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Computational
Electromagnetics
with MATLAB®
Fourth Edition
Computational
Electromagnetics
with MATLAB®
Fourth Edition
CRC Press
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To my teacher
Carl A. Ventrice
and my parents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................................................xv
A Note to Students...................................................................................................................... xvii
Author............................................................................................................................................ xix
1. Fundamental Concepts...........................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Review of EM Theory....................................................................................................3
1.2.1 Electrostatic Fields............................................................................................3
1.2.2 Magnetostatic Fields......................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Time-Varying Fields......................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Boundary Conditions.......................................................................................7
1.2.5 Wave Equations................................................................................................. 8
1.2.6 Time-Varying Potentials..................................................................................9
1.2.7 Time-Harmonic Fields................................................................................... 11
1.3 Classification of EM Problems................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Classification of Solution Regions................................................................ 15
1.3.2 Classification of Differential Equations....................................................... 15
1.3.3 Classification of Boundary Conditions........................................................ 19
1.4 Some Important Theorems......................................................................................... 21
1.4.1 Superposition Principle.................................................................................. 21
1.4.2 Uniqueness Theorem...................................................................................... 21
References................................................................................................................................ 27
2. Analytical Methods............................................................................................................... 29
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 29
2.2 Separation of Variables................................................................................................ 29
2.3 Separation of Variables in Rectangular Coordinates.............................................. 32
2.3.1 Laplace’s Equation.......................................................................................... 32
2.3.2 Wave Equation................................................................................................. 36
2.4 Separation of Variables in Cylindrical Coordinates...............................................42
2.4.1 Wave Equation................................................................................................. 45
2.5 Separation of Variables in Spherical Coordinates................................................... 56
2.5.1 Laplace’s Equation.......................................................................................... 57
2.5.2 Wave Equation................................................................................................. 61
2.6 Some Useful Orthogonal Functions.......................................................................... 71
2.7 Series Expansion..........................................................................................................80
2.7.1 Poisson’s Equation in a Cube.........................................................................80
2.7.2 Poisson’s Equation in a Cylinder.................................................................. 82
2.7.3 Strip Transmission Line.................................................................................85
2.8 Practical Applications..................................................................................................90
2.8.1 Scattering by Dielectric Sphere..................................................................... 90
2.8.2 Scattering Cross Sections............................................................................... 95
2.9 Attenuation due to Raindrops.................................................................................... 98
vii
viii Contents
Since the third edition of this book was published, there has been a noticeable increase of
interest in computational electromagnetics (CEM), also known as numerical electromagnetics.
This is evident by the amount of dissertations, theses, books, and articles on CEM appearing
in journals and conferences each year. Along with this development is the rapid growth
in commercial or free codes for designing complex EM problems. In spite of these cheap
and powerful computational tools, there is a need to learn the fundamental analytical and
numerical concepts behind the codes. It is beneficial to understand the inherent limitations
of the commercial software. Experience shows that students learn more by developing their
codes than just pushing buttons in a commercial software package. Also, a closer look at the
newly published books reveals that they are not suitable for classroom use due to lack of
examples and practice problems at the end of each chapter. There is still a need for a good
introductory textbook for the CEM community. This book meets the need.
The book has the following features:
• It is comprehensive. Some CEM books cover just one numerical technique, while
some cover only finite difference method (particularly FDTD), finite element
method, and method of moments. In addition to these, this present book covers
variational methods, transmission-line-modeling (TLM), method of lines, and
Monte Carlo method.
• It presents several examples with MATLAB codes where applicable. I believe
that CEM is best learned through direct programming. Commercially packaged
programs can be useful, but they should not take priority over direct programming.
• It provides several end-of-chapter problems with answers to odd-numbered
problems in Appendix E.
• Each chapter presents a clear, concise introduction to a numerical method in EM
and provides up-to-date references to information on the method. The last section
of the chapter is devoted to application(s) of the method.
When the first edition of this book was written, the term “Computational Electromagnetics”
was not common. Now, it is the most common term used in describing the emerging field.
Since it is expedient to use the latest term or development, the former name of the book,
Numerical Techniques in Electromagnetics, has been changed to Computational Electromagnetics
with MATLAB®. This is part of the process of making another edition—catching up with
the trends in this exciting field.
Although the book can be covered in one semester, enough material is provided for two-
semester coverage. For two-semesters, it is suggested that Chapters 1 through 5 be covered
in one semester, while Chapters 6 through 9 is covered in the second semester. In addition
to serving as an introductory text for students, the book will also serve as a concise, up-to-
date reference for researchers and professionals in CEM.
The book provides a comprehensive bibliography that serves as the best resources for
learning more about CEM. Appendix A is on vector analysis, while Appendix B provides
programming in MATLAB. Appendix C covers briefly direct and iterative procedure for
xiii
xiv Preface
I would like to thank Dr. Sarhan Musa of Prairie View A&M University, Dr. Andrew
Peterson of Georgia Institute of Technology, Dr. Jian-Ming Jin of the University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, and Dr. David Davidson of University of Stellenbosch for allowing
me to use their works. I would like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Shield Lin, dean of
the College of Engineering, and Dr. Pamela Obiomon, head of the Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, at Prairie View A&M University. I am also grateful to Nora
Konopka, Kyra Lindholm, and other staff of CRC Press for their professional touch on the
book. I express my profound gratitude to my wife, Kikelomo, for her sacrifices and prayer.
xv
A Note to Students
Before you embark on writing your own computer program or using the ones in this text,
you should try to understand all relevant theoretical backgrounds. A computer is no more
than a tool used in the analysis of a problem. For this reason, you should be as clear as
possible what the machine is really being asked to do before setting it off on several hours
of expensive computations.
It has been well said by A. C. Doyle that, “It is a capital mistake to theorize before you
have all the evidence. It biases the judgment.” Therefore, you should never trust the results
of numerical computation unless they are validated, as least in part. You validate the
results by comparing them with those obtained by previous investigators or with similar
results obtained using a different approach, which may be analytical or numerical. For
this reason, it is advisable that you become familiar with as many numerical techniques
as possible.
The references provided at the end of each chapter are by no means exhaustive but are
meant to serve as the starting point for further reading.
xvii
Author
Matthew N.O. Sadiku earned his BSc in 1978 from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria and his MSc and PhD from Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN
in 1982 and 1984, respectively. From 1984 to 1988, he was an assistant professor at Florida
Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, where he worked as a graduate in computer science.
From 1988 to 2000, he was at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, where he became a full
professor. From 2000 to 2002, he was with Lucent/Avaya, Holmdel, NJ as a system engineer
and with Boeing Satellite Systems, Los Angeles, CA as a senior scientist. He is presently a
professor of electrical and computer engineering at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie
View, TX.
He is the author of over 450 professional papers and over 70 books including Elements
of Electromagnetics (Oxford University Press, 7th ed., 2018), Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
(McGraw-Hill, 6th ed., 2017, with C. Alexander), Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB®
(CRC, 4th ed., 2018), Metropolitan Area Networks (CRC Press, 1995), and Principles of Modern
Communication Systems (Cambridge University Press, 2017, with S. O. Agbo). In addition
to the engineering books, he has written Christian books including Secrets of Successful
Marriages, How to Discover God’s Will for Your Life, and commentaries on all the books of the
New Testament Bible. Some of his books have been translated into French, Korean, Chinese
(and Chinese Long Form in Taiwan), Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish.
He was the recipient of the 2000 McGraw-Hill/Jacob Millman Award for outstanding
contributions in the field of electrical engineering. He was also the recipient of Regents
Professor award for 2012–2013 by the Texas A&M University System. He is a registered
professional engineer and a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) “for contributions to computational electromagnetics and engineering education.”
He was the IEEE Region 2 Student Activities Committee Chairman. He was an associate
editor for IEEE Transactions on Education. He is also a member of Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) and American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE). His current
research interests are in the areas of CEM, computer networks, and engineering education.
His works can be found in his autobiography, My Life and Work (Trafford Publishing, 2017)
or his website: www.matthewsadiku.com. He currently resides with his wife Kikelomo in
Hockley, Texas. He can be reached via email at sadiku@ieee.org
xix
1
Fundamental Concepts
—Joel Comiskey
1.1 Introduction
Scientists and engineers use several techniques in solving continuum or field problems.
Loosely speaking, these techniques can be classified as experimental, analytical, or
numerical. The three are related as shown in Figure 1.1 [1]. Experiments are expensive,
time consuming, sometimes hazardous, and usually do not allow much flexibility
in parameter variation. However, every numerical method, as we shall see, involves
an analytic simplification to the point where it is easy to apply the numerical method.
Notwithstanding this fact, the following methods are among the most commonly used in
electromagnetics (EM).
The numerical techniques mentioned above are usually known as low-frequency methods
because they solve Maxwell’s equation without making approximations and are limited
to geometries of small electrical size. High-frequency methods include optical physics,
geometrical theory of diffraction, and physical theory of diffraction. These techniques are
too specialized and will not be covered in this book.
1
2 Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB®
Simulation
Nature
Theory Experiment
FIGURE 1.1
Relationship between experiment, theory, and simulation [1].
In the past 50 years, the electromagnetic (EM) community has witnessed a breathtaking
evolution in the way we solve and apply EM concepts. With the ever-increasing power and
memory of the digital computers, the art of computational electromagnetics (CEM) has
gained momentum.
CEM deals with numerical methods applied in solving EM problems. It is based on
computer implementation of mathematical models of EM systems using Maxwell equations.
CEM tools are useful in analyzing and designing power systems, electrical machines,
generators, transformers, microwave networks, waveguides, antennas, and aircraft. They
are also used in predicting the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) between complex
electronic systems and their environment. For this reason, CEM is of increasing importance
to the civil and defense sectors [2].
Application of these methods is not limited to EM-related problems; they find applications
in other continuum problems such as in fluid, heat transfer, and acoustics.
As we shall see, some of the numerical methods are related and they all generally give
approximate solutions of sufficient accuracy for engineering purposes. Since our objective
is to study these methods in detail in the subsequent chapters, it may be premature to say
more than this at this point.
The need for numerical solution of EM problems is best expressed in the words of Paris
and Hurd: “Most problems that can be solved formally (analytically) have been solved.”
Until the 1940s, most EM problems were solved using the classical methods of separation of
variables and integral equation solutions. Besides the fact that a high degree of ingenuity,
experience, and effort were required to apply those methods, only a narrow range of
practical problems could be investigated due to the complex geometries defining the
problems.
EM started in the mid-1960s with the availability of modern high-speed digital computers.
Since then, considerable effort has been expended on solving practical, complex EM-related
problems for which closed-form analytical solutions are either intractable or do not exist.
The numerical approach has the advantage of allowing the actual work to be carried out by
operators without a knowledge of higher mathematics or physics, with a resulting economy
of labor on the part of the highly trained personnel.
Before we set out to study the various techniques used in analyzing EM problems, it is
expedient to remind ourselves of the physical laws governing EM phenomena in general.
This will be done in Section 1.2. In Section 1.3, we shall become acquainted with different
ways EM problems are categorized. The principle of superposition and the uniqueness
theorem will be covered in Section 1.4.
Fundamental Concepts 3
∫ F ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇⋅ F dv
s v
(1.1)
∫ F ⋅ dI = ∫ ∇×F ⋅ dS
L S
(1.2)
Perhaps the best way to review EM theory is by using the fundamental concept of electric
charge. EM theory can be regarded as the study of fields produced by electric charges
at rest and in motion. Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges,
whereas magnetostatic fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform velocity
(direct current). Dynamic or time-varying fields are usually due to accelerated charges or
time-varying currents.
∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ρ dv v
(1.3)
which is a direct consequence of Coulomb’s force law, and the law describing electrostatic
fields as conservative,
∫ E ⋅ dI = 0 (1.4)
The integral form of the laws in Equations 1.3 and 1.4 can be expressed in the differential
form by applying Equations 1.1 through 1.3 and Equations 1.2 through 1.4. We obtain
∇ ⋅ D = ρv (1.5)
4 Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB®
and
∇×E=0 (1.6)
D = εE (1.7)
where ε is the dielectric permittivity (F/m) of the medium. In terms of the electric potential
V (V), E is expressed as
E = –∇V (1.8)
or
V =−
∫ E ⋅ dI (1.9)
or, if ε is constant,
ρv
∇2V = − (1.10b)
ε
∇ ⋅ ε∇V = 0 (1.11a)
or for constant ε
∇2V = 0 (1.11b)
∫ H ⋅ dI = ∫ J ⋅ dS
L S
e (1.12)
which is related to Biot–Savart law, and the law of conservation of magnetic flux (also called
Gauss’s law for magnetostatics)
∫ B ⋅ dS = 0
S
(1.13)
Fundamental Concepts 5
where
H = the magnetic field intensity (A/m)
Je = the electric current density (A/m2)
B = the magnetic flux density (T or Wb/m2)
Applying Equations 1.2 to 1.12 and Equations 1.1 to 1.13 yields their differential forms as
∇ × H = Je (1.14)
and
∇⋅B=0 (1.15)
The vector fields B and H are related through the permeability µ (H/m) of the medium as
B = µH (1.16)
Je = σE (1.17)
This is usually referred to as point form of Ohm’s law. In terms of the magnetic vector
potential A (Wb/m)
B=∇×A (1.18)
to Equations 1.14 and 1.18 and assuming Coulomb gauge condition (∇ ⋅ A = 0) leads to
Poisson’s equation for magnetostatic fields:
∇ 2A = 0 (1.21)
that of Equation 1.14 is warranted to allow for displacement current. The time-varying EM
fields are governed by physical laws expressed mathematically as
∇⋅ D = ρv (1.22a)
∇⋅ B = 0 (1.22b)
∂B
∇×E = − − Jm (1.22c)
∂t
∂D
∇×H = Je + (1.22d)
∂t
where
Jm = σ*H is the magnetic conductive current density (V/m2)
σ* = the magnetic resistivity (Ω/m)
These equations are referred to as Maxwell’s equations in the generalized form. They are
first-order linear coupled differential equations relating the vector field quantities to each
other. The equivalent integral form of Equation 1.22 is
∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ρ dv v (1.23a)
S v
∫ B⋅ dS = 0 (1.23b)
S
∂B
∫ E ⋅ dI = −∫ ∂t + J ⋅ dS
L S
m (1.23c)
∂D
∫ H ⋅ dI = ∫ J + ∂t ⋅ dS
e (1.23d)
L S
D = εE (1.24a)
B = µH (1.24b)
J e = σE (1.24c)
Jm = σ *M (1.24d)
Fundamental Concepts 7
These are called constitutive relations for the medium in which the fields exist. Equations
1.22 and 1.24 form the eight postulated equations on which EM theory unfolds itself. We
must note that in the region where Maxwellian fields exist, the fields are assumed to be
1. Single valued
2. Bounded and
3. Continuous functions of space and time with continuous derivatives.
F = Q(E + u × B) (1.25)
∂ρv
∇⋅ J = − (1.26)
∂t
which expresses the conservation (or indestructibility) of electric charge. The continuity
equation is implicit in Maxwell’s equations (see Example 1.2). Equation 1.26 is not peculiar
to EM. In fluid mechanics, where J corresponds with velocity and ρv with mass, Equation
1.26 expresses the law of conservation of mass.
where an12 is a unit normal vector directed from medium 1 to medium 2, subscripts 1 and
2 denote fields in regions 1 and 2, and subscripts t and n, respectively, denote tangential
and normal components of the fields. Equations 1.27a and 1.27d state that the tangential
8 Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB®
components of E and the normal components of B are continuous across the boundary.
Equation 1.27b states that the tangential component of H is discontinuous by the surface
current density K on the boundary. Equation 1.27c states that the discontinuity in the
normal component of D is the same as the surface charge density ρs on the boundary.
In practice, only two of Maxwell’s equations are used (Equations 1.22c and 1.22d) when
a medium is source-free (J = 0, ρv = 0) since the other two are implied (see Problem 1.4).
Also, in practice, it is sufficient to make the tangential components of the fields satisfy
the necessary boundary conditions since the normal components implicitly satisfy their
corresponding boundary conditions.
∂
∇×∇× E = −µ (∇×H) (1.28)
∂t
∂E
∇×H = ε
∂t
∂ 2E
∇×∇× E = −µε (1.29)
∂t 2
in Equation 1.29,
∂ 2E
∇(∇⋅ E) −∇2E = −µε
∂t 2
∂ 2E
∇2E = −µε =0 (1.31)
∂t 2
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herrasmiesten sepittämät runot ovat jossakin määrin vaikuttaneet,
on hyvin luultavaa, mutta se on varmaan vanhempi ja on itse paljoa
suuremmassa määrin vaikuttanut aikakauden taiderunouteen. Sen
juuret ovat etsittävät syvemmältä, entisen kansanrunon maaperästä.
Eroitus on kuitenkin myös silmäänpistävä. Tämä uusi laji
kansanrunoutta on vanhaan verraten samassa suhteessa kuin esim.
Saksan kirjallisuudessa n.k. Meistersänger (käsityöläislaulajat)
ritarillisiin laulajiin. Kaikki runollisuus on siitä kadonnut, sisällys ja
kuvat ovat aivan arkipäiväisiä; ainoasti satiiri on jonkun-arvoinen.
Ensimmäiset nimeltä tunnetut Itä-Suomen runoniekat ovat Remes-
veljekset Kiuruvedeltä, Matti ja Paavo, joista edellinen, aikoinaan
hyvin kuuluisa, on julkaissut hautarunon Iisalmen provastin Henrik
Helsingius'en muistoksi 1757, jälkimmäinen runon veljensä
kuolemasta 1765.
Vielä huomattavampi mies on Pietari Wäänänen Kuopion puolelta
Murtolahden kylästä nykyistä Nilsiän pitäjää. Hän oli syntynyt 1764,
otti isänsä kuoltua kotitalon hoitoonsa 1791 ja saavutti ahkerana ja
toimeliaana maanviljelijänä pian paikkakuntalaistensa luottamuksen.
Hän oli pitäjässään lautamiehenä ja valittiin v. 1800 talonpoikais-
säädyn edusmieheksi Norrköping'in valtiopäiville. Täällä ollessaan
julkaisi hän runon Kustaa IV:n Aadolfin kruunaamisesta. Toisen
runon sepitti hän Tukholmassa 1805 saman kuninkaan ulkomaan-
matkalta palaamisen johdosta. Porvoon valtiopäiville valittuna v.
1809 oli Pietari Väänänen säätynsä enimmin käytettyjä
luottamusmiehiä. Niillä tutustui hän myös Suomen uuteen,
jalomieliseen hallitsijaan ja kirjoitti Napoleonin sodan jälkeen runon
Aleksanteri I:stä, joka toimitettiin Pietariin keisarin itsensä
nähtäväksi. V. 1828 muutti hän asumaan Kuopion kaupunkiin, jossa
jonkun aikaa eli ruokatavarain kauppiaana. Viimeiset ikävuotensa
vietti hän Taipalsaarella, jossa hänen poikansa nimellä Venell oli
pappina, ja kuoli siellä 1846.
Toinen Wäänänen, vaikk'ei edelliselle ollenkaan sukua, oli Heikki
nimeltä, myös Konsaheikiksi sanottu. Hän oli köyhä työmies Oulusta,
joka kylästä kylään kulkien elätti itseään viulunsoitolla ja runonteolla.
Hän kuoli lämpöiseen uuninkiukaasen, johon oli viinapäissään
mennyt makaamaan. Hänen tekemänsä on v. 1801 painettu
Lystillinen Runo-Laulu Sijtä kummasta Kala-Kukosta, johon oli kissa
karvoineen sisään leivottu ja joka Oulun tulliportilla työnnettiin
ahneelle tulliherralle kouraan. Myöhemmin on julkaistu runot
Kellonkylän Mariasta ja Oulun piioista eli Orjaväestä.[92]
Viimeksi on mainittava kuuluisin kaikista talonpoikaisista
runoniekoistamme, Paavo Korhonen. Hän on kuitenkin tällä
aikakaudella julkaissut ainoasti Kolme Hengellistä Wirttä 1799 ja
Huwittawaiset Hää-Laulut, luvultaan neljä, uudemmilla runomitoilla,
v. 1807. Hänen varsinainen vaikutuksensa, niinkuin yleensä koko
tämän runoudenlajin kukoistus-aika, alkaa vasta Suomen erottua
Ruotsinvallan alta, jolloin talonpojissakin kansallistajunta herää.
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