Test Bank for Java Programming, 7th Edition

download

http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-java-
programming-7th-edition/

Find test banks or solution manuals at testbankbell.com today!

Here are some recommended products for you. Click the link to
download, or explore more at testbankbell.com

Solution Manual for Java Programming 9th Edition

http://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-java-
programming-9th-edition/

Java Programming 9th Edition Joyce Farrell Solutions

Manual

http://testbankbell.com/product/java-programming-9th-edition-joyce-
farrell-solutions-manual/

Java Programming 8th Edition Joyce Farrell Solutions

Manual

http://testbankbell.com/product/java-programming-8th-edition-joyce-
farrell-solutions-manual/

Test Bank Living Religions 9th Edition Fisher

http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-living-religions-9th-
edition-fisher/
Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications 7th Edition
Rosen Test Bank

http://testbankbell.com/product/discrete-mathematics-and-its-
applications-7th-edition-rosen-test-bank/

Test Bank for Marketing Research 9th by Burns

http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-marketing-research-9th-
by-burns/

Calculus and Its Applications 11th Edition Bittinger Test

Bank

http://testbankbell.com/product/calculus-and-its-applications-11th-
edition-bittinger-test-bank/

Test bank for Social Media Marketing 0132551799

http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-social-media-
marketing-0132551799/

Test Bank For American Foreign Policy: The Dynamics of

Choice in the 21st Century (Fourth Edition) by Bruce W.
Jentleson
http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-american-foreign-policy-
the-dynamics-of-choice-in-the-21st-century-fourth-edition-by-bruce-w-
jentleson/
Test Bank for Financial Markets and Institutions, 10th
Edition

http://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-financial-markets-and-
institutions-10th-edition/
 Test Bank for Java Programming,
7th Edition
Full download chapter at: https://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-java-
programming-7th-edition/

Chapter 2: Using Data

TRUE/FALSE

1. A variable can hold more than one value at a time.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 52

2. The legal integer values are -231 through 231-1. These are the highest and lowest values that you can
store in four bytes of memory, which is the size of an int variable.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 62

3. Multiplication, division, and remainder always take place after addition or subtraction in an
expression.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 93

4. The term parse means to break into component parts.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 108

5. You can create a confirm dialog box with five arguments.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 90

6. Once a variable has been declared and initialized, new values may not be assigned to the variable.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 53

7. The expression boolean isTenLarger = (10 < 5) will produce a value of true.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 68

8. Even if a statement occupies multiple lines, the statement is not complete until the semicolon is
reached.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 54

9. You are limited to declaring a maximum of three variables in a single statement.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 54

10. Constants hold a single value for the duration of the program execution.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 58

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. A data item is when it cannot be changed while a program is running.

a. variable c. primitive
 b. constant d. literal
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 52

2. A is a named memory location that you can use to store a value.

a. cast c. reference
b. variable d. primitive
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 52

3. Primitive types serve as the building blocks for more complex data types, called types.
a. integer c. reference
b. literal d. data
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 52

4. refers to the order in which values are used with operators.

a. Associativity c. Declaration
b. Initialization d. Floating
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 53

5. In Java, you use variables of type to store integers, or whole numbers.

a. num c. var
b. double d. int
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 52

6. A(n) variable can hold only one of two values: true or false.
a. integer c. true
b. boolean d. comparison
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 67

7. The term refers to the mathematical accuracy of a value.

a. float data c. significant digits
b. real integers d. single-precision floating-point number
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 69

8. A data type can hold 14 or 15 significant digits of accuracy.

a. double c. char
b. float d. boolean
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 69

9. You use the data type to hold any single character.

a. single c. byte
b. char d. float
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 70

10. In Java, is a built-in class that provides you with the means for storing and manipulating
character strings.
a. Escape c. String
b. Type d. Character
 ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 72

11. You can store any character, including nonprinting characters such as a backspace or a tab, in a(n)
variable.
a. int c. boolean
b. char d. set
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 73

12. The characters move the cursor to the next line when used within a println() statement.
a. /n c. .+
b. \n d. $
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 73-74

13. In Java, when a numeric variable is concatenated to a String using the , the entire expression
becomes a String.
a. plus sign c. concatenate statement
b. equal sign d. string statement
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 56

14. You use operators to perform calculations with values in your programs.
a. calculation c. integer
b. arithmetic d. precedence
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 91

15. occurs when both of the operands are integers.

a. Data modeling c. Integer division
b. Type cast d. Unlike assignment
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 92

16. The percent sign is the operator.

a. remainder c. percentage
b. remaining d. integer division
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 92

17. What is the value of result after the following statement is executed?
int result = 2 + 3 * 4;
a. 9 c. 14
b. 10 d. 20
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 93

18. The is the type to which all operands in an expression are converted so that they are compatible
with each other.
a. unifying type c. numbered
b. data type d. primitive
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 99

19. A(n) dialog box asks a question and provides a text field in which the user can enter a response.
a. question c. confirm
 b. JOptPane d. input
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 85

20. Each primitive type in Java has a corresponding class contained in the java.lang package. These
classes are called classes.
a. case c. type-wrapper
b. primitive d. show
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 87-88

21. A(n) dialog box displays the options Yes, No, and Cancel.
a. confirm c. message
b. input d. answer

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 89

22. statement?
Which of the following is NOT a component of a variable declaration
a. data type identifier c. variable name
b. symbolic constant d. ending semicolon

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 53

23. You may declare an unlimited number of variables in a statement as long as the variables are .
a. the same data type c. properly commented
b. initialized to the same value d. floating point numbers
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 54

24. When a numeric variable is concatenated to a String, the entire expression becomes a(n) .
a. int c. method
b. constant d. String
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 56

25. Which escape sequence will move the cursor to the beginning of the current line?
a. \b c. \\
b. \r d. \n
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 73

COMPLETION

1. A(n) is a simple data type.

ANS: primitive type

PTS: 1 REF: 52

2. A(n) operator compares two items and the result has a Boolean value.

ANS:
relational
comparison
 PTS: 1 REF: 68

3. A(n) number contains decimal positions.

ANS:
floating-point
float
double

PTS: 1 REF: 69

4. forces a value of one data type to be used as a value of another type.

ANS:
Type casting
type casting
Casting
casting

PTS: 1 REF: 100

5. When you write programs that accept , there is a risk that the user will enter
the wrong type of data.

ANS: user input

PTS: 1 REF: 81

MATCHING

Match each term with the correct statement below.

a. operand f. primitive
b. cast operator g. float
c. assignment h. boolean
d. operator precedence i. escape sequence
e. garbage
1. true or false
2. The operator that is represented by an equal sign (=)
3. A programming term for an unknown value
4. Java consistently specifies their size and format
5. A value that can be used on either side of an operator
6. Rules for the order in which parts of a mathematical expression are evaluated
7. A floating-point data type
8. Created by placing the desired result type in parentheses
9. Begins with a backslash followed by a character

1. ANS: H PTS: 1 REF: 52

2. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 53
3. ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: 54
4. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 62
5. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 91
 6. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 93
7. ANS: G PTS: 1 REF: 69
8. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 100
9. ANS: I PTS: 1 REF: 73

SHORT ANSWER

1. A variable declaration is a statement that reserves a named memory location. It includes what four
elements?

ANS:
A data type that identifies the type of data that the variable will store
An identifier that is the variable’s name
An optional assignment operator and assigned value, if you want a variable to contain an initial value
An ending semicolon

PTS: 1 REF: 53

2. Describe the variation types byte, short, and long of the integer type.

ANS:
The types byte, short, and long are all variations of the integer type. The byte and short types
occupy less memory and can hold only smaller values; the long type occupies more memory and can
hold larger values.

PTS: 1 REF: 62

3. Describe how to assign values based on the result of comparisons to Boolean variables.

ANS:
Java supports six relational operators that are used to make comparisons. A relational operator
compares two items; an expression that contains a relational operator has a Boolean value. When you
use any of the operators that have two symbols (==, <=, >=, or !=), you cannot place any whitespace
between the two symbols. You also cannot reverse the order of the symbols. That is, =<, =>, and =! are
all invalid operators.

PTS: 1 REF: 68

4. What is the difference between the float data type and the double data type?

ANS:
Java supports two floating-point data types: float and double. A float data type can hold
floating-point values of up to six or seven significant digits of accuracy. A double data type requires
more memory than a float, and can hold 14 or 15 significant digits of accuracy. The term significant
digits refers to the mathematical accuracy of a value. For example, a float given the value
0.324616777 displays as 0.324617 because the value is accurate only to the sixth decimal position.

PTS: 1 REF: 69

5. What is an escape sequence and why would a Java programmer use it to store a character?

ANS:
 You can store any character—including nonprinting characters such as a backspace or a tab—in a
char variable. To store these characters, you can use an escape sequence, which always begins with a
backslash followed by a character—the pair represents a single character.

PTS: 1 REF: 73

6. Describe and give an example of operator precedence.

ANS:
Operator precedence refers to the rules for the order in which parts of a mathematical expression are
evaluated. The multiplication, division, and remainder operators have the same precedence. Their
precedence is higher than that for the addition and subtraction operators. Addition and subtraction have
the same precedence. In other words, multiplication, division, and remainder always take place from
left to right prior to addition or subtraction in an expression. For example, the following statement
assigns 14 to result: int result = 2 + 3 * 4;.

PTS: 1 REF: 93

7. In Java, how is it possible to perform mathematical operations on operands with unlike types?

ANS:
When you perform arithmetic operations with operands of unlike types, Java chooses a unifying type
for the result. The unifying type is the type to which all operands in an expression are converted so that
they are compatible with each other. Java performs an implicit conversion; that is, it automatically
converts nonconforming operands to the unifying type.

PTS: 1 REF: 99

8. Explain how you can override a unifying type imposed by Java.

ANS:
You can explicitly (or purposely) override the unifying type imposed by Java by performing a type
cast. Type casting forces a value of one data type to be used as a value of another type. To perform a
type cast, you use a cast operator, which is created by placing the desired result type in parentheses.
Using a cast operator is an explicit conversion. The cast operator is followed by the variable or
constant to be cast.

PTS: 1 REF: 100

9. How can you create and use an input dialog box in Java?

ANS:
You can create an input dialog box using the showInputDialog() method. Six overloaded
versions of this method are available, but the simplest version uses a single argument that is the
prompt you want to display within the dialog box. The showInputDialog() method returns a
String that represents a user’s response; this means that you can assign the
showInputDialog() method to a String variable and the variable will hold the value that the
user enters.

PTS: 1 REF: 85-86

10. How would you ask the user to confirm an action using a dialog box?
 ANS:
A confirm dialog box displays the options Yes, No, and Cancel; you can create one using the
showConfirmDialog() method in the JOptionPane class. Four overloaded versions of the
method are available; the simplest requires a parent component (which can be null) and the String
prompt that is displayed in the box. The showConfirmDialog() method returns an integer
containing one of three possible values: JOptionPane.YES_OPTION,
JOptionPane.NO_OPTION, or JOptionPane.CANCEL_OPTION.

PTS: 1 REF: 89

11. Describe how the use of named constants can provide advantages over the use of literal values.

ANS:
Using named constants makes programs easier to read and understand.
When a constant is defined, you can change the constant at one location, which saves time and
prevents you from missing other references.
Using named constants reduces typographical errors that may not be recognized by the compiler.
Constants can be easily identified when named conventionally (all caps).

PTS: 1 REF: 55

12. Describe why it is important to assign an appropriate data type to variables in an application.

ANS:
If a value is too large for the data type assigned, the compiler will issue an error message and the
program will not execute.
If a data type is used that is larger than needed, memory is wasted.

PTS: 1 REF: 62-63

13. Describe how the Scanner class works with the System.in object in order to provide flexibility.

ANS:
The System.in object is designed to read bytes only. Since it is common to accept data of other
types, the Scanner object can connect to the System.in property. This creates a Scanner object
that will be connected to the default input device.

PTS: 1 REF: 76

14. 100 = salesAmount;

In terms of assignment operators, why is the above statement illegal?

ANS:
This assignment operator has a right-to-left associativity. Associativity is the order in which values are
used with operators. Since 100 is a numeric constant, it is an rvalue, which is an item that can appear
only on the right side of the assignment operator. An identifier that can appear on the left side of an
assignment operator is referred to as an lvalue (left-to-right associativity).

PTS: 1 REF: 53

15. Describe three ways in which a constant differs from a variable.

 ANS:
Constants are preceded by the keyword final in a declaration statement.
Constants can be assigned a value once only and the value cannot be changed.
Constants conventionally have identifiers in all uppercase letters, distinguishing them from other
forms.

PTS: 1 REF: 54

CASE

1. Write the statement to declare an uninitialized integer value for salesAmt.

ANS:
int salesAmt;

The statement must end with a semicolon.

PTS: 1 REF: 54

2. Write the statement that will declare and assign two integer variables, salesAmt and costAmt, in a
single statement. Assign values of your choice to the variables.

ANS:
int salesAmt = 100, costAmt = 15;

A semicolon must end the statement. Variable declarations are separated with a comma.

PTS: 1 REF: 54

3. import javax.swing.JOptionPane;
public class salesJune
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int storeSales = 250;

}
}

In the above code, complete the statement that will display a message dialog box that will appear
centered on the screen and will display the following text:
Congratulations! June sales were $250!

ANS:
JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "Congratulations! June sales were
$" + storeSales + "!";

PTS: 1 REF: 57-58

4. final int COSTPERITEM = 10;

double sales2012 = amtSold * COSTPERITEM;
Visit https://testbankbell.com
now to explore a rich
collection of testbank,
solution manual and enjoy
exciting offers!
 In the above statements, identify the named constant and describe how a programmer can recognize
named constants.

ANS:
The named constant identifier is COSTPERITEM.
Constant declaration statements use the final keyword.
Constants are conventionally given identifiers in all uppercase letters.

PTS: 1 REF: 54-55

5. Write the statement that will declare a char data type named testScore that will hold a letter
grade of your choice.

ANS:
char testScore = ‘A’;

Letter assigned may vary.

PTS: 1 REF: 71

6. public class YourGrade

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int projectPoints = 89;
System.out.print("Your grade for this class is ");
System.out.print(projectPoints);
System.out.println("%");
}
}

Given the above code, what will be the output at the command prompt?

ANS:
Output will be as follows:

Your grade for this class is 89%

A blank line will follow the output.

PTS: 1 REF: 56-57

7. Describe the error message that will be produced when the following code is compiled.

public class SalesOct

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int salesAmt;
System.out.print("October sales are $");
System.out.println(salesAmt);
}
}
 ANS:
The second println statement will generate an error message because the variable used in the
statement is undeclared. It is legal to declare an uninitialized variable, but it cannot be used in a
println() statement uninitialized. If you assign a numeric value to int salesAmt, the program
will compile.

PTS: 1 REF: 61-62

8. public class EndValue

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int aByte = 940;
System.out.print("The ending value is "+ aByte);
}
}

When the above code is compiled, what error message will be generated and why?

ANS:
The above code will result in the error message “possible loss of precision”. The assigned value of 940
to the aByte variable is larger than the maximum value allowed. A byte type can hold a value
between -128 and 127. Thus, the accuracy of the number has been compromised.

PTS: 1 REF: 62-65

9. Why is the following relational operator expression invalid? How could you rewrite the statement so
that it is valid?

boolean isGradePassing = (grade => 70);

ANS:
In this statement, the order of the operator symbols is reversed. It is illegal to use =<, =>, and =!.

The statement could be modified as follows:

boolean isGradePassing = (grade >= 70);

PTS: 1 REF: 68

10. char aCharacter = 2;

int aNumber = '2';

In the above statements, what values will be output after a println() statement is executed? Why
are the output results different for the two statements?

ANS:
aCharacter will output a blank.
aNumber will output a value of 50.

Unicode values are used to assign a unique numeric code. Every computer stores each character it uses
as a number and each character is assigned a unique Unicode numeric value.
 PTS: 1 REF: 71

11. How could you alter the following statement to display “Welcome” on one line and “back” on another
line?

System.out.println("Welcome back");

ANS:
There are two possible options:

System.out.println("Welcome\nback");

and

System.out.println("Welcome");
System.out.println("back");

PTS: 1 REF: 73-74

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
instances recorded in the works of Foderé and Orfila. It also
deserves notice, that tartarized antimony is very liable to produce
deleterious effects, where, from the insensibility of the nervous
system, the operation of vomiting cannot be excited, as in apoplexy,
drunkenness, and in that state of coma, which follows the ingestion
of narcotic vegetables. M. Cloquet communicated to Orfila a case
highly illustrative of this fact, in which a person, labouring under
apoplexy, received into his stomach more than forty grains of tartar
emetic, without exciting either nausea or vomiting. On opening the
body, independent of the morbid state of the brain, which must be
regarded as the immediate cause of death, extensive organic lesions
were discovered in the alimentary canal, which could alone be
attributed to the action of the tartar emetic. This fact will suggest a
very important precaution to the practitioner, who may be called
upon to treat a person labouring under a state of the system which
will prevent the act of vomiting.[302].
The symptoms produced by this salt will resemble those of a
corrosive poison; and where vomiting is produced, it frequently
happens that although the patient may be eventually saved, an
irritability of stomach, so great as to cause the rejection of all
aliments, will remain for a considerable period; and Dr. Male states
that in the only case of poisoning by this salt which he had ever
seen, the person was affected with violent convulsions, which
returned at intervals for several weeks after recovery from the
immediate effects of the poison.[303] M. Orfila, after detailing several
cases of poisoning by emetic tartar, concludes by saying that the
general symptoms, upon such occasions, may be reduced to the
following: a rough metallic taste; nausea; copious vomitings;
frequent hiccup; cardialgia; burning heat in the epigastric region;
pains of the stomach; abdominal colics; inflation; copious stools;
syncope; small, contracted and accelerated pulse; skin cold,
sometimes intensely hot; breathing difficult; vertigo, loss of sense,
convulsive movements; very painful cramps in the legs; prostration
of strength,—death.
 Sometimes to the above symptoms is joined a great difficulty of
swallowing; deglutition may be suspended for some time. The
vomiting and alvine evacuations do not always take place, the
necessary consequence of which is an increase in the violence of the
other symptoms.

Antidotes.

The great indication to be fulfilled in a case of this description, is

the ejection of the salt by vomiting. MM. Orfila and Berthollet rely
very confidently upon the effects of bark, strong tea, infusion of
galls, and other vegetable astringents, which have undoubtedly the
power of decomposing the salt. They ought, therefore, to be
employed as diluents to assist vomiting, but they are not to be
considered as antidotes which can render this latter operation less
indispensable.

Physiological action of emetic tartar.

M. Majendie has shewn by experiment, that if tartarized antimony

be injected into the veins of a dog, the animal vomits, and has
frequent stools; his breathing becomes difficult; his pulse frequent
and intermitting; a great degree of disquietude, and tremblings are
the precursory signs of death, which generally takes place within the
first hour from the injection of the emetic tartar. On opening the
body great alterations are perceived in the lungs; they are found of
an orange or violet colour, have no crackling, are distended with
blood, and of a tight texture. The mucous membrane of the
intestinal canal, from the cardia to the extremity of the rectum is
red, and strongly injected.
If, instead of thus injecting the emetic tartar into the veins, it be
injected into the stomach, and the œsophagus is tied to prevent
vomiting, M. Orfila informs us that the same alterations will be found
after death. The very same effects will also arise from the
application of the emetic tartar to the different absorbing surfaces,
such as the cellular substances, &c.
Mr. Brodie[304] has also thrown considerable light upon the action
of this salt. He observes that the effects of emetic tartar so much
resemble those of arsenic, which we have already described, and
those of muriate of baryta, which will form a future subject of
inquiry, that it would be needless to enter into a detail of the
individual experiments which he made with it. When applied to a
wound in animals which are capable of vomiting, it usually, but not
constantly, operated very speedily as an emetic; in other respects he
found no material difference in the symptoms produced in the
different species of animals, which he had been in the habit of
employing as subjects of experiment. The symptoms were paralysis,
drowsiness, and, at last, complete insensibility; the pulse became
feeble, but the heart continued to act after apparent death, and was
maintained in action by means of artificial respiration; but never for
a longer period than for a few minutes. Whence it would appear,
that this poison acts by being absorbed, and that it directs a
sedative influence upon the heart, as well as the brain, but that its
principal action is on the latter. The length of time which elapses,
from the application of the poison to the death of the animal, varies;
in some instances Mr. Brodie found that it did not exceed three
quarters of an hour, but in others, it was two or three hours, or even
longer, before death took place. When a solution of emetic tartar
was injected into the stomach of a rabbit, Mr. Brodie observed the
same symptoms to take place, as when it was applied to a wound.

Organic lesions discovered by dissection.

Mr. Brodie, in his examination of animals poisoned by emetic

tartar, sometimes found the stomach bearing the marks of
inflammation, but at other times, its appearance was perfectly
natural. In no case did he discover any traces of inflammation in the
intestines. The reader must compare this account with that already
given by M. Majendie, at p. 282.

1. Tests for the detection of emetic tartar.

1. The poison is in a solid form. Dissolve a portion of the

suspected salt in about fifteen times its weight of boiling distilled
water; if it be emetic tartar, the following reagents will identify it, viz.
(a) The hydrosulphurets will occasion a reddish-yellow precipitate,
which is a combination of oxygen and antimony, proceeding from
the emetic tartar; and of hydrogen and sulphur, from the reagent
employed. If it be dried on a filter, and mixed with charcoal and the
potass of commerce, it gives, by the action of heat, a cake of
metallic antimony.
(b) Tincture of galls. This is regarded as the most sensible test of
this salt, affording a precipitate of a curdled, dirty white colour,
inclining to yellow.
(c) Lime water. This reagent produces a white precipitate, which is
extremely thick, and is easily redissolved by pure nitric acid. In this
case the lime forms an insoluble tartrate, and the tartrate of
antimony, thus rendered insoluble, subsides along with it.
(d) Concentrated sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate, which
consists of the oxide of antimony retaining a small portion of the
acid. It redissolves in an excess of the precipitant.
(e) Vegetable extractive, occasions in the solution of this salt, a
reddish-yellow precipitate, which has been found to consist of oxide
of antimony, and a portion of vegetable matter.

2. It is mixed with various alimentary substances.

 If our attempts should fail to procure a solution of the salt by
filtration, answering to the above reagents, we must rely upon the
proof of metallic reproduction. Various circumstances may invalidate
the action of our tests, such, for instance, as the ingestion of some
vegetable infusion or decoction, especially that of galls, or yellow
bark.
With respect to the other preparations of antimony, it is
unnecessary to waste our time in their consideration; the precepts
already given will afford the practitioner every requisite hint for the
prosecution of the enquiry.

Copper.

This metal, with the exception of gold and silver, and perhaps tin,
was known earlier than any other metal; but its applications were
entirely confined to the arts. It was first discovered by the Greeks in
the island of Cyprus, whence its name; and we learn from Homer,
that even during the Trojan war, the combatants had no other
armour but what was made of bronze, which is a mixture of copper
and tin.[305].
The external characters of the metal are too well known to require
minute description. Its taste is styptic and nauseous; and the hands
when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and
disagreeable odour. When melted, its specific gravity is 8·667; but
after being hammered it is 8·9. It is only susceptible of two degrees
of oxidation. If the protoxide be native, it is red; if artificial, orange
coloured. The peroxide is black.
Copper, on exposure to a moist atmosphere, becomes tarnished,
absorbs a portion of its oxygen, and passes into the state of an
oxide, which shortly unites with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere,
and forms a greenish carbonate of copper.
Metallic copper, perfectly pure, does not possess any deleterious
properties. We have already cited instances[306] sufficiently conclusive
to establish this fact. It becomes, therefore, a subject of no little
interest to enquire, under what circumstances it may become
poisonous by combination. M. Orfila observes that it has been long
maintained, that milk heated, or allowed to remain in vessels of
copper not oxidized, dissolved a portion of this metal, and acted as a
poison. Eller, a philosopher of Berlin, has, however, very clearly
proved such an opinion to be incorrect. He boiled in succession, in a
kettle well freed from verdegris, milk, tea, coffee, beer, and rain
water; after two hours boiling, he found it impossible to discover, in
any of these fluids, the least vestige of copper. M. Drouard has also
shewn that distilled water, left for a month together on the filings of
this metal in a glass bottle, did not dissolve an atom of it. The
celebrated toxicologist above cited, after relating these important
facts, concludes by observing, that the phenomena are very
different, if, instead of pure water, we substitute that which contains
a certain quantity of muriate of soda. Eller has demonstrated the
presence of a very small quantity of copper in water, which
contained 1/20th of its weight of muriate of soda, and which had
been boiled in a brass kettle. This fact is of the highest importance,
for it will explain the reason why highly seasoned aliments have
proved deleterious, when cooked in vessels of copper. But we are
indebted to Mr. Eller for a still more important discovery; he found
that if, instead of heating a simple solution of common salt in copper
vessels, the salt be previously mixed with beef, bacon, and fish, the
fluid resulting from it does not contain an atom of copper.[307] In
relating this fact, M. Orfila observes, “however astonishing it may
appear, it is quite correct, M. Eller was the first to announce it, and I
have several times ascertained the truth of it; it is probable,”
continues Orfila, “that the combination of several kinds of aliments
destroys the effect of the solution of the muriate of soda; which
consequently ought to render the cases of poisoning by aliments
cooked in copper vessels, which are not oxidized, extremely rare.”
Copper combines with sulphur, and affords a black sulphuret.

Oxide of Copper.
 By oxidation, copper becomes poisonous. The substance may be
easily recognised by the change of colour which it produces in
ammonia; this alkali will dissolve it instantly, and assume a beautiful
blue colour. It is wholly insoluble[308] in water. In oils and fatty matter
it is easily and copiously dissolved at the ordinary temperature of the
atmosphere. Such bodies also, when boiled in vessels of perfectly
clean copper, facilitate their oxidation, especially if left to cool a few
minutes before they are poured out.

Green Carbonate of Copper—Natural Verdegris.

This substance forms spontaneously on surfaces of copper and

brass; it differs from the oxide in its green colour, and in effervescing
with dilute sulphuric acid; with ammonia, however, it demeans itself
in the same manner, and is likewise insoluble in water. It is
poisonous.
From the above history of these substances the medical
practitioner will easily perceive under what circumstances, and by
what bodies, metallic vessels of copper may be rendered dangerous.
The oxide and carbonate, formed in them, will easily dissolve in
acidulous and oily aliments, whence it follows that all preparations of
such food, if conducted in vessels whose surfaces have contracted
this change will be liable to prove deleterious.[309] If the vessels be
perfectly clean, acid preparations may be safely boiled in them, but
they must be poured out immediately, and not suffered to remain
sufficiently long to allow the copper to become oxidized. To the
formation of the oxide of copper, and to the acetic acid contained in
the wine, vinegar, beer, and cider, M. Orfila attributes the production
of the acetate which forms about the corners of the cocks in vessels
containing these liquors. Upon the same principle the soda water
sold in this town, in a draught, from the pump, is liable to metallic
impregnation, as we have fully satisfied ourselves.
Equally important is it for the forensic physician to be acquainted
with the various other sources from which copper poison may be
derived. In consequence of the fact of the oxide of copper forming,
with the acids, compounds of a beautiful green colour, the metal is
often employed in cookery to impart a vivid hue to various articles;
the sale of pickles, for instance, frequently depends upon the
liveliness of their green colour; whence we find, in works[310] on
cookery, directions for ensuring such an effect, by boiling the pickles
with copper coin, or by suffering them to stand for some time in
vessels of that metal. In the third volume of the Medical Transactions
of the College of Physicians we shall find an interesting history,
related by Dr. Percival of Manchester, of a young lady who amused
herself, whilst under the hands of the hair-dresser, with eating
pickled samphire, of which she consumed two breakfast plates full;
she shortly afterwards complained of great thirst, pain in the
stomach, and a rash appeared upon her hands and breast. After an
illness of nine days, during which she suffered severe vomitings, and
tormina of the bowels, she expired. Upon examining the samphire,
Dr. Percival found that it was very strongly impregnated with copper.
In the preparation of confectionary, especially sugar-plums, and
sweatmeats of a green colour, copper is very generally introduced,
and many instances are recorded of their having proved highly
deleterious. Catsup is also said to be occasionally impregnated with
verdegris; and vestiges of this metal have been detected in the well
known cordial, called Shrub.
In order to prevent the contingent dangers attendant upon copper
vessels, they ought always to be tinned;[311] and it is a very curious
and interesting fact, that this latter metal, although it may cover the
copper surface only imperfectly, will nevertheless protect us from its
effects; for M. Proust has shewn that the superior readiness with
which tin is oxidized and acted upon by acids, when compared with
copper, will not allow this latter metal to appropriate to itself a single
atom of oxygen.
But copper vessels, notwithstanding this fact, unless well tinned,
should be dismissed from the service of the kitchen. The Senate of
Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited them entirely, and ordered that
none but such as were made of iron should be used in their fleets
and army.

Verdegris. Ærugo.

The verdegris of commerce is a compound mass, consisting of the

acetate, and sub-acetate of copper, carbonate of copper, and copper
partly metallic, and partly oxidized; it, moreover, contains the stalks
of grapes and other extraneous matter. Boiling water dissolves it in
part, and, at the same time, occasions in it a chemical change, by
transforming one portion of the sub-acetate into the soluble acetate,
and another, into an oxide of copper, which is precipitated. With cold
water, verdegris demeans itself very differently; the acetate is
dissolved by it, whilst that portion which is in the state of sub-salt
remains suspended in the form of a fine green powder. Vinegar
converts all the ærugo into a soluble acetate. Sulphuric acid poured
on its powder decomposes it with effervescence, and vapours of
acetic acid are disengaged; a character by which this substance may
be easily identified.

Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.

Blue Copperas—Roman Vitriol.

This salt occurs in crystals of a deep rich blue colour, and whose
form is that of a rhomboidal prism; their taste is harsh, acrid, and
styptic; on exposure to air they slightly effloresce, and assume a
greenish hue. When treated with sulphuric acid, no effervescence
occurs, a circumstance which at once distinguishes this salt from
ærugo.

Symptoms of Poisoning by the Salts of Copper.

 The operation of these bodies, upon the human system, is
betrayed by an acrid, styptic, coppery taste, in the mouth; nausea;
head-ache; a dry and parched tongue; vomiting; coppery
eructations; a cutaneous eruption; violent pains in the bowels; very
frequent alvine evacuations, sometimes green, and often bloody and
blackish; great and painful distention of the abdomen; small and
irregular pulse; heat of skin; ardent thirst; difficult and laborious
respiration; hiccup; syncope; cold sweats; convulsions—death. It
does not, however, kill so speedily as arsenic, or corrosive sublimate.

Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection.

Where death has been speedily produced by a cupreous poison,

dissection will generally discover inflammation, and even gangrene
in the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. Like other poisons
of the corrosive class it will also be found to have occasionally
extended its inflammatory action to all the coats of the canal,
producing sloughs, easily detached, and leaving perforations. Dr.
Male has also remarked that inflammation will sometimes be
observed in the brain; but that this is not an universal effect of
copper poison. It has been stated, that the fluids contained in the
primæ viæ are, upon these occasions, very frequently tinged with a
green colour.

Chemical Tests by which the presence of the preparations of Copper

may be detected.

1. The suspected body is in a solid form.—We have already

pointed out the characters by which the principal preparations of
copper may be identified. Our judgment, however, upon these
occasions will require that confirmation from experiment, which the
following processes are calculated to afford.
 A. By its reduction to a metallic state. If the copper presents itself
in the form of an oxide, it may be easily reduced by heating it, in the
usual manner, in contact with some carbonaceous matter; an
earthen crucible will furnish the most convenient vessel for the
occasion. If the substance has been scraped from a surface of
copper, it is probably in the state of carbonate, (natural verdegris,)
and may be calcined with charcoal in order to procure the metal.
Should the substance in question be true ærugo, we may at once
heat it to redness in an earthen crucible, when, without the aid of
any carbonaceous matter, we shall obtain metallic copper.
 B. By the application of certain reagents, or tests, to its solutions.
It may happen that the quantity of the above substances is not
sufficient to allow their metallic reduction by calcination. In that
case, we must proceed to obtain a solution; but since neither the
oxide, nor the carbonate, is soluble in water, it will be necessary to
bring them in contact with concentrated acetic acid, so as to obtain
an acetate of copper; which will furnish the following indications with
the respective tests.
a. A surface of clean iron. If dipped into the solution will become
coated with metallic copper, and appear as if transmuted into that
metal.
b. Ammonia. This test, when added in a quantity more than
sufficient to saturate any excess of acid, will strike a beautiful blue
colour; in the first instance we shall obtain a deep blue precipitate,
but this will be redissolved by an excess of alkali. To detect the
presence of copper, therefore, in pickles, it is only necessary to cut
them into small pieces, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an
equal bulk of water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles
contain the most minute quantity of this metal, the ammonia will
assume a blue colour. In the same manner cupreous impregnations
may be discovered in the various articles of confectionary above
enumerated, and in those foreign conserves which are imported into
this country, and usually sold in round boxes.
c. Sub-carbonate of Potass. By this re-agent a precipitate of a pale
blue colour is produced.
d. Arsenite of Potass instantly occasions a copious precipitate in
the acetate of copper, which is of a green colour, and is in fact an
arsenite of the metal.
e. Triple Prussiate of Potass. This test gives a brown precipitate
with a solution of verdegris, which is found to consist of prussiate of
copper, and prussiate of iron; while the liquor contains an acetate of
potass.
 2. The suspected poison is mixed and combined with various
alimentary substances.

We have in this case the same embarrassments to encounter, as

those already noticed under the consideration of arsenic. Our tests
may produce their respective precipitates, but they will present
different colours according to the nature of the fluids with which the
substance happens to be mixed; whence the circumstance of colour,
so characteristic on other occasions, cannot be received as a
satisfactory indication. In such a difficulty, we may collect the
precipitates, and calcine them in a crucible with charcoal, in order to
obtain the metal; or we may at once evaporate the whole of the
alimentary mass, and submit it to a high temperature, by which
means all the vegetable and animal principles, which can form a part
of the liquor vomited, will be decomposed and converted into several
volatile productions, and into charcoal; this combustible body will
decompose the oxide of copper, and reduce it to its metallic state.
[312]
.
Nor is this process without its fallacies; it is often difficult to
recognise the metal, dispersed as it necessarily must be, in small
quantity, through a considerable mass of charcoal; in this case we
are recommended by Orfila to place the product of the calcination in
water, when in a short period, the copper, from its superior specific
gravity will subside from the lighter particles of charcoal. But it
would be still better to pour nitric acid upon the product of the
calcination, and thereby to obtain a solution of nitrate of copper,
which by filtration might be immediately prepared for the application
of appropriate re-agents.
It merits notice, however, that in certain cases of poisoning by
copper, no vestiges of the substance can be found in the matters
voided from the stomach. In that case, Orfila directs that the
mucous membrane of the stomach, and of the intestines, should be
scraped off, dried, and submitted to the action of a strong heat in a
crucible. “I have,” says this distinguished experimentalist, “twice
obtained metallic copper, by calcining in this manner a portion of the
membranes of the stomach of two dogs that I had poisoned with
verdegris. This effect particularly takes place when the mucous
membrane is of a bluish colour, hard, and strongly adhering to the
substance of the stomach.”

Tin and its Muriate.

It is clearly established by the experiments of Bayen and Charlard,

[313]
as well as by those of Proust,[314] that this metal possesses no
poisonous properties. Its muriate, however, has been shewn by
Orfila to possess highly corrosive properties. It excites violent
vomiting, great depression, and death, without convulsions. Its
antidote is milk, which it speedily coagulates; and by chemical
combination with it, the poison is rendered inert. On dissection, the
stomach is said to have been found corrugated and indurated, and
has been compared to tanned skin, but its colour is not altered.
As this substance is never likely to become an object of forensic
interest, in this kingdom, we shall pass it over without farther notice.

Zinc.

The ancients were acquainted with a mineral to which they gave

the name of Cadmia,[315] from Cadmus, who first taught the Greeks
to use it. They knew that when melted with copper it formed brass;
and that when burnt, a white spongy kind of ashes was volatilized,
which they used in medicine.[316] This mineral contained a good deal
of zinc; and yet there is no proof remaining that the ancients were
acquainted with that metal. It has a brilliant white colour, with a
shade of blue, and is composed of a number of thin plates adhering
together; its specific gravity is 7·1. When strongly heated in a
crucible, it quickly goes into fusion, absorbs the oxygen of the
atmosphere, and burns with a beautiful white flame, inclining to
green, and extremely brilliant. The oxide of zinc thus formed, is
diffused through the atmosphere, and is there condensed into
extremely light flakes of a beautiful white appearance. This oxide
was formerly known under the fanciful names of nihil album; lana
philosophorum, &c.
In its metallic state it is quite inert; but late experiments by
Vauquelin and Deyeux, have proved that it is very easily acted upon
by water, the weakest vegetable acids, some saline substances, and
butter; a fact which is hostile to the proposal of employing this metal
for the manufacture of culinary utensils.

White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc.

This salt occurs in masses, consisting of crystals which are four-

sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids. Their taste is
styptic, metallic, and slightly acidulous. They are soluble in 2·5 times
their weight of water at 60°, and in less than their own weight of
boiling water, but they are quite insoluble in alcohol. Thus dissolved
they redden the tincture of tournesol.

Symptoms of Poisoning by Sulphate of Zinc.

This salt, like tartarized antimony, from the high degree of emetic
virtue which it possesses, generally proves its own antidote; still,
however, it must be considered as a poison; for several cases are on
record, where the most alarming symptoms, and indeed death itself,
have been the effect of its ingestion. Metzger[317] mentions the case
of a woman, who accidentally ate a trifling quantity of a cake, into
which White Vitriol had been introduced for the purpose of
shortening the days of an old man. The woman died; but the
intended victim escaped, after severe vomiting. M. Orfila has also
related several cases of poisoning by this salt. The symptoms which
presented themselves on these occasions were, an astringent
metalline taste, a sense of constriction in the fauces, so distressing
as even to excite in the patient a fear of suffocation; frequent
vomitings; copious stools; pains in the epigastric region, extending
afterwards over the whole abdomen; difficulty of breathing;
frequency of pulse; paleness of the countenance, and coldness of
the extremities.
We have lately heard of a case in which a noble lord swallowed a
solution of white vitriol, which had been sent to him by mistake, for
Epsom salts, to which it bears some analogy. Fortunately, however,
the violent emetic effect which followed removed the poison from
the stomach, and obviated any farther injury.

Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.

We have no well authenticated dissection of a human being who

had died from the ingestion of this poison. The examination of
animals[318] who have been so killed has shewn nothing more than
an inflammation, not very severe, of the membrane with which it
had come in contact; sometimes dark blood is observed to be
extravasated upon the muscular coat of the stomach and intestines.

Chemical processes for the detection of Sulphate of Zinc.

The chemist must remember that the White Vitriol of commerce

always contains sulphate of iron, and sometimes sulphate of copper.
When dissolved in distilled water it may be identified by the
following re-agents; viz.
a. Potass, and Ammonia, precipitate an oxide of a greenish white
colour, easily soluble in an excess of the latter of these alkalies. The
oxide obtained by potass, being washed and dried, and calcined with
charcoal, is revived, provided the temperature be very much
elevated. It should be known, that if the salt has been previously
purified, the above tests will occasion a white precipitate.
 b. Prussiate of Potass produces a precipitate of a rather deep blue
colour; which, consists of a mixture of the prussiates of zinc and
iron. If the salt has been divested of all impurity, the precipitate will
be white.
c. The Hydro-sulphurets instantly occasion a blackish precipitate,
which, like the former, will be found to be a mixture of zinc and iron,
in the state of an hydro-sulphuret. If the salt, however, is pure, its
colour will be white with a tinge of yellow.

Silver.

This metal does not exert any influence on the living body; but its
oxide in combination with nitric acid constitutes one of the most
corrosive of all the metallic salts.

Lunar Caustic. Nitrate of Silver.

Lapis Infernalis.

The usual state in which this substance occurs is in that of small

cylinders, having been cast into moulds for the purpose of imparting
to it a form best adapted for the purposes it is designed to answer.
Its action on animal matter is highly caustic, and when introduced
in any considerable quantity into the stomach, will induce death by
corroding the texture with which it may come in contact. At the
same time there is reason to believe that the whole, or part of its
composition, may be absorbed; for we have many instances on
record where the frequent repetition of this metallic salt, in small
doses, has imparted a blue tinge to the skin, which can only be
explained on the supposition that the oxide of the metal has been
actually deposited in the rete mucosum[319].
We are not aware that there is any modern case of poisoning by
this salt[320]. The medical practitioner, however, ought to know, that
common salt, is its true antidote; indeed so completely does it
decompose and separate it from water, that if a saturated solution of
nitrate of silver be filtered through common salt, it may be
afterwards drunk with impunity. M. Orfila, by a series of
experiments, has shewn that if the muriate of soda be administered
a very short time after the ingestion of lunar caustic, it will disarm it
of its virulence by transforming it into an insoluble muriate,
possessing no power of acting on the animal œconomy.

Chemical processes for the detection of Lunar Caustic.

If a small portion of the salt can be procured it may be dissolved

in distilled water, and immediately identified by the following tests.
a. Muriatic acid, or any soluble Muriate, will precipitate the muriate
of silver, which is white, curdled, very heavy, insoluble in water, or
nitric acid; but soluble in liquor ammoniæ; when exposed to the air
it acquires a black colour.
b. Potass, Soda, and Lime water, will occasion a precipitate of the
oxide, of a deep brown colour.
c. Ammonia. This alkali will form an ammoniuret of silver, and in
consequence of the solubility of this new product, little or no
disturbance is occasioned by the test.
d. Arsenite of Potass. As all re-agents must be considered as
reciprocal in their operation, it is hardly necessary to state that this
is one of the best tests for nitrate of silver. See the history of its
effects at p. 240.
If it should be necessary to discover the nitrate of silver amongst
the fluids vomited, or those contained in the stomach of the
deceased, we are very properly directed by M. Orfila to filter, and
then assay by the appropriate tests; if, however, the different
aliments should disguise the characteristic colour and appearance of
these precipitates, we must proceed to desiccate and calcine them in
order to obtain the silver in a metallic state.
 The Concentrated Acids.

These must be regarded as the most terrible of all corrosive

poisons. Their action is so immediate and energetic, as generally to
destroy the membranes of the stomach, before their peculiar
antidotes can be applied. Notwithstanding the obvious suffering they
must occasion, and the facility with which they may be detected,
such bodies have frequently, especially in France, been the
instruments of suicide and murder; whilst in this country, we have
had many lamentable illustrations of their deadly force, by their
ingestion from fatal carelessness. In conformity with our general
plan we shall proceed to consider the individual substances included
under this general class, although the symptoms do not materially
differ in the different kinds, nor are the indications of cure peculiar
to any of them. There are however chemical characters which
exclusively belong to each acid, with which the forensic physician
must be accurately acquainted, in order that he may be enabled to
detect their presence.

Oil of Vitriol. Sulphuric Acid.

This acid, when perfectly pure, exists in the form of a colourless

liquid, without smell, and of an oily consistence; whence its popular
name. Its specific gravity is 1·85, so that, in round numbers, it may
be stated that an ounce, by measure, will weigh fourteen drachms.
It acquires a brown tinge from the smallest portion of carbonaceous
matter; mere exposure to the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this
change, in consequence of the acid disorganizing and carbonating
the vegetable and animal matter suspended in the air. This fact
sufficiently explains why we generally find the acid of commerce of a
brown colour.
Its taste is highly acid and caustic. So powerful is its affinity for
water, that upon its admixture with this fluid, a heat, sufficiently
great to boil water, may be produced. When exposed in its
concentrated state to the air, it will imbibe at least seven times its
own weight of water, and so rapidly as to have its weight doubled in
a month. Straw, wood, and all vegetable substances, when
immersed in the sulphuric acid, without heat, are disorganized,
softened, and blackened, and there is separated from them a certain
portion of charcoal. Like the other mineral acids, the Oil of Vitriol has
never been obtained in an insulated state without water; according
to the latest views of Sir H. Davy, the composition of the strongest
acid may be expressed as follows. Sulphur 30, oxygen 45, water 17.

Symptoms of Poisoning by Oil of Vitriol.

An extremely austere, acid, and burning taste; a painful heat in

the fauces and throat, along the œsophagus, and in the stomach;
excruciating pain; nausea, and excessive vomiting; at one time the
fluid vomited is as black as ink, at another reddened by arterial or
venous blood, producing in its passage through the throat, the most
intense pain, accompanied with a sensation of bitterness quite
intolerable; if, by chance, a portion of it should fall on the hearth or
pavement, or on any other calcareous substance, it will denote its
true nature by an effervescence; constipation, or sometimes bloody
stools; gripes and excruciating pains over the abdomen, with a
tenderness of these regions, so exquisite as not to allow the
slightest pressure without torment; pains of the breast; difficulty of
breathing; extreme anxiety; the pulse becomes frequent, small,
contracted, and irregular; shiverings; great restlessness, dejection,
and agitation; convulsive motions of the countenance; sometimes a
cutaneous eruption betrays itself. Amidst all these symptoms, the
intellectual powers remain unobscured. The parts about the fauces,
the uvula, &c. having lost their vitality, slough, and become
detached, which occasion an indescribable fetor of the breath, while
they produce a perpetual cough, and the voice becomes so altered,
that it resembles the sounds of a person labouring under croup.
 Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.

As this substance destroys life by simply acting as an escharotic, it

is not difficult to anticipate the disorganization which dissection will
display. The extent of the lesion, however, must in every case
depend upon the quantity and degree of concentration of the acid,
the state of the stomach in relation to its alimentary contents, and
other incidental circumstances not to be exactly appreciated. The
mucous membrane of the mouth, the tongue, and œsophagus, will
in general be found destroyed, and converted into a pulp.

Antidotes.

The great indications to be fulfilled in this distressing case, is the

immediate dilution, saturation, and expulsion of the poison. Copious
draughts of water, holding calcined[321] magnesia in suspension,
should be administered without any loss of time. If this is not in
readiness, soap and water should be administered; mucilaginous
drinks, milk, and even warm or cold water, in the absence of more
eligible potations, should not be neglected. It must be never
forgotten, exclaims Orfila, that success upon these occasions
depends upon the activity of the practitioner; the delay of a few
moments will entirely change the fate of the patient, as the sulphuric
acid destroys the texture of the organs with a fearful celerity. After
having thus neutralized the caustic, it will be our duty to obviate the
effects it may be likely to occasion; the lancet must be used with
boldness, and the detraction of blood repeated at short intervals; at
the same time emollient clysters may be advantageously injected.

Chemical processes for the detection of Oil of Vitriol.

 In the pure state, there can exist no difficulty in identifying it; its
specific gravity, and its action on vegetable matter, will, without any
other tests, be quite sufficient to fulfil our object. If heated with
metallic mercury, it will disengage sulphurous acid gas; and if united
with lime, a sulphate of lime will be produced, which the chemist
may easily recognise by dissolving a portion in distilled water, and
assaying the solution by muriate of baryta, which will produce with
the sulphate a precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. By the last
mentioned tests we shall be enabled to detect the presence of
sulphuric acid, in whatever state of complication it may happen to
exist with alimentary matter.

Nitric Acid.

This acid, when pure, assumes the form of a limpid fluid, emitting
white fumes of a suffocating odour; its taste is highly acid, and
corrosive; and it is at once distinguished from all other acids, by its
tinging the skin indelibly yellow. When of the specific gravity 1·5 it
contains 74·895 per cent of dry acid, (whose ultimate elements are
one proportional of nitrogen, and five of oxygen) the complement
25·105 parts, is water.[322] It is decomposed with violent action by all
combustibles, and when mixed with volatile oils it causes their
inflammation.
From the facility with which this acid undergoes decomposition, it
is rarely found in commerce in a colourless condition; indeed the
action of light is sufficient to impart a tawny tinge to it; when this
change has proceeded to such an extent as to render the acid
orange coloured, it is called Nitrous acid, or, in the language of the
arts, aqua fortis, although in a chemical point of view, such a
nomenclature is incorrect, for it is nothing more than nitric acid,
holding nitrous acid gas loosely combined.

Symptoms of Poisoning by Nitric Acid.

 This acid has been so frequently swallowed in France, for the
purpose of committing suicide, that it has enabled the pathologists
of that country to afford a very satisfactory account of its operation,
and effects. To M. Tartra we are particularly indebted for a very full
and interesting investigation of the subject, and we shall avail
ourselves upon the present occasion, of the many facts and
observations with which his treatise[323] abounds. In describing the
symptoms occasioned by the ingestion of this acid, M. Tartra
establishes four different gradations, viz. 1. When the death is
speedy, for it is never sudden, it commonly takes place from the
primary effects in about twenty-four hours, varying from six to forty-
eight hours. 2. When it proves fatal from its secondary effects, at
different intervals, from fifteen days to several years. 3. When death
does not take place, but the recovery is imperfect. 4. When a perfect
cure is sooner or later obtained. The first case is illustrated by the
following example, which will serve to convey a very just idea of the
progress and intensity of the symptoms. “A man, driven by distress
to commit suicide, under the greatest agitation of mind, and upon
an empty stomach, swallowed, at a draught, two ounces of
concentrated nitric acid. Instantly he was seized with the most
excruciating pains and agitation, and could not lie in bed, but rolled
himself upon the floor. Vomiting came on, accompanied by a general
sensation of coldness, especially in the extremities. Every time he
vomited, the matter effervesced upon the pavement. A solution of
soap and oil was administered to him, and in two hours he was
brought to the hospital, often having vomited, and stopped on the
road to drink. On his arrival, he had emollient drinks, especially
linseed tea, in great abundance. He was in continual agitation, and
his countenance was greatly altered. He now vomited every instant a
blackish glairy matter; he opened his mouth easily, and his tongue
was white, with a tinge of yellow; he complained of acute pains in
his mouth, along the œsophagus, and in his stomach. His belly,
slightly tense, could not bear the slightest pressure, without great
torment. The surface of the body was cold; the pulse small and
frequent; he had hiccup, and the respiration was laborious.
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

testbankbell.com