper each way from about 2
inches wide in the middle to 1 inch wide at the ends. These are laid along the
top of the inner gunwales and fastened down with pegs placed clear of the
gunwale lashings. The ends of the strips are usually secured by two or three
small lashings; the caps thus formed often stop short of the ends of the inner
gunwale members. If the caps are carried right out to the stems, as was the
practice of some Malecite builders, the lashings of the outwale are not turned
in until after the caps are in place, in which case the bark deck pieces, or
flaps, are put in just before the final lashing is made.

Figure 45
Sixth Stage of Canoe Construction: canoe has been righted and placed
on a grassy or sandy spot. In this stage splints for sheathing (upper
left) are fixed in place and held by temporary ribs (lower right) under
the gunwales. The bark cover has been completely sewn and the
shape of the canoe is set by the temporary ribs. (Sketch by Adney.)
Next, the canoe is turned upside-down and all seams are gummed smoothly
on the outside. The ends, from the beginning of the seam to above the
waterline, may be heavily gummed and then covered with a narrow strip of
thin bark, heavily enough smeared with gum to cause it to adhere over the
seam. In more recent times a piece of gummed cloth was used here. Above
this protective strip, the end seams are filled with gum so that the outside can
be smoothed off flush on the face of the cutwater between the stitches. All
seams in the side and bottom are gummed smooth and any holes or patches
remaining to be gummed are taken care of in this final inspection.
If the canoe is to be decorated (not many types were) the outside of the bark
is moistened and the rough, reddish winter bark, or inner rind, is scraped
away, leaving only enough to form the desired decorations. When paints of
various colors could be obtained, these were also employed, but the use of
the inner rind was apparently the older and more common method of
decorating.
The paddles are made from splints of spruce or maple, ash, white cedar, or
larch. Two forms of blade were used by the Malecite. The older form is long
and narrow, with the blade wide near the top and the taper straight along
each edge to a narrow, rounded point. Above the greatest width, the blade
tapers almost straight along the edge, coming into an oval handle very
quickly. At the head, the handle is widened and it ends squared off, but the
taper toward the handle is straight, not flared as in modern canoe paddles;
there is no swelling. Paddles of a shape similar to this, some without a wide
handle, were used by other eastern Indians. The more recent form of Malecite
paddle has a long leaf-shaped, or beaver-tail, blade, much like that of the
modern canoe paddle, except that it ends in a dull point; the handle is as in
the old form but the head is swelled to form the upper grip. The face of the
blade, in both old and new form, has a noticeable ridge down the centerline.

Figure 46
General Details of Birch-Bark Canoe Construction, in a drawing by
Adney. (From Harper's Young People, supplement, July 29, 1890.)
The eastern style of construction described here produced what might be
called a wide-bottom canoe with some tumble-home above the turn of the
bilge, but a different method of construction was used to produce canoes
having a narrow bottom and flaring sides. These canoes were not set up on
the building bed, in the first steps of shaping the hull, with the gunwale frame
on the cover bark. Instead, a special building frame, mentioned earlier, was
used. Each tribe using the building frame had its own style, but the variations
were confined to minor matters or to proportion of width to length.
In general, the building frame is made of two squared battens, about 1¼ inch
square for an 18-foot canoe. These, sometimes tapered slightly toward each
end, are fitted with crosspieces with halved notches in each end to fit over the
top of the battens. There may be as many as nine or as few as three of these
crosspieces, with seven apparently a common number. Where ends of the
long battens join they are beveled slightly on the inside face and notches are
cut on the outside face to take the end lashings. Each crosspiece end is
lashed around the long battens, a hole being made in each end of the
crosspiece for this purpose. The lashings, commonly bark or rawhide thongs,
are all temporary, as the building frame has to be dismantled to remove it
from the canoe. Sometimes holes are drilled in the ends of the crosspieces, or
in the long battens, and in them are stepped the posts used to fix the sheer of
the gunwales.
The methods of construction, using the building frame, varied somewhat
among the tribes. Since the gunwale was both longer and wider across than
the building frame, the posts for sheering were set with outboard flare.
However, some builders made the gunwales hogged by staking them out
when green, and then set them above the building frame with vertical posts.
These gunwales would not be fitted with thwarts nor would the thwart tenons
always be cut at this stage. The bark was lashed to the gunwales while they
were in the hogged position with the ends secured; the gunwales were then
spread by inserting spreaders, or stays, between them, after which the
thwarts were fitted. This method required knowledge of just how much hog
should be given to the gunwales, and it must be stated that not all builders
guessed right enough to produce a good-looking sheer. Judging the hogging
required in the gunwales was complicated by the fact that most of these
canoes had laminated ends in the gunwales at bow and stern, and a quick
upturn there as well. This method of construction persisted, however, because
the straight sides made easy the sewing of gores and side panels. In some
Alaskan birch-bark canoes the building frame was, in fact, part of the hull
structure and remained in the canoe. In these, the building frame was hogged
and then flattened by the ribs in construction so as to smooth the bottom
bark by placing it under tension. In some canoes the posts for sheering the
canoe rested under the thwarts rather than under the gunwales. In most
canoes the building frame was taken apart and removed from the canoe when
the gunwale structure was complete and in place, sheered.
Where large sheets of bark were available, the setting up with the building
frame or gunwale was made easier than where the bark had to be pieced out
for both length and width. If large pieces of bark could be obtained there was
little or no sewing on the bottom; only the gores or laps, and the panels, in
the side required attention after the bark had been lashed to the gunwales. In
such instances, the set-up did not require perpendicular sides, as the sides
could be completed after the canoe was removed from the building bed and
the building frame had been removed from the hull. There were many minor
variations in the set-up and in the sequence of the sewing. In view of the
slight opportunities that now exist for examining the old building methods and
construction sequences, it is impossible to be certain that the one used by a
tribe in recent times was that employed in prehistoric times by their
ancestors.
Instead of a laminated stem-piece, a large root whittled to the desired cross
section was sometimes used by builders among the Malecites and other
eastern tribes. This was bent into the ends while green and to it was lashed
the bark, so that the stem dried in place to the desired profile curve. No inner
stem-piece was used by the Micmacs, who formed the end structure by
placing a split-root batten on each outside face of the bark and passing the
lashing around both. When a plank-on-edge was used to form the stem-piece,
as mentioned earlier, no headboard was required, as the gunwales ends could
be brought to the plank structure. In canoes having the complicated stem
structure seen in the large fur-trade canoes and some others, the headboard
became an integral part of the stem structure, rather than an independent
unit, and was placed in the canoe during building with the stem-pieces.
There was much variation in the form of gunwale structure employed in bark
canoes. A strip of bark was added all along the outwale by some tribes, so
that between the gunwale members and for a short distance below the
sewing the bark was doubled; the bottom of this strip was, in fact, a flap not
secured and thus was much like the flaps at the ends of the Malecite canoe,
but without covering the top of the main gunwales. The outwale and inwale
cross sections of some canoes were almost round. The use of a single
gunwale member is commonly followed by continuous lashing of the bark
along it. On some northwestern canoes having continuous lashing, the ends
of the ribs were made in sharp points that could penetrate between the turns
of root sewing, under the gunwales. The ends of the ribs in some of these
were secured more firmly by tying them to long battens placed between the
ribs and the bark cover just below the gunwales. The northwestern canoes
built in this manner had double gunwales, an outwale and an inwale, but no
bevel or notch for the rib heads. The ends of the gunwales, inner and outer,
were secured in many ways. Some, instead of being pegged and lashed, were
simply tied together; others were fastened by a rather elaborate lashing
through the bark and around the gunwales. Caps were sometimes allowed to
overlap at the ends and were pinned together with pegs or lashed. In some
canoes the outwales were lashed, rather than pegged, to the inwales, and for
this and for the caps rawhide appears to have once been widely used. In
some canoes the head of the stem-piece was bent inboard sharply and lashed
to the ends of the inwales or outwales. In many canoes the gunwales, instead
of stopping short of the stem-piece, ran to it and were lashed there.

Figure 47
Gunwale Construction and thwart or crossbar fastenings, as shown in a
sketch by Adney. (From Harper's Young People, supplement, July 29,
1890.)
At the start of ribbing out a canoe, the first two or three ribs might not be put
at each end until after the headboards had been fitted, and sometimes a rib
was placed on each side of the middle thwart, apparently to hold securely the
sheathing butted amidships while the ribbing progressed toward them from
the ends. When a canoe was short and rather wide, the ribs usually were bent
by placing them inside the faired bark cover before the sheathing was
installed, there to dry and set or to season, depending on whether they were
steamed or green. Prebending the ribs, as described in the building of a
Malecite canoe, worked well only when the canoe was long, narrow, and
sharp. The spacing of the ribs was done by eye, not by precise measurement,
and was never exactly the same over the length of the canoe. Ribs near the
ends were usually spaced at greater intervals than those in the middle third of
the length.
The extension of the bark beyond the ends of the inner gunwale in an eastern
canoe was often about one foot on each end, but this distance was actually
determined by the length of the bark available and by the usual reluctance of
the builder to add a panel at the end.
For the height of the end posts, in sheering the gunwales, a common Malecite
measurement was the length of the forearm from knuckles of clenched fist to
back of elbow. These posts were often left in place until the stems were fitted.
The use of a building frame is known to have been common in areas where,
normally, the gunwale frame would be employed in the initial steps in
building. In a few instances this occurred when a builder had a number of
canoes of the same size to construct. It seems probable that the use of the
building frame spread into Eastern areas comparatively recently as a result of
the influence of the fur-trade canoes on construction methods. The
employment of the plank building bed in the East is known to have occurred
among individual canoe builders late in the nineteenth century as a result of
this influence.
The use of nails and tacks instead of pegs and root lashing or sewing in bark
canoe construction became quite widespread early in the nineteenth century;
it is to be seen in many old canoes preserved in museums. The bark in these
is often secured to the gunwales with carpet or flat-headed tacks, and both
the outwale and the cap are nailed to the inner gunwales with cut or wire
nails. Various combinations of lashings and nailing can be seen in these