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Linear and Switch-Mode
RF Power Amplifiers
Linear and Switch-Mode
RF Power Amplifiers
Design and Implementation Methods

Abdullah Eroglu
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Dedicated to my family who has always shown
great patience and support for my research.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics.......................................................1

1.1 I ntroduction................................................................................1
1.2 Types of Amplifiers: Small Signal and Large Signal
Amplifiers����������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
1.3 Linear Amplifiers.......................................................................3
1.4 Switch-Mode Amplifiers............................................................5
1.5 Power Transistors.......................................................................7
1.5.1 BJT and HBTs...............................................................8
1.5.2 FETs..............................................................................8
1.5.2.1 MOSFETs.................................................... 10
1.6 Passive Devices........................................................................ 12
1.6.1 Inductor....................................................................... 12
1.6.1.1 Air-Core Inductor Design............................ 14
1.6.1.2 Magnetic-Core Inductor Design.................. 14
1.6.1.3 Planar Inductor Design................................ 16
1.6.2 Capacitor..................................................................... 18
1.6.3 Resistor........................................................................ 19
References........................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 Two-Port Parameters........................................................................... 23

2.1 I ntroduction.............................................................................. 23
2.2 Network Parameters................................................................. 23
2.2.1 Z-Impedance Parameters............................................ 23
2.2.2 Y-Admittance Parameters............................................24
2.2.3 ABCD Parameters.......................................................25
2.2.4 h-Hybrid Parameters...................................................26
2.3 Network Connections............................................................... 30
2.4 S-Scattering Parameters........................................................... 36
2.4.1 One-Port Network....................................................... 37
2.4.2 N-Port Network........................................................... 39
2.4.3 Normalized Scattering Parameters............................. 43
References........................................................................................... 51

Chapter 3 Impedance Matching and Resonant Networks................................... 53

3.1 I ntroduction.............................................................................. 53
3.2 Transmission Lines................................................................... 53

vii
viii Contents

3.2.1 Limiting Cases for Transmission Lines...................... 57

3.2.2 Terminated Lossless Transmission Lines................... 59
3.2.3 Special Cases of Terminated Transmission Lines......64
3.3 Smith Chart..............................................................................66
3.3.1 Input Impedance Determination with Smith Chart....... 72
3.3.2 Smith Chart as an Admittance Chart.......................... 76
3.3.3 ZY Smith Chart and Its Application............................ 76
3.4 Impedance Matching between Transmission Lines and
Load Impedances��������������������������������������������������������������������80
3.5 Single Stub Tuning................................................................... 83
3.5.1 Shunt Single Stub Tuning............................................84
3.5.2 Series Single Stub Tuning........................................... 85
3.6 Impedance Transformation and Matching between
Source and Load Impedances������������������������������������������������� 86
3.7 Resonator Networks................................................................. 89
3.7.1 Parallel and Series Resonant Networks.......................90
3.7.1.1 Parallel Resonance.......................................90
3.7.1.2 Series Resonance.........................................97
3.7.2 Parallel LC Networks................................................ 102
3.7.2.1 Parallel LC Networks with Ideal
Components���������������������������������������������� 102
3.7.2.2 Parallel LC Networks with Nonideal
Components���������������������������������������������� 103
3.7.2.3 Loading Effects on Parallel LC
Networks������������������������������������������������ 106
3.8 LC Resonators as Impedance Transformers........................... 108
3.8.1 Inductive Load........................................................... 108
3.8.2 Capacitive Load......................................................... 109
3.9 Tapped Resonators as Impedance Transformers.................... 112
3.9.1 Tapped-C Impedance Transformer........................... 112
3.9.2 Tapped-L Impedance Transformer............................ 117
3.10 Signal Flow Graphs................................................................ 117
References......................................................................................... 123

Chapter 4 Small-Signal Amplifiers.................................................................... 125

4.1 Amplifier Basic Terminology................................................. 125
4.1.1 Gain........................................................................... 125
4.1.2 Efficiency................................................................... 127
4.1.3 Power Output Capability........................................... 128
4.1.4 Linearity.................................................................... 129
4.1.5 1 dB Compression Point............................................ 130
4.1.6 Harmonic Distortion................................................. 131
4.1.7 Intermodulation......................................................... 134
4.2 Small-Signal Amplifier Design.............................................. 139
4.2.1 DC Biasing Circuits.................................................. 143
Contents ix

4.2.2  JT Biasing Circuits................................................. 145

B
4.2.2.1 Fixed Bias.................................................. 145
4.2.2.2 Stable Bias................................................. 146
4.2.2.3 Self-Bias..................................................... 149
4.2.2.4 Emitter Bias............................................... 150
4.2.2.5 Active Bias Circuit..................................... 151
4.2.2.6 Bias Circuit Using Linear Regulator......... 151
4.2.3 FET Biasing Circuits................................................. 153
4.2.4 Small-Signal Amplifier Design Method................... 153
4.2.4.1 Definitions of Power Gains for
Small-Signal Amplifiers��������������������������� 154
4.2.4.2 Design Steps for Small-Signal
Amplifier����������������������������������������������� 158
4.2.4.3 Small-Signal Amplifier Stability............... 159
4.2.4.4 Constant Gain Circles................................ 165
4.2.4.5 Unilateral Figure of Merit......................... 170
References......................................................................................... 186

Chapter 5 Linear Amplifier Design and Implementation.................................. 187

5.1  arge-Signal RF Amplifier Design Techniques..................... 187
L
5.2 Push–Pull Amplifier Configuration....................................... 191
5.3 Parallel Transistor Configuration........................................... 194
5.4 PA Module Combiners........................................................... 194
5.5 Linear Amplifiers................................................................... 194
5.5.1 Conventional Amplifiers: Classes A, B, and C......... 199
5.6 Class A Amplifiers.................................................................202
5.7 Class B....................................................................................204
5.8 Class AB.................................................................................208
5.9 Class C....................................................................................208
5.9.1 Design Example........................................................ 211
References......................................................................................... 217

Chapter 6 Switch-Mode Amplifier Design and Implementation....................... 219

6.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 219
6.2 Class D Amplifiers................................................................. 219
6.2.1 Voltage-Mode Class D Amplifiers............................ 219
6.2.2 Current Mode Class D Amplifiers............................ 225
6.3 Class E Amplifiers.................................................................. 228
6.3.1 Conventional Analysis of Class E Amplifiers........... 228
6.3.1.1 Suboptimum Conditions for Class E
Amplifier Design�������������������������������������� 228
6.3.1.2 Optimum Conditions Class E
Amplifier Design�������������������������������������� 236
6.3.2 Harmonic Modeling of Class E Amplifiers.............. 242
x Contents

6.4 Class DE Amplifiers............................................................... 247

6.4.1 Analysis of Series Resonant Network....................... 250
6.5 Class F Amplifiers.................................................................. 255
6.5.1 Class S....................................................................... 263
References......................................................................................... 286

Chapter 7 Phase-Controlled Switch-Mode Amplifiers...................................... 289

7.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 289
7.2 Phase Control of a Class E Power Amplifier Pair.................. 289
7.2.1 Implementation of Harmonic Modeling.................... 292
7.2.1.1 Single-Ended Class E Power Amplifier..... 292
7.2.1.2 Phase-Controlled Class E Power
Amplifier��������������������������������������������������� 299
7.3 Pulsing of Switch-Mode Amplifiers.......................................302
7.3.1 Pulsing of Class E Amplifiers...................................302
7.3.1.1 Simulation Results.....................................304
7.3.1.2 Experimental Results................................. 310
References......................................................................................... 320

Chapter 8 Distortion and Modulation Effects in RF Power Amplifiers............ 323

8.1 I ntroduction............................................................................ 323
8.2 Ideal Quadrature Modulator................................................... 324
8.3 Nonideal Quadrature Modulator............................................ 326
8.3.1 I Path......................................................................... 327
8.3.2 Q Path........................................................................ 329
8.3.3 Output of Nonideal Quadrature Modulator.............. 332
8.4 Improved Method for Image Band Rejection......................... 333
8.4.1 LO Cancellation........................................................ 338
8.4.2 Simulation Results..................................................... 342
8.4.2.1 Simulation Model...................................... 342
8.4.2.2 Simulation Results..................................... 345
References......................................................................................... 351
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 353
Preface
Radio frequency power amplifiers are critical part of communication, semiconduc-
tor wafer processing, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and radar systems. The
amplifier system not only requires expertise in the design of amplifier topologies, but
it also requires knowledge in the design of its surrounding components. The authors’
previous two books, Introduction to RF Circuit Design Techniques for MF-UHF
Applications and Introduction to RF Power Amplifier Design and Simulation, have
presented the design and simulation of the amplifier components and devices. This
book is written to provide the implementation methods for RF amplifiers, which
can operate in linear or switch mode via several real-world engineering problems.
Step-by-step design methods to design amplifiers are exemplified with several design
problems. MATLAB, Matchcad Pspice, and ADS simulation tools are used to aid the
design process. All the design examples given include analytical design, simulation
verification, and measurement results of the built prototype.
The scope of each chapter in this book can be summarized as follows. Chapter 1
gives introduction to RF Power amplifiers and topologies and discussion on passive
and active components and surrounding devices for RF power amplifiers. Chapter 2
discusses two-port parameters including Z, Y, h, ABCD, and scattering parame-
ters, which can be used to design small-signal amplifiers. In Chapter 3, impedance
matching and resonant networks for amplifiers are detailed. In Chapter 4, small-
signal amplifier design methods are introduced with simulation and implementation
examples. Chapter 5 discusses design, analysis, and implementation of large-signal
amplifier design methods. In this chapter, RF linear amplifiers and different biasing
schemes have been presented. The design and implementation of Classes A, B, and
AB are given with examples. Furthermore, Class C amplifier design in different
modes is also detailed.
In Chapter 6, the design and implementation of RF switch-mode amplifiers
including Classes D, E, DE, F, and S topologies have been discussed with applica-
tion and implementation examples. Generic MATLAB and Mathcad design algo-
rithms to design Classes D, DE, E, and F amplifiers are given. Chapter 7 presents
phase-controlled switch-mode amplifiers using harmonic modeling. RF pulsing
amplifier design techniques and implementation methods are also discussed in this
chapter. Characterization methods for amplifiers have been illustrated using load-
pull technique. In Chapter 8, distortion and modulation effects for amplifiers and
the method for elimination of the impairments causing these defects have been
detailed.
It is important to note that engineering application examples are given in every
chapter for each subject to solidify the theory and help designers have hands-on
experience of the design problems. Implementation of RF amplifiers is given step
by step to make it possible for professionals and students use this book as the main
resource.

xi
xii Preface

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-

tion, please contact:

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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my wife, G. Dilek, for her greatest support, including editorial
corrections in the book.
The completion of this book was possible during my sabbatical leave from my
home institution, Purdue University Fort Wayne, and I thank it for the support.
I would also like to thank University of Gavle, Sweden for hosting me during some
portion of that period, which helped me complete this project.
I would also like to thank my editor, Nora Konopka, for her patience and support
during the course of the preparation and publication of this book.

xiii
Author
Abdullah Eroglu is a professor of electrical engineering at the Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department of Purdue University, Fort Wayne. He previ-
ously worked as a radio frequency (RF) senior design engineer at MKS Instruments,
ENI Products, Rochester, New York, and as a faculty fellow in the Fusion Energy
Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
His research focuses on design and development of RF devices for applications
including communication, energy, semiconductor manufacturing, and health care.
He also investigates the propagation and radiation characteristics of materials for
microwave and RF applications.
He earned a PhD in electrical engineering at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New
York. He is a recipient of several research awards, including 2013 IPFW Outstanding
Researcher Award, 2012 IPFW Featured Faculty Award, 2011 Sigma Xi Researcher
of the Year Award; and 2010 IPFW College of Engineering, Technology, and
Computer Science Excellence in Research Award.
Dr. Eroglu is the author of five books and has published more than 100 peer-
reviewed journals and conference papers. He has several patents in RF component,
device design, and methodology. He also serves as a reviewer and editorial board
member for several journals.

xv
 1 Radio Frequency
Amplifier Basics

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Radio frequency (RF) power amplifiers are one of the critical elements for commu-
nication systems when signal in use needs to be amplified for several applications.
The simplified RF power amplifier block diagram is shown in Figure 1.1.
Radio frequency power amplifiers consist of several surrounding components.
The main component of the amplifier is the active device that is critical in the ampli-
fication process. The surrounding components in the amplifier are matching net-
works that are implemented at the input and output of the amplifier, biasing network,
stability networks, filters that are used to eliminate spurious or harmonic contents,
and control system of the amplifier to ensure the functionality of the amplifier against
various conditions.
The type and class of the amplifier are important parameters in the design pro-
cess, apart from the design of its surrounding components. The amplifier type can be
small signal or large signal based on the design, whereas class of the amplifier might
belong to a group of linear or switch-mode class of amplifiers. The type and class of
the amplifier are based on the application and requirements identified beforehand for
the designer. In this book, different components, types, and classes of the amplifiers;
mathematical and computer tools that are used to design, simulate, and implement
RF; and microwave amplifier and components will be discussed.

1.2 TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS: SMALL SIGNAL

AND LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers have inherently nonlinear characteristics owing to active devices that are
used during amplification process. However, when signal levels are small enough, it
does not cause distortion to vary parameters of the active devices, which results in
the linear relationship between input and output of the amplifier.
When the conditions satisfy the requirements of the linear approximation, ampli-
fiers can be analyzed using two-port parameters and network methods. The type of
the amplifiers in this group are called as small signal amplifiers. The efficiency of
small signal amplifiers is not critical. The design for this type of amplifiers use com-
plex conjugate matching method.
For high-power applications, large signal levels are applied for amplification, and
this causes distortion in the amplifier due to variation of the active device param-
eters. Hence, small signal analysis and techniques cannot be applied anymore for
these types of amplifiers. The type of the amplifiers in this group are called as large
signal amplifiers. The conventional conjugate matching method also does not deliver

1
2 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Vdc

Rchoke

Zg

Input Output
Vg matching matching ZL
network network

FIGURE 1.1 Basic block diagram of RF power amplifiers.

the maximum power to the load connected at the output of the amplifier. Hence, the
technique called load line matching [1] needs to be implemented to overcome the
limitations due to physical rating of active device and have the maximum voltage and
current swing. The optimum load impedance that will give the practical maximum
power can be obtained from the maximum swing points for voltage and current from

Vmax_ swing
Ropt = . (1.1)
I max_ swing

The difference between conjugate matching used in small signal amplifier design
and load matching used in large signal amplifier design can be better understood
using the simplified circuit given in Figure 1.2.
The maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Figure 1.2 occurs when

Rg = RL and Bg = − BL.. (1.2)

If we assume that there are no device or component limitations in the circuit, then
this will hold true, and the maximum power will be transferred as indicated for small

IL

Ig Rg Bg RL BL VL

FIGURE 1.2 Simplified circuit for large signal and small signal analysis.
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 3

signal analysis. However, if there is limitation for voltage or current, this cannot be
applied. For instance, for the circuit in Figure 1.2, let us assume Rg = 50 [Ω] and the
maximum operating voltage and current are Vmax = 20 [V ], I max = 2 [ A].
Then, the maximum power transfer using conjugate method dictates that

RL = RL = 50 [Ω].

Since, RL and Rg are in parallel, the equivalent impedance is Req = 25 [Ω]. The output
voltage is then calculated to be

VL = I max Req = ( 2 )( 25 ) = 50 [V ] > Vmax ,

which is more than the amount of maximum voltage that can be handled in the cir-
cuit. Hence, the maximum current that can be obtained with this configuration by
staying within the given operating limit of the voltage is I L,max = 0.8 [A]. Then, the
maximum power without exceeding the operating limit is

PL,max = I L,maxVL,max = ( 0.8 )( 20 ) = 16 [W].

Now, let us assume, we would like to use the load line matching method, which is the
viable design method for large signal amplifiers. Then, the optimum load resistance
is calculated to be

Vmax 20
RL = = = 10 [ Ω ] .
I max 2

Then, the power that can be obtained with this configuration is

PL,max = I L,maxVL,max = (2)(20) = 40 [W] .

This is the method that can now utilize the ratings of devices and gives maximum
power attainable in practice.
Large signal amplifiers can be classified as Class A, Class B, and Class AB for
linear mode of operation and Class C, Class D, Class E, and Class F for nonlinear
mode of operation. Classes D, E, and F are also known as switch-mode amplifiers.

1.3 LINEAR AMPLIFIERS
Consider the amplifier voltage transfer characteristics illustrated in Figure 1.3. The
output of the amplifier is linearly proportional to the input of the amplifier via volt-
age gain β. The output voltage will be identical to the input voltage. The relationship
between input and output of the amplifier can be expressed mathematically as

vo (t ) = βvi (t ). (1.3)
4 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Vin Vin

t t
PA

Vout
Slope = β
Vin

FIGURE 1.3 Linear amplifier voltage transfer characteristics.

Vdc

RFchoke IDC

Io
+ Cd
Vo

ID VCd
+ IL
Vds
C L
RL

ZtLn

FIGURE 1.4 Equivalent circuit representation of linear amplifier mode of operation.

When the transistor is operated as a voltage-dependent current source, linear opera-

tional mode for the amplifiers can be obtained. The conduction angle, θ, is then
used to determine the class of the amplifier [2]. The conduction angle varies up to
2π based on the amplifier class. The use of transistor as a dependent current source
represents linear mode of operation, which is shown in Figure 1.4.
The conduction angles, bias, and quiescent points for linear amplifier are illus-
trated in Table 1.1. Conduction angle, θ, is defined as the duration of the period in
which the given transistor is conducting. The full cycle of conduction is considered
to be 360°. The points of intersection with the load line are known as the “quiescent”
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 5

TABLE 1.1
Conduction Angles, Bias, and Quiescent Points for
Linear Amplifiers
Class Bias Point Quiescent Point Conduction Angle
A 0.5 0.5 2π
AB 0–0.5 0–0.5 π–2π
B 0 0 π
C <0 0 0–π

ID

Imax

Class A

Class AB

Class B VDS
Vsat Vmax
Class C

FIGURE 1.5 Load lines and bias points for linear amplifiers.

conditions or “Q points” or the dc bias conditions for the transistor, which represent
the operational device voltages and drain current as shown in Figure 1.5.
Classes A, AB, and B amplifiers have been used for linear applications where ampli-
tude modulation (AM), single-sideband modulation (SSB), and quadrate amplitude
modulation (QAM) might be required. The summary of the operational characteristics
of linear amplifiers and Class C nonlinear amplifiers is given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

1.4 SWITCH-MODE AMPLIFIERS
When the transistor is used as switch, then the amplifier operates in nonlinear mode
of operation, and it can be illustrated with the equivalent circuit in Figure 1.6. Classes
C, D, E, and F are usually implemented for narrowband-tuned amplifiers when high
efficiency is desired with high power. Classes A, B, AB, and C are operated as trans-
conductance amplifiers, and the mode of operation depends on the conduction angle.
6 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

TABLE 1.2
Summary of Linear Amplifier Operational Characteristics
Amplifier Transistor (Q)
Class Mode Operation Pros Cons
A Linear Always conducting Most linear, lowest Poor efficiency
distortion
B Linear Each device is on ηB > ηA Worse linearity than
half cycle Class A
AB Linear Mid conduction Improved linearity with Power dissipation for
respect to Class B low signal levels
higher than Class B
C Nonlinear Each device is on High Po Inherent harmonics
half cycle

TABLE 1.3
Summary of Linear Amplifier Performance Parameters
Normalized RF Power
Max Output Power Normalized Normalized Capability
Amplifier Efficiency Po,max Vm Im Po,max
Vds,max I d,max
Class ηmax [%] Vdc2 /2RL Vdc I dc VmI m
A 50 1 2 2 0.125
B 78.5 1 2 π = 3.14 0.125
C 86 (θ = 71°) 1 2 3.9 0.11

RF, radio frequency.

Vdc

RFchoke IDC

Io
Cd
+
Vo
ID VCd
IL
+
Vds
C L RL

ZtLn

FIGURE 1.6 Equivalent circuit representation of nonlinear amplifier mode of operation.

Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 7

TABLE 1.4
Summary of Switch-Mode Amplifier Operational Characteristics
Normalized RF Power
Max Output Power Normalized Normalized Capability
Amplifier Efficiency Po,max Vds,max Vm I d,max
Im Po,max
Class ηmax [%] Vdc2 /2RL Vdc I dc VmI m
D 100 16/π = 1.624
2 2 π/2 = 1.57 1/π = 0.318
E 100 4/(1 + π2/4) = 1.154 3.6 2.86 0.098
F 100 16/π2 = 1.624 2 π = 3.14 1/2π = 0.318

TABLE 1.5
Summary of Switch-Mode Amplifier Performance Parameters
Amplifier Transistor (Q)
Class Mode Operation Pros Cons
D Switch mode Q1 and Q2 switched Max efficiency and Device parasitics
on/off alternately best power are issue at high
frequencies
E Switch-mode Transistor is switched Max efficiency, no High-voltage stress
on/off loss due to parasitics on transistor
F Switch mode Transistor is switched Max efficiency and Power loss due to
on/off no harmonic power discharge of output
delivered capacitance
S Switch mode Q1 and Q2 are switched Wider dynamic range Upper frequency
on/off with modulated and high efficiency range is limited
signal

In switch-mode amplifiers such as Classes D, E, and F, the active device is inten-

tionally driven into saturation region, and it is operated as a switch rather than a cur-
rent source unlike Class A, AB, B, or C amplifiers as shown in Figure 1.4. In theory,
power dissipation in the transistor can be totally eliminated, and hence, 100% effi-
ciency can be achieved for switch-mode amplifiers.
The summary of some of the switch-mode amplifier performance parameters
including efficiency, normalized RF power, normalized maximum drain voltage
swing, and power capability are given in Table 1.4. Table 1.5 compares each ampli-
fier class based on transistor operation and application and gives the advantages and
disadvantages of each class.

1.5 POWER TRANSISTORS
The selection of a transistor that will be used for amplification in RF amplifier is very
critical, because it can affect the performance of the amplifier parameters including
efficiency, dissipation, power delivery, stability, linearity, etc. Once the transistor is
8 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

TABLE 1.6
Typical Parameter Values for Semiconductor Materials
Thermal
RF High-Power Conductivity Ebr JM =
Material μ [cm2/Vs] εr Eg [eV] [W/cmK] [MV/cm] Ebrvsat/2π Tmax [°C]
Si 1350 11.8 1.1 1.3 0.3 1.0 300
GaAs 8500 13.1 1.42 0.46 0.4 2.7 300
SiC 700 9.7 3.26 4.9 3.0 20 600
GaN 1200 (Bulk) 9.0 3.39 1.7 3.3 27.5 700
2000 (2DEG)

RF, radio frequency.

selected for the corresponding amplifier topology, size of the transistor, die place-
ment, bond pads, bonding of the wires, and lead connections will determine the lay-
out of the amplifier and the thermal management of the system. The most commonly
used RF and microwave power devices for commercial purposes are based on silicon
(Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and its compounds. There is an intense research in the
development of high-power density devices using materials that have a wide bandgap
such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN). Fundamentally, the device
performance is determined by several parameters including material energy band-
gap, breakdown field, electrons and holes transport properties, thermal conductivity,
saturated electron velocity, and conductivity. The typical values of these parameters
for various types of semiconductor materials are given in Table 1.6.
The power device family tree can be simplified and is shown in Figure 1.7.

1.5.1 BJT and HBTs

A typical npn bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is formed out of silicon and the emit-
ter and collector regions that are implanted with donors. There are differences in the
characteristics of field effect transistor (FET) and heterojunction bipolar transistor
(HBT) devices. The main difference between BJT and HBT is the introduction of
heterojunction at the emitter–base interface in the HBT device [3]. This can be illus-
trated in Figure 1.8.
FET is a planar device, whereas HBT is a vertical device. The HBT device is
an enhanced version of conventional BJTs, as a result of the exploitation of hetero-
structure junctions [4]. Unlike conventional BJTs, in HBTs the bandgap difference
between the emitter and the base materials results in higher common emitter gain.
Base sheet resistance is lower than that in ordinary BJTs, and the resulting operating
frequency is accordingly higher [5].

1.5.2 FETs
The FET family includes a variety of structures, among which are metal-semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MESFETs), MOSFETs, HEMTS, etc. They typically consist
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 9

Power devices

BJT FET

HBT
MOSFET MESFET JFET

GaAs MESFET
GaAs MOSFET

Si MOSFET

Heterostructure MESFET

InP MESFET

Si MESFET

Si JFET
GaAs JFET
NMOS, PMOS
CMOS
HMOS
DMOS, DIMOS
VMOS
SOS, SOI

Di used
Grown

Single channel
V-groove
Multi channel
Hetrojunction
Single gate

Interdigital structure
Dual gate

FIGURE 1.7 Family tree for power devices.

(a) (b)

E B C Emitter cap B r-type InGaAs

Emitter N-type InF

r-type silicon Base p-type InGaAs C
p-type silicon Collector r-type InGaAs
r-type silicon
Sub-collector r-type InGaAs
Semi-insulating InP substrate

FIGURE 1.8 Typical layer structure of (a) silicon BJT and (b) InP/InGaAs HBT transistor.

of a conductive channel accessed by two ohmic contacts, acting as source (S) and
drain (D) terminals, respectively. The third terminal, the gate (G), forms a rectify-
ing junction with the channel or a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) structure. A
simplified structure of a metal–semiconductor n-type FET is depicted in Figure 1.9
[5]. FET devices ideally do not draw current through the gate terminal, unlike the
BJTs, which conversely require a significant base current, thus simplifying the bias-
ing arrangement. FET devices exhibit a negative temperature coefficient, resulting
10 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

Depletion
region
Gate
Source Drain

n+ n+

n-channel

Semi-insulating substrate

FIGURE 1.9 Simplified structure of FET.

TABLE 1.7
RF Power Transistors and Their Applications and Frequency of Operations
RF Transistor Drain BV [V] Frequency [GHz] Major Applications
RF power FET 65 0.001–0.4 VHF power amplifier
GaAs MesFET 16–22, 60 1–30 Radar, satellite, defense
SiC MesFET 100 0.5–2.3 Base station
GaN MesFET 160 1–30 Replacement for GaAs
Si LDMOS (FET) 65 0.5–2 Base station
Si VDMOS (FET) 65–1200 0.001–0.5 High power amplifiers, FM broadcasting,
and magnetic resonance imaging

BV, breakdown voltage; RF, radio frequency; HF, high frequency; LDMOS, laterally diffused MOSFET;
MESFET, metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor; VHF, very high frequency.

in a decreasing drain current as the temperature increases. This prevents thermal

runaway and allows multiple FETs to be connected in parallel without ballasting, a
useful property if a corporate or combined device concept has to be adopted for high-
power amplifier design.
RF MOSFET power transistors and their major applications and frequency of
operation are given in Table 1.7.

1.5.2.1 MOSFETs
MOSFETs are widely used in RF power amplifier applications, and their param-
eters are identified by manufacturers at different static and dynamic conditions.
Therefore, each MOSFET device has been manufactured with different char-
acteristics. The designer selects the appropriate device for the specific circuit
under consideration. One of the standard ways commonly used by designers for
selection of right MOSFET device is called figure of merit (FOM) [1]. There are
different types of FOMs that are used. FOM in its simplest form compares the
Radio Frequency Amplifier Basics 11

gate charge, Qg, against RdsON. The multiplication of gate charge and drain to
source on resistance relates to a certain device technology as it can be related to
the required Qg and RdsON to achieve the right scale for MOSFET. The challenge
is the relation between Qg and RdsON because MOSFET has inherent trade-offs
between ON resistance and gate charge i.e., the lower the 12 dsON, the higher
the gate charge will be. In device design, this is trade-off between conduction
loss versus switching loss. The new generation MOSFETs are manufactured to
have an improved FOM [2,6–8]. The comparison of FOM on MOSFETs manufac-
tured with different processes can be illustrated on planar MOSFET structure and
trench MOSFET structure. MOSFET with trench structure has seven times better
FOM versus planar structure as shown in Figure 1.10.
Two variations of the trench power MOSFET are shown Figure 1.11. The trench
technology has the advantage of higher cell density but is more difficult to manufac-
ture than the planar device.

Source Source
Polysilicon Source
Source gate metalization Gate
Gate oxide Oxide Gate
oxide
n+ n+
p+ Body p p
region p+
Channels n– Epi layer Channel
Higher density cell
Drift region n– Epi layer

n+ Substrate n+ Substrate

Drain
metalization Drain Drain

FIGURE 1.10 FOM comparison of planar and trench MOSFET structures.

(a) (b)
Source Source Source Source
Gate
Gate
Oxide Gate
oxide

n– Epi layer Channel

Electron flow
n+ Substrate

Drain Drain

FIGURE 1.11 Trench MOSFET. (a) Current crowding in V-Groove trench MOSFET and
(b) truncated V-Groove.
12 Linear and Switch-Mode RF Power Amplifiers

1.6 PASSIVE DEVICES
Passive components used in the design of amplifiers are inductors, capacitors, and
resistors. Their size, ratings, and packages vary depending on the operational param-
eters of the amplifier. Most of the time, capacitors and resistors need to be purchased
as off-the-shelf part, whereas inductors can be designed by the amplifier designer.

1.6.1 Inductor
Inductors can be implemented as discrete component or distributed element depend-
ing on the frequency of application. If a current flows through a wire wound, a
flux is produced through each turn as a result of magnetic flux density as shown in
Figure 1.12. The relation between the flux density and flux through each turn can be
represented as

Ψ=
∫ B ⋅ds. (1.4)

If there are N turns, then we define the flux linkage as

∫
λ = NΨ = N B ⋅ d s. (1.5)

Inductance is defined as the ratio of flux linkage to current flowing through the
windings as defined by

λ NΨ
L= = . (1.6)
I I

The inductance defined by Equation 1.6 is also known as self-inductance of the core
that is formed by the windings. The core can be an air core or a magnetic core.
Inductors can be formed as air-core inductors or magnetic-core inductors
depending on the application. When air-core inductors are formed through wind-
ings and operated at high frequency (HF), the inductor presents high-frequency

Ι Ι
+ –

FIGURE 1.12 Flux through each turn.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
father of John, but another prophet. They next went to the castle of
Aframia, where the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
repose, with their wives, and thence he returned to Jerusalem, and
there, entering the church where the holy cross of our Lord was
found, he recovered his sight.
After remaining some time at Jerusalem, Willibald set out on another
journey, and came first to St. George, at Diospolis, which is ten miles
from Jerusalem, and then to a town where there is a church of St.
Peter the apostle, who here restored to life the widow named
Dorcas. He went thence to the coast, far away from Jerusalem, to
Tyre and Sidon, which stand on the sea-shore six miles from each
other; after which he passed over Mount Libanus, to Damascus, and
so again to Cæsarea, and a third time to Jerusalem, where he
passed the following winter. And then he went to the town of
Ptolemais, on the extreme bounds of Syria, and was obliged by
sickness to remain there all Lent. His companions went forward to
the king of the Saracens, named Emir-al-Mumenin, with the hope of
obtaining letters of safe conduct; but they could not find the king,
because he had fled out of his kingdom. Upon this, they came back,
and remained together at Ptolemais until the week before Easter.
Then they went again to Emessa, and asked the governor there to
give them letters, and he gave them a letter for each two, because
they could not travel in a company, but only two and two, on
account of the difficulty of obtaining food. And then they went to
Damascus, and returned a fourth time to Jerusalem, where they
remained a short period.
They now left Jerusalem by another route, and came to the town of
Sebaste, which was formerly called Samaria, and they call the castle
Sebastia. Here repose St. John the Baptist, and the prophets Abdiah
and Elisha; and near the castle is the well at which our Lord asked
for water of the Samaritan woman, and over which well there is now
a church. And near is the mountain on which the Samaritans
worshipped; for the woman said to our Lord, "Our fathers
worshipped in this mountain, and ye say that in Jerusalem is the
place where men ought to worship."[38] Here the travellers
performed their devotions, and then they proceeded to a large town
on the farthest borders of Samaria, where they reposed that night.
And thence they continued their journey over an extensive plain
covered with olive trees, and they were accompanied by a black with
two camels and a mule, who was conducting a woman through the
wood. And on their way they were met by a lion[39], which
threatened them much with fearful roaring; but the black
encouraged them, and told them to go forwards; and when they
approached it, the lion, as God willed, hurried off in another
direction, and they soon heard his roaring in the distance. They
supposed he came there to devour people who went into the wood
to gather olives. At length they arrived at a town called Thalamartha,
on the sea-coast; and they proceeded onwards to the head of Mount
Libanus, where it forms a promontory in the sea, and where stands
the tower of Libanus. Nobody is allowed to pass this place without
letters of safe conduct, for there is a guard in it; those who are
without such letters, are seized and sent to Tyre. That mountain is
between Tyre and Thalamartha. And so the bishop arrived again at
Tyre.
Willibald had formerly, when at Jerusalem, bought balsam, and filled
a gourd with it; and he took a gourd that was hollow, and had flax,
and filled it with rock oil[40]; and poured some in the other gourd,
and cut the small stalk, so that it fitted exactly and closed up the
mouth of the gourd. So, when they came to Tyre, the citizens
stopped them, and examined their burthens to see if they had any
thing concealed; for if they had found any thing, they would
immediately have put them to death. But they found nothing but
Willibald's gourd, which they opened, and, smelling the rock oil in
the stalk, they did not discover the balsam that was within. So they
let them go. They remained here many days waiting for a ship, and
when they had obtained one they were at sea all the winter, from
the day of St. Andrew the apostle[41] till a week before Easter, when
they reached Constantinople. Here repose in one altar the three
saints, Andrew, Timothy, and Luke the evangelist; and the sepulchre
of John Chrysostom is before the altar where the priest stands when
he performs mass. Willibald remained there two years, and was
lodged in the church, so that he might behold daily where the saints
reposed. And then he came to the town of Nice, where the emperor
Constantine held a synod, at which three hundred and eighteen
bishops were present. The church here resembles the church on
Mount Olivet, where our Lord ascended to heaven, and in it are the
pictures of the bishops who were at the synod. Willibald went thither
from Constantinople, that he might see how that church was built,
and then returned to Constantinople.
At the end of the two years they sailed, in company with the envoys
of the pope and the emperor, to the isle of Sicily, to the town of
Syracuse, and thence to Catania, and so to the city of Regia, in
Calabria; and thence to the isle of Vulcano, where is Theodoric's
Hell[42]. And when they arrived there, they went on shore to see
what sort of a hell it was; and Willibald especially, who was curious
to see the interior, was wishful to ascend to the summit of the
mountain where the opening was; but he was unable to accomplish
his wish, on account of the cinders which were thrown up from the
gulf, and settled in heaps round the brim, as snow settles on the
ground when it falls from heaven. But though Willibald was defeated
in his attempt to reach the summit, he had a near view of the
column of flame and smoke which was projected upwards from the
pit with a noise like thunder. And he saw how the pumice-stone,
which writers use[43], was thrown with the flame from the hell, and
fell into the sea, and was thence cast on the shore, where men
gathered it and carried it away. After having witnessed this
spectacle, they sailed to the church of St. Bartholomew the apostle,
which stands on the sea-shore, and came to the mountains which
are called Didymi. Thence they went by sea to Naples.
 THE VOYAGE OF BERNARD THE
WISE.

a.d. 867.
In the year from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ 867, in the
name of the Lord wishing to visit the holy places at Jerusalem, I,
Bernard, having taken for my companions two brother monks, one
of whom was of the monastery of St. Vincent at Beneventum, and
named Theudemund, and the other a Spaniard, named Stephen, we
went to Rome, to Pope Nicholas, and obtained the desired licence to
go, along with his benediction and assistance.
Thence we went to Mount Gargano, in which is the Church of St.
Michael, under one stone, covered above with oak trees; which
church is said to have been dedicated by the archangel himself. Its
entrance is from the north, and it is capable of containing sixty men.
In the interior, on the east side, is the image of the angel; to the
south is an altar on which sacrifice is offered, and no other gift is
placed there. But there is suspended before the altar a vessel in
which gifts are deposited, which also has near it other altars.
Benignatus is abbot of this place, and presides over a numerous
brotherhood.
Leaving Mount Gargano, we travelled a hundred and fifty miles, to a
city in the power of the Saracens, named Bari[44], which was
formerly subject to Beneventum. It is seated on the sea, and is
fortified to the south by two very wide walls; but to the north it
stands exposed to the sea. Here we obtained from the prince of the
city, called the sultan, the necessary arrangements for our voyage,
with two letters of safe conduct, describing our persons and the
object of our journey, to the prince of Alexandria, and to the prince
of Babylonia[45]. These princes are under the jurisdiction of the
Emir-al-Mumenin, who rules over all the Saracens, and resides in
Bagada and Axinarri, which are beyond Jerusalem.
From Bari we proceeded to the port of the city of Tarentum, a
distance of ninety miles, where we found six ships, having on board
nine thousand captives of the Christians of Beneventum. In the two
ships which sailed first, and which were bound for Africa, were three
thousand captives; and in the two which followed them, and which
went to Tunis, there were also three thousand. The two others,
which likewise contained the same number of Christian captives,
carried us to the port of Alexandria, after a voyage of thirty days.
Here we were prohibited from landing by the captain of the sailors,
who had sixty under his command, until we had given six aurei for
our leave. Thence we went to the prince of Alexandria, and showed
him the letter which the sultan had given us, to which, however, he
paid no attention, but obliged each of us to pay thirteen deniers, and
then gave us letters to the prince of Babylonia. It is the custom of
these people to take in weight only what can be weighed; and six of
our sols and six deniers make three sols and three deniers of their
money.
The city of Alexandria is adjacent to the sea. It was here that St.
Mark, preaching the gospel, bore the episcopal dignity; and outside
the eastern gate of the city is the monastery of the saint, with the
church in which he formerly reposed. But the Venetians coming
there obtained his body by stealth, and carrying it on shipboard,
sailed home with it. Without the western gate is a monastery called
The Forty Saints, in which, as well as in the former, there are a
number of monks. The port is to the north of the city; on the south
is the entrance to the Gyon, or Nile, which waters Egypt, and,
running through the middle of the city, empties itself into the sea in
the aforesaid port. We entered the river, and sailed to the south six
days, and came to the city of Babylon of Egypt, where once reigned
king Pharaoh, under whom Joseph built the seven granaries still
remaining. When we went on shore at Babylon, the guards of the
city carried us before the prince, a Saracen named Adalhacham, who
inquired of us the object of our journey, and asked us from what
princes we had letters. Whereupon we showed him the letters of the
aforesaid sultan, and those of the prince of Alexandria; but they
were of no service to us, for he sent us to prison, where we
remained six days, and then, having consulted together, we obtained
our liberty by giving more money. He then gave us letters, which
effectually protected us from any further exactions, for he was
second in command to the Emir-al-Mumenin aforesaid. Nevertheless,
when we entered the cities mentioned in the following narrative, we
were never allowed to leave them until we had received a paper or
impression of a seal, for which we had to pay one or two deniers.
There is in this city a patriarch, by name Michael[46], who by the
grace of God rules over the bishops, monks, and other Christians
throughout Egypt. These Christians are tolerated by the pagans, on
condition of paying for each person an annual tribute to the
aforesaid prince, and they live in security and freedom. This tribute
is three, or two, or one aureus, or for a meaner person thirteen
deniers. But he who cannot pay thirteen deniers, whether he be a
native or a stranger, is thrown into prison, until God or some good
Christian redeem him.
We now returned by the river Gyon, and came to the city of Sitinulh,
and thence proceeded to Malla; and from Malla we sailed across to
Damietta, which has the sea to the north, and on all other sides the
river Nile, with the exception of a small strip of land. We sailed
thence to the city of Tamnis, in which the Christians are very pious,
and exceedingly hospitable. This city possesses no land, except
where the churches stand; and there is shown the field of Thanis,
where lie, in the manner of three walls, the bodies of those who died
in the time of Moses[47]. From Tamnis we came to the city of
Faramea, where is a church of St. Mary, on the spot to which, by the
admonition of the angel, Joseph fled with the child and its mother. In
this city there is a multitude of camels, which are hired from the
natives by travellers to carry their baggage across the desert, which
is a journey of six days. At this city the desert begins; and it may
well be called a desert, for it bears neither grass nor fruit of any
kind, with the exception of palm-trees, and it is white, like a plain
covered with snow. In the middle of the route there are two
caravanserais, one called Albara, the other Albacara, in which the
Christians and pagans traffic for the things necessary on the journey.
But around them the earth is as barren as in the rest of the desert.
After Albacara the earth becomes fruitful, and continues so to the
city of Gaza, which was the city of Samson, and is very rich in all
things. Then we came to Alariza, and thence we went to Ramula,
near which is the monastery of St. George the Martyr, in which he
rests. From Ramula we hastened to the castle of Emaus; and thence
we went to the holy city of Jerusalem, where we were received in
the hostel founded there by the glorious emperor Charles[48], in
which are received all the pilgrims who speak the Roman tongue; to
which adjoins a church in honour of St. Mary, with a most noble
library, founded by the same emperor, with twelve mansions, fields,
vineyards, and a garden in the Valley of Jehoshaphat. In front of the
hospital is a market, for which every one trading there pays yearly to
him who provides it two aurei.
Within this city, besides others, there are four principal churches,
connected with each other by walls; one to the east, which contains
the Mount of Calvary, and the place in which the cross of our Lord
was found, and is called the Basilica of Constantine; another to the
south; a third to the west, in the middle of which is the sepulchre of
our Lord, having nine columns in its circuit, between which are walls
made of the most excellent stones; of which nine columns, four are
in front of the monument itself; which, with their walls, include the
stone placed before the sepulchre, which the angel rolled away, and
on which he sat after our Lord's resurrection. It is not necessary to
say more of this sepulchre, since Bede has given a full description of
it in his history[49]. I must not, however, omit to state, that on Holy
Saturday, which is the eve of Easter, the office is begun in the
morning in this church, and after it is ended the Kyrie Eleison is
chanted, until an angel comes and lights the lamps which hang over
the aforesaid sepulchre[50]; of which light the patriarch gives their
shares to the bishops and to the rest of the people, that each may
illuminate his own house. The present patriarch is called
Theodosius[51], and was brought to this place on account of his
piety from his monastery, which is fifteen miles from Jerusalem, and
was made patriarch over all the Christians in the Land of Promise.
Between the aforesaid four churches is a parvis without roof, the
walls of which shine with gold, and the pavement is laid with very
precious stone; and in the middle four chains, coming from each of
the four churches, join in a point which is said to be the middle of
the world.
There is, moreover, in the city, another church on Mount Sion, which
is called the Church of St. Simeon, where our Lord washed the feet
of his disciples, and in which is suspended our Lord's crown of
thorns. St. Mary is said to have died in this church. Near it, towards
the east, is a church in honour of St. Stephen, on the spot where he
is believed to have been stoned. And, indirectly to the east, is a
church in honour of St. Peter, in the place where he denied our Lord.
To the north is the Temple of Solomon, having a synagogue of the
Saracens[52]. To the south of it are the iron gates through which the
angel of the Lord led Peter out of prison, and which were never
opened afterwards.
Leaving Jerusalem, we descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
which is a mile from the city, containing the village of Gethsemane,
with the place of the nativity of St. Mary. In it is a round church of
St. Mary, containing her sepulchre, on which the rain never falls,
although there is no roof above it. There is also a church on the spot
where our Lord was betrayed, containing the four round tables of his
Supper. In the Valley of Jehoshaphat there is also a church of St.
Leon, in which it is said that our Lord will come at the Last
Judgment. Thence we went to Mount Olivet, on the declivity of
which is shown the place of our Lord's prayer to the Father. On the
side of the same mountain is shown the place where the Pharisees
brought to our Lord the woman taken in adultery, where there is a
church in honour of St. John, in which is preserved the writing in
marble which our Lord wrote on the ground[53]. At the summit of
the mountain, a mile from the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the place of
our Lord's ascension, in the middle of which, on the spot from which
he ascended, is an altar open to the sky, on which mass is
celebrated. Thence we proceeded to Bethany, which is to the south,
on the ascent of the mountain, one mile from the top; there is here
a monastery, with a church containing the sepulchre of Lazarus;
near which, to the north, is a pool in which, by our Lord's command,
Lazarus washed himself after he had been raised from the dead; and
he is said to have been subsequently bishop in Ephesus forty years.
On the western declivity of Mount Olivet is shown the marble from
which the Lord descended on the foal of an ass. Between these, to
the south, in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the pool of Siloah.
When we left Jerusalem on the way to Bethlehem, the place of our
Lord's nativity, distant six miles, we were shown the field in which
Habakkuk was at work when the angel of the Lord ordered him to
carry his meal to Daniel in Babylon, which is to the south, where
Nebuchadnezzar reigned, but which is now the haunt of serpents
and wild beasts. At Bethlehem there is a very large church in honour
of St. Mary, in the middle of which is a crypt under a stone, the
entrance of which is from the south, and the egress from the east, in
which is shown the manger of our Lord, on the west side of the
crypt. But the place in which our Lord cried, is to the east, having an
altar where masses are celebrated. Near this church, to the south, is
a church of the Blessed Innocents, the martyrs. One mile from
Bethlehem, is the monastery of the Holy Shepherds, to whom the
angel appeared at our Lord's nativity. Lastly, thirty miles to the east
of Jerusalem is the river Jordan, on which is the monastery of St.
John; in which space there are also many other monasteries. Among
them, one mile to the south of the city of Jerusalem, is the church of
St. Mamilla, in which are many bodies of martyrs slain by the
Saracens, and diligently buried there by her.
We returned from the holy city of Jerusalem direct to the sea, where
we took ship, and sailed sixty days in very great peril, from the
violence of the wind. At length we landed at Mons Aureus, where is
a crypt containing seven altars, and having above it a great forest;
which crypt is so dark, that none can enter it without lamps. The
abbot there is Dom Valentine. Thence we went to Rome, within
which city, to the east, in a place called Lateran, is a well-built
church in honour of St. John the Baptist, where is the special see of
the popes; and there, every year, the keys are carried to the pope
from every part of the city. On the west side of Rome is the church
of St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, where he rests; the magnitude
of which is unequalled by any church in the whole world, and it
contains a variety of ornaments. In which city repose innumerable
bodies of saints.
Here I separated from my companions; I myself proceeded thence
to St. Michael ad Duas Tumbas[54], which is a place situated on a
mountain that runs out two leagues into the sea. At the summit of
this mountain is a church in honour of St. Michael; the mountain is
surrounded by the tide twice every day, at morning and evening,
and men cannot go to the mountain until the sea retires. But on the
Feast of St. Michael the sea does not join round the mountain when
the tide comes in, but stands like walls to the right and left, so that
on that day all who wish to perform their devotions there can pass
to the mountain any hour of the day, which they cannot do on other
days. There Phinimontius, a Breton, is abbot.
Now I will tell you how the Christians keep God's law both at
Jerusalem and in Egypt. The Christians and Pagans have there such
a peace between them, that if I should go a journey, and in the
journey my camel or ass which carries my baggage should die, and I
should leave everything there without a guard, and go to the next
town to get another, on my return I should find all my property
untouched. The law of public safety is there such, that if they find in
a city, or on the sea, or on the road, any man journeying by night or
by day, without a letter, or some mark of a king or prince of that
land, he is immediately thrown into prison, till the time he can give a
good account whether he be a spy or not.
The people of Beneventum, in their pride, slew their prince, Sichard,
and did great injury to the Christian faith; then they had quarrels
and contentions among themselves, until Louis, the brother of
Lothaire and Charles[55], obtained the empire over them. And in
Romania many crimes are committed, and there are bad people
there, banditti and thieves, and so men cannot go to Rome to visit
St. Peter, unless they join together in troops, and go armed. In
Lombardy, under the reign of the aforesaid Louis, there is tolerably
good peace. The Bretons also have peace among themselves; and it
is there the custom that if any one injure another, a third
immediately comes, whoever he may be who witnesses it, and takes
up the cause of the injured man as though he were his neighbour.
And if any one is proved to have stolen more than four deniers, they
slay him, or hang him on a gallows[56].
I will add, in conclusion, that we saw in the village of Gethsemane
squared marble stones of that fineness that a man might see any
thing he liked in them, as in a looking-glass.
 THE TRAVELS OF SÆWULF.

a.d. 1102 and 1103.

I, Sæwulf, though conscious of my own unworthiness, went to offer
up my prayers at the Holy Sepulchre; but, owing to my sins, or to
the badness of the ship, being unable to proceed thither by the
direct course on the open sea, I will commence with an enumeration
of the different islands at which we touched.
Some pilgrims embark at Bari, others at Barlo (Barletta?), some at
Siponte, or at Trani; while others take ship at Otranto, the entrance
port of Apulia. We set sail from Monopoli, one day's journey from
Bari, on Sunday, being the feast of St. Mildred[57]. But starting at an
unlucky hour, as happened to us again on a subsequent occasion,
we had not proceeded more than three miles, when the mercy of
God alone saved us from perishing; for the same day the violence of
the waves wrecked our vessel, but with God's help we all reached
the shore in safety. We then went to Brandia[58], and again our ship,
being refitted, set sail on an unlucky day[59], and reached the town
of Corfu, on the eve of St. James the Apostle[60]. From thence we
were driven by a tempest to the island of Cephalonia, which we
reached on the 1st of August. Here Robert Guiscard died[61]; we
also lost some of our party, which was the cause of sadness to us.
We next touched at Polipolis[62]; after which we came to the
celebrated island of Patras, the city of which we entered for the sake
of praying to St. Andrew the Apostle, who suffered martyrdom and
was buried here, but was afterwards translated to Constantinople.
From Patras we went to Corinth, which we reached on the eve of St.
Lawrence[63]. St. Paul preached the word of God here, and wrote an
epistle to the citizens. In this place we suffered many contrarieties.
Thence we sailed to the port of Hosta[64]; from which place we
proceeded, some on foot, others on asses, to the city of Thebes,
vulgarly called Stivas. On the eve of St. Bartholomew the
Apostle[65], we came to Nigropont, where we hired another ship.
Athens, where the Apostle Paul preached, is two days' journey from
Corinth; St. Dionysius was born and taught there, and was
afterwards converted by St. Paul. Here is a church of the blessed
Virgin Mary, which has a lamp that burns always and never wants
oil.
We went afterwards to the island of Petalion[66]; thence to Andros,
where are made rich sindals and samits and other stuffs of silk. We
then touched successively at Tinos, Syra, Miconi, and Naxia, near
which is the famous island of Crete. Next we came to Carea (Khero),
Amorgo, Samos, Scio, and Meteline. We then proceeded to Pathmos,
where St. John the Apostle and Evangelist, banished by Domitian
Cæsar, wrote the Revelations. On the side towards Smyrna, a day's
journey distant, is Ephesus, where he afterwards entered the
sepulchre living; the apostle Paul, moreover, wrote an Epistle to the
Ephesians. Then we came to the isles of Lero and Calimno, and
afterwards to Ancho[67], where Galen, the physician most celebrated
among the Greeks, was born. Thence we passed over to the port of
Lido[68], a city destroyed, where Titus, the disciple of St. Paul,
preached. Next, to Asus, which is interpreted silvery.
Our next station was the famous island of Rhodes, which is said to
have possessed one of the seven wonders of the world, the idol
called Colossus, which was a hundred and twenty feet high, and was
destroyed by the Persians, with nearly all the province of Romania,
when they were on their way to Spain. These are the Colossians, to
whom St. Paul the Apostle wrote his epistle[69]. Hence, it is a
distance of one day to the city of Patera, where St. Nicholas the
archbishop was born, and where we arrived in the evening, after
escaping a violent storm. Next morning we sailed to an entirely
desolate town called Mogronissi of St. Mary, which means Long
Island, which it would appear by the churches and other buildings
had been inhabited by the Christians, after they had been driven by
the Turks from Alexandria[70]. Then we came to the city of Myra,
where St. Nicholas was archbishop, and which is the port of the
Adriatic Sea, as Constantinople is the port of the Ægean Sea. After
having worshipped at the sepulchre of the saint, we sailed to the
island which is called Xindacopo[71], which means sixty oars, on
account of the force of the sea; near it is the port and district of
Finica. Thence we sailed over the broad part of the Adriatic Sea[72],
to the city of Paffus (Baffo), which is in the isle of Cyprus, where all
the Apostles met after the ascension of our Lord, and held a council
for the arrangement of the affairs of the gospel, on which occasion
they sent forth St. Barnabas to preach; after whose death St. Peter
went thence to Joppa, and sowed the seed of God's word there,
before he ascended the episcopal see of Antioch.
After leaving the isle of Cyprus, we were tossed about by
tempestuous weather for seven days and seven nights, being forced
back one night almost to the spot from which we sailed; but after
much suffering, by divine mercy, at sun-rise on the eighth day, we
saw before us the coast of the port of Joppa, which filled us with an
unexpected and extraordinary joy. Thus, after a course of thirteen
weeks, as we took ship at Monopoli, on a Sunday, having dwelt
constantly on the waves of the sea, or in islands, or in deserted cots
and sheds (for the Greeks are not hospitable), we put into the port
of Joppa, with great rejoicings and thanksgivings, on a Sunday[73].
And now, my dear friends, all join with me in thanking God for his
mercy shown to me through this long voyage; blessed be his name
now and evermore! Listen now to a new instance of his mercy
shown to me, although the lowest of his servants, and to my
companions. The very day we came in sight of the port, one said to
me (I believe by divine inspiration), "Sir, go on shore to-day, lest a
storm come on in the night, which will render it impossible to land
to-morrow." When I heard this, I was suddenly seized with a great
desire of landing, and, having hired a boat, went into it, with all my
companions; but, before I had reached the shore, the sea was
troubled, and became continually more tempestuous. We landed,
however, with God's grace, without hurt, and entering the city weary
and hungry, we secured a lodging, and reposed ourselves that night.
But next morning, as we were returning from church, we heard the
roaring of the sea, and the shouts of the people, and saw that every
body was in confusion and astonishment. We were also dragged
along with the crowd to the shore, where we saw the waves swelling
higher than mountains, and innumerable bodies of drowned persons
of both sexes scattered over the beach, while the fragments of ships
were floating on every side. Nothing was to be heard but the roaring
of the sea and the dashing together of the ships, which drowned
entirely the shouts and clamour of the people. Our own ship, which
was a very large and strong one, and many others laden with corn
and merchandise, as well as with pilgrims coming and returning, still
held by their anchors, but how they were tossed by the waves! how
their crews were filled with terror! how they cast overboard their
merchandise! what eye of those who were looking on could be so
hard and stony as to refrain from tears? We had not looked at them
long before the ships were driven from their anchors by the violence
of the waves, which threw them now up aloft, and now down, until
they were run aground or upon the rocks, and there they were
beaten backwards and forwards until they were crushed to pieces.
For the violence of the wind would not allow them to put out to sea,
and the character of the coast would not allow them to put into
shore with safety. Of the sailors and pilgrims who had lost all hope
of escape, some remained on the ships, others laid hold of the masts
or beams of wood; many remained in a state of stupor, and were
drowned in that condition without any attempt to save themselves;
some (although it may appear incredible) had in my sight their
heads knocked off by the very timbers of the ships to which they
had attached themselves for safety; others were carried out to sea
on the beams, instead of being brought to land; even those who
knew how to swim had not strength to struggle with the waves, and
very few thus trusting to their own strength reached the shore alive.
Thus, out of thirty very large ships, of which some were what are
commonly called dromunds, some gulafres, and others cats[74], all
laden with palmers and with merchandise, scarcely seven remained
safe when we left the shore. Of persons of both sexes, there
perished more than a thousand that day. Indeed, no eye ever beheld
a greater misfortune in the space of a single day, from all which God
snatched us by his grace; to whom be honour and glory for ever.
Amen.
We went up from Joppa to the city of Jerusalem, a journey of two
days, by a mountainous road, very rough, and dangerous on account
of the Saracens, who lie in wait in the caves of the mountains to
surprise the Christians, watching both day and night to surprise
those less capable of resisting by the smallness of their company, or
the weary, who may chance to lag behind their companions. At one
moment, you see them on every side; at another, they are
altogether invisible, as may be witnessed by any body travelling
there. Numbers of human bodies lie scattered in the way, and by the
way-side, torn to pieces by wild beasts. Some may, perhaps, wonder
that the bodies of Christians are allowed to remain unburied, but it is
not surprising when we consider that there is not much earth on the
hard rock to dig a grave; and if earth were not wanting, who would
be so simple as to leave his company, and go alone to dig a grave
for a companion? Indeed, if he did so, he would rather be digging a
grave for himself than for the dead man. For on that road, not only
the poor and weak, but the rich and strong, are surrounded with
perils; many are cut off by the Saracens, but more by heat and
thirst; many perish by the want of drink, but more by too much
drinking. We, however, with all our company, reached the end of our
journey in safety. Blessed be the Lord, who did not turn away my
prayer, and hath not turned his mercy from me. Amen.
The entrance to the city of Jerusalem is from the west, under the
citadel of king David, by the gate which is called the gate of David.
The first place to be visited is the church of the Holy Sepulchre,
which is called the Martyrdom, not only because the streets lead
most directly to it, but because it is more celebrated than all the
other churches; and that rightly and justly, for all the things which
were foretold and forewritten by the holy prophets of our Saviour
Jesus Christ were there actually fulfilled. The church itself was
royally and magnificently built, after the discovery of our Lord's
cross, by the archbishop Maximus, with the patronage of the
emperor Constantine, and his mother Helena. In the middle of this
church is our Lord's Sepulchre, surrounded by a very strong wall and
roof, lest the rain should fall upon the Holy Sepulchre, for the church
above is open to the sky. This church is situated, like the city, on the
declivity of Mount Sion. The Roman emperors Titus and Vespasian,
to revenge our Lord, entirely destroyed the city of Jerusalem, that
our Lord's prophecy might be fulfilled, which, as he approached
Jerusalem, seeing the city, he pronounced, weeping over it, "If thou
hadst known, even thou, for the day shall come upon thee, that
thine enemies shall cast a trench about thee, and compass thee
round, and keep thee in on every side, and shall lay thee even with
the ground, and thy children with thee; and they shall not leave in
thee one stone upon another."[75] We know that our Lord suffered
without the gate. But the emperor Hadrian, who was called Ælius,
rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and the Temple of the Lord, and added
to the city as far as the Tower of David, which was previously a
considerable distance from the city, for any one may see from the
Mount of Olivet where the extreme western walls of the city stood
originally, and how much it is since increased. And the emperor
called the city after his own name Ælia, which is interpreted the
House of God. Some, however, say that the city was rebuilt by the
emperor Justinian, and also the Temple of the Lord as it is now; but
they say that according to supposition, and not according to truth.
For the Assyrians[76], whose fathers dwelt in that country from the
first persecution, say that the city was taken and destroyed many
times after our Lord's Passion, along with all the churches, but not
entirely defaced.
In the court of the church of our Lord's sepulchre are seen some
very holy places, namely, the prison in which our Lord Jesus Christ
was confined after he was betrayed, according to the testimony of
the Assyrians; then, a little above, appears the place where the holy
cross and the other crosses were found, where afterwards a large
church was built in honour of queen Helena, but which has since
been utterly destroyed by the Pagans; and below, not far from the
prison, stands the marble column to which our Lord Jesus Christ was
bound in the common hall, and scourged with most cruel stripes.
Near this is the spot where our Lord was stripped of his garments by
the soldiers; and next, the place where he was clad in a purple vest
by the soldiers, and crowned with the crown of thorns, and they cast
lots for his garments. Next we ascend Mount Calvary, where the
patriarch Abraham raised an altar, and prepared, by God's command,
to sacrifice his own son; there afterwards the Son of God, whom he
prefigured, was offered up as a sacrifice to God the Father for the
redemption of the world. The rock of that mountain remains a
witness of our Lord's passion, being much cracked near the foss in
which our Lord's cross was fixed, because it could not suffer the
death of its Maker without splitting, as we read in the Passion, "and
the rocks rent."[77] Below is the place called Golgotha, where Adam
is said to have been raised to life by the blood of our Lord which fell
upon him, as is said in the Passion, "And many bodies of the saints
which slept arose."[78] But in the Sentences of St. Augustine, we
read that he was buried in Hebron, where also the three patriarchs
were afterwards buried with their wives; Abraham with Sarah, Isaac
with Rebecca, and Jacob with Leah; as well as the bones of Joseph,
which the Children of Israel carried with them from Egypt. Near the
place of Calvary is the church of St. Mary, on the spot where the
body of our Lord, after having been taken down from the cross, was
anointed before it was buried, and wrapped in a linen cloth or
shroud.
At the head of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the wall outside,
not far from the place of Calvary, is the place called Compas, which
our Lord Jesus Christ himself signified and measured with his own
hand as the middle of the world, according to the words of the
Psalmist, "For God is my king of old, working salvation in the midst
of the earth."[79] But some say that that is the place where our Lord
Jesus Christ first appeared to Mary Magdalene, while she sought him
weeping, and thought he had been a gardener, as is related in the
Gospel. These most holy places of prayer are contained in the court
of our Lord's Sepulchre, on the east side. In the sides of the church
itself are attached, on one side and the other, two most beautiful
chapels in honour of St. Mary and St. John, as they, participating in
our Lord's sufferings, stationed themselves beside him here and
there. On the west wall of the chapel of St. Mary is seen the picture
of our Lord's Mother, painted externally, who once, by speaking
wonderfully through the Holy Spirit, in the form in which she is here
painted, comforted Mary the Egyptian, when she repented with her
whole heart, and sought the help of the Mother of our Lord, as we
read in her life. On the other side of the church of St. John is a very
fair monastery of the Holy Trinity, in which is the place of the
baptistery, to which adjoins the chapel of St. John the Apostle, who
first filled the pontifical see at Jerusalem. These are all so composed
and arranged, that any one standing in the furthest church may
clearly perceive the five churches from door to door.
Without the gate of the Holy Sepulchre, to the south, is the church
of St. Mary, called the Latin, because the monks there perform divine
service in the Latin tongue; and the Assyrians say that the blessed
Mother of our Lord, at the crucifixion of her Son, stood on the spot
now occupied by the altar of this church. Adjoining to this church is
another church of St. Mary, called the Little, occupied by nuns who
serve devoutly the Virgin and her Son. Near which is the Hospital,
where is a celebrated monastery founded in honour of St. John the
Baptist.
We descend from our Lord's sepulchre, about the distance of two
arbalist-shots, to the Temple of the Lord, which is to the east of the
Holy Sepulchre, the court of which is of great length and breadth,
having many gates; but the principal gate, which is in front of the
Temple, is called the Beautiful, on account of its elaborate
workmanship and variety of colours, and is the spot where Peter
healed Claudius, when he and John went up into the Temple at the
ninth hour of prayer, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles. The
place where Solomon built the Temple was called anciently Bethel;
whither Jacob repaired by God's command, and where he dwelt, and
saw the ladder whose summit touched heaven, and the angels
ascending and descending, and said, "Truly this place is holy," as we
read in Genesis. There he raised a stone as a memorial, and
constructed an altar, and poured oil upon it; and in the same place
afterwards, by God's will, Solomon built a temple to the Lord of
magnificent and incomparable work, and decorated it wonderfully
with every ornament, as we read in the Book of Kings. It exceeded
all the mountains around in height, and all walls and buildings in
brilliancy and glory. In the middle of which temple is seen a high and
large rock, hollowed beneath, in which was the Holy of Holies. In
this place Solomon placed the Ark of the Covenant, having the
Manna and the Rod of Aaron, which flourished and budded there
and produced almonds, and the two Tables of the Testament; here
our Lord Jesus Christ, wearied with the insolence of the Jews, was
accustomed to repose; here was the place of confession, where his
disciples confessed themselves to him; here the angel Gabriel
appeared to Zacharias, saying, "Thou shalt receive a child in thy old
age;" here Zacharias, the son of Barachias, was slain between the
temple and the altar; here the child Jesus was circumcised on the
eighth day, and named Jesus, which is interpreted Saviour; here the
Lord Jesus was offered by his parents, with the Virgin Mary, on the
day of her purification, and received by the aged Simeon; here, also,
when Jesus was twelve years of age, he was found sitting in the
midst of the doctors, hearing and interrogating them, as we read in
the Gospel; here afterwards he cast out the oxen, and sheep, and
pigeons, saying, "My house shall be a house of prayer;" and here he
said to the Jews, "Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise
it up." There still are seen in the rock the footsteps of our Lord,
when he concealed himself, and went out from the Temple, as we
read in the Gospel, lest the Jews should throw at him the stones
they carried. Thither the woman taken in adultery was brought
before Jesus by the Jews, that they might find some accusation
against him[80]. There is the gate of the city on the eastern side of
the Temple, which is called the Golden, where Joachim, the father of
the Blessed Mary, by order of the Angel of the Lord, met his wife
Anne. By the same gate the Lord Jesus, coming from Bethany on the
day of olives, sitting on an ass, entered the city of Jerusalem, while
the children sang, "Hosanna to the son of David." By this gate the
emperor Heraclius entered Jerusalem, when he returned victorious
from Persia, with the cross of our Lord; but the stones first fell down
and closed up the passage, so that the gate became one mass, until
humbling himself at the admonition of an angel, he descended from
his horse, and so the entrance was opened to him. In the court of
the Temple of the Lord, to the south, is the Temple of Solomon, of
wonderful magnitude, on the east side of which is an oratory
containing the cradle of Christ, and his bath, and the bed of the
Virgin Mary, according to the testimony of the Assyrians[81].
From the Temple of the Lord you go to the church of St. Anne, the
mother of the Blessed Mary, towards the north, where she lived with
her husband, and she was there delivered of her daughter Mary.
Near it is the pool called in Hebrew Bethsaida, having five porticoes,
of which the Gospel speaks. A little above is the place where the
woman was healed by our Lord, by touching the hem of his
garment, while he was surrounded by a crowd in the street[82].
From St. Anne we pass through the gate which leads to the Valley of
Jehoshaphat, to the church of St. Mary in the same valley, where she
was honourably buried by the Apostles after her death; her
sepulchre, as is just and proper, is revered with the greatest honours
by the faithful, and monks perform service there day and night. Here
is the brook Cedron; here also is Gethsemane, where our Lord came
with his disciples from Mount Sion, over the brook Cedron, before
the hour of his betrayal; there is a certain oratory where he
dismissed Peter, James, and John, saying, "Tarry ye here, and watch
with me;"[83] and going forward, he fell on his face and prayed, and
came to his disciples, and found them sleeping: the places are still
visible where the disciples slept, apart from each other. Gethsemane
is at the foot of Mount Olivet, and the brook Cedron below, between
Mount Sion and Mount Olivet, as it were the division of the
mountains; and the low ground between the mountains is the Valley
of Jehoshaphat. A little above, in Mount Olivet, is an oratory in the
place where our Lord prayed, as we read in the Passion, "And he
was withdrawn from them about a stone's cast, and being in an
agony, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was, as it were,
great drops of blood falling down to the ground."[84] Next we come
to Aceldama, the field bought with the price of the Lord, also at the
foot of Mount Olivet, near a valley about three or four arbalist-shots
to the south of Gethsemane, where are seen innumerable
monuments. That field is near the sepulchres of the holy fathers
Simeon the Just and Joseph the foster-father of our Lord. These two
sepulchres are ancient structures, in the manner of towers, cut into
the foot of the mountain itself. We next descend, by Aceldama, to
the fountain which is called the Pool of Siloah, where, by our Lord's
command, the man born blind washed his eyes, after the Lord had
anointed them with clay and spittle.
From the church of St. Mary before mentioned, we go up by a very
steep path nearly to the summit of Mount Olivet, towards the east,
to the place whence our Lord ascended to heaven in the sight of his
disciples. The place is surrounded by a little tower, and honourably
adorned, with an altar raised on the spot within, and also
surrounded on all sides with a wall. On the spot where the Apostles
stood with his mother, wondering at his ascension, is an altar of St.
Mary; there the two men in white garments stood by them, saying,
"Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing into heaven?" About a
stone's throw from that place is the spot where, according to the
Assyrians, our Lord wrote the Lord's Prayer in Hebrew, with his own
fingers, on marble; and there a very beautiful church was built, but
it has since been entirely destroyed by the Pagans, as are all the
churches outside the walls, except the church of the Holy Ghost on
Mount Sion, about an arrow-shot from the wall to the north, where
the Apostles received the promise of the Father, namely, the
Paraclete Spirit, on the day of Pentecost; there they made the Creed.
In that church is a chapel in the place where the Blessed Mary died.
On the other side of the church is the chapel where our Lord Jesus
Christ first appeared to the Apostles after his resurrection, and it is
called Galilee, as he said to the Apostles, "After I am risen again, I
will go before you unto Galilee."[85] That place was called Galilee,
because the Apostles, who were called Galileans, frequently rested
there.
The great city of Galilee is by Mount Tabor, a journey of three days
from Jerusalem. On the other side of Mount Tabor is the city called
Tiberias, and after it Capernaum and Nazareth, on the sea of Galilee
or sea of Tiberias, whither Peter and the other Apostles, after the
resurrection, returned to their fishing, and where the Lord
afterwards showed himself to them on the sea. Near the city of
Tiberias is the field where the Lord Jesus blessed the five loaves and
two fishes, and afterwards fed four thousand men with them, as we
read in the Gospel. But I will return to my immediate subject.
In the Galilee of Mount Sion, where the Apostles were concealed in
an inner chamber, with closed doors, for fear of the Jews, Jesus
stood in the middle of them and said, "Peace be unto you;"[86] and
he again appeared there when Thomas put his finger into his side
and into the place of the nails. There he supped with his disciples
before the Passion, and washed their feet; and the marble table is
still preserved there on which he supped. There the relics of St.
Stephen, Nicodemus, Gamaliel, and Abido, were honourably
deposited by St. John the Patriarch after they were found. The
stoning of St. Stephen took place about two or three arbalist-shots
without the wall, to the north, where a very handsome church was
built, which has been entirely destroyed by the Pagans. The church
of the Holy Cross, about a mile to the west of Jerusalem, in the
place where the holy cross was cut out, and which was also a very
handsome one, has been similarly laid waste by the Pagans; but the
destruction here fell chiefly on the surrounding buildings and the
cells of the monks, the church itself not having suffered so much.
Under the wall of the city, outside, on the declivity of Mount Sion, is
the church of St. Peter, which is called the Gallican, where, after
having denied his Lord, he hid himself in a very deep crypt, as may
still be seen there, and there wept bitterly for his offence. About
three miles to the west of the church of the Holy Cross is a very fine
and large monastery in honour of St. Saba, who was one of the
seventy-two disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ. There were above
three hundred Greek monks living there, in the service of the Lord
and of the Saint, of whom the greater part have been slain by the
Saracens, and the few who remain have taken up their abode in
another monastery of the same Saint, within the walls of the city,
near the tower of David, their other monastery being left entirely
desolate.
The city of Bethlehem in Judea is six miles to the north of Jerusalem.
The Saracens have left nothing there habitable, but every thing is
destroyed (as in the other holy places without the walls of the city of
Jerusalem) except the monastery of the blessed Virgin Mary, which
is a large and noble building. In the church there is a crypt under
the choir, about the middle, in which is seen the place of our Lord's
nativity, as it were to the left. A little lower, to the right, near the
place of the nativity, is the manger where the ox and ass stood when
the child was placed before them in it; and the stone which
supported the head of our Saviour in the sepulchre, which was
brought hither from Jerusalem by St. Jerome the Presbyter, may be
seen in the manger. St. Jerome himself rests in the same church,
under the altar, to the north-east; and the innocents who were slain
for the infant Christ, by Herod, lie under the altar on the north part
of the church, as well as the two most holy women, Paula and her
daughter Eustochium, the virgin. There is the marble table on which
the blessed Virgin Mary eat with the three Magians, after they had
given their offerings. There is a cistern in the church, near the crypt
of our Lord's nativity, into which the star is said to have fallen.
There, also, is said to be the bath of the blessed Virgin Mary.
Bethany, where Lazarus was raised by our Lord from the dead, is
distant from the city about two miles to the east, on the other side
of Mount Olivet, and contains the church of St. Lazarus, in which is
seen his sepulchre, as well as those of many bishops of Jerusalem.
Under the altar is the place where Mary Magdalene washed the feet
of our Lord Jesus with her tears, and wiped them with her hair, and
kissed his feet and anointed them with ointment. Bethphage, where
our Lord sent forward his disciples to the city, is on Mount Olivet, but
nearly all traces of it have disappeared. Jericho, where is the garden
of Abraham, is ten leagues from Jerusalem, in a land covered with
trees, and producing all kinds of palms and other fruits. There is the
well of the prophet Elisha, the water of which was most bitter to
drink and productive of sterility, until he blessed it and threw salt
into it, when it became sweet. This place is surrounded on every
side by a beautiful plain. From thence we ascend a lofty mountain,
to the spot where our Lord fasted forty days, and where he was
afterwards tempted by Satan, about three miles from Jericho.
The river Jordan is four leagues to the east of Jericho. On this side
Jordan is the region called Judea, as far as the Adriatic Sea, that is,
to the port which is called Joppa; on the other side Jordan is Arabia,
most hostile to Christians, and hateful to all who worship God, in
which is the mountain whence Elijah was carried into heaven in a
fiery chariot. It is eighteen days' journey from Jordan to Mount Sinai,
where the Lord appeared to Moses in the burning bush, and where,
afterwards, Moses ascended by God's command, and was there
fasting forty days and as many nights, and there received from the
Lord the two stone tables, written by the finger of God, to teach the
Children of Israel the law and the commandments, which were
contained in the same tables.
Hebron, where the holy patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
repose, each with his wife, and where Adam, the first of mankind, is
also buried, is distant from Bethlehem four leagues to the south.
Here king David reigned seven years, before he obtained possession
of the city of Jerusalem from the family of king Saul. The city of
Hebron, which was large and very handsome, is destroyed by the
Saracens. On the eastern side of it the monuments of the holy
patriarchs, of ancient workmanship, are surrounded by a very strong
castle, each of the three monuments being like a great church, with
two sarcophagi placed in a very honourable manner within, that is,
one for the man and one for the woman; and, even at the present
day, the smell of the balsam and precious aromatics with which the
bodies were anointed, rising sweetly from the sepulchre, fills the
nostrils of those who stand round them. But the bones of Joseph,
which the Children of Israel, as he had charged them, brought with
them out of Egypt, are buried, more humbly than the rest, as it
were, at the extremity of the castle. The holm-oak, under the shade
of which Abraham stood when he saw the three youths descending
by the road, still flourishes and bears leaves, according to the
statement of the inhabitants of the place, not far distant from the
aforesaid castle.
The city of Nazareth of Galilee, where the blessed Virgin Mary
received the salutation of our Lord's nativity from the angel, is about
four days' journey from Jerusalem, the road lying through Sichem, a
city of Samaria, which is now called Neapolis, where St. John the
Baptist received sentence of decollation from Herod. There, also, is
the well of Jacob, where Jesus, weary with his journey, thirsty, and
sitting upon the well, condescended to ask water of the Samaritan
woman who came thither to draw it, as we read in the Gospel. From
Sichem we come to Cæsarea of Palestine, from Cæsarea to
Cayphas[87], and from Cayphas to Accaron[88]. Nazareth is about
eight miles to the east of Accaron. The city of Nazareth is entirely
laid waste and overthrown by the Saracens; but the place of the
annunciation of our Lord is indicated by a very noble monastery. A
most limpid fountain bubbles out near the city, still surrounded, as
formerly, with marble columns and blocks, from which the child
Jesus, with other children, often drew water for the use of his
mother.
From Nazareth we proceed about four miles to the east, to Mount
Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguration, which is covered in an
extraordinary manner with grass and flowers, and rises in the middle
of the green plain of Galilee so as to exceed in altitude all the
mountains which, though at a distance, surround it. On the summit
still remain three ancient monasteries; one in honour of our Lord
Jesus Christ; another in honour of Moses; and a third, at some
distance from the others, in honour of Elias, according to the words
of Peter, "Lord, it is good for us to be here; if thou wilt, let us make
here three tabernacles, one for thee, and one for Moses, and one for
Elias."[89]
The sea of Galilee is about six miles from Mount Tabor to the east
and north-east, and is about ten miles long by five in breadth. The
city of Tiberias stands on the sea-shore on one side, and on the
other side are Corozaim and Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter.
About four miles to the north-east of the city of Tiberias is the castle
of Gennesareth, where the Lord appeared to the disciples when
fishing, as we learn from the Gospel. About two miles to the east of
Gennesareth is the mount on which our Lord Jesus fed five thousand
men with five loaves and two fishes. This mount is called by the
inhabitants our Lord's table; and at its foot stands a very beautiful
church of St. Peter, but deserted. Six miles to the north-east of
Nazareth, on a hill, is Cana of Galilee, where our Lord converted
water into wine at the marriage feast. There nothing is left standing
except the monastery called that of Architriclinius[90]. About half
way between Nazareth and Galilee is a castle which is called Roma,
where all travellers from Accaron to Tiberias are lodged, having
Nazareth on the right, and Galilee to the left.
A day's journey to the north-east of Tiberias is Mount Libanus, at the
foot of which the river Jordan boils out from two foundations, of
which one is called Jor, and the other Dan; the streams of which,
joining in one, become a very rapid river, and take the name of
Jordan. Its origin is near Cæsarea, the city of Philip the Tetrarch, in
the district where Jesus, as is related in the Gospel, interrogated his
disciples, saying, "Whom do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?"
[91] Now the river Jordan, flowing from its spring with a very rapid
course, falls into the sea of Galilee on one side, and passing out of it
on the opposite side, by the violence of its current, makes itself a
bed, through which it runs a distance of eight days' journey, and
then falls into the Dead Sea. The water of the Jordan is whiter and
more of a milky colour than any other water, and it may be
distinguished by its colour a long distance into the Dead Sea.
Having, to the best of our power, visited and paid our devotion at all
the holy places in the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding country,
we took ship at Joppa on the day of Pentecost[92], on our return;
but, fearing to meet the fleet of the Saracens, we did not venture
out into the open sea by the same course we came, but sailed along
the coast by several cities, some of which have fallen into the hands
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