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Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Data Structures, 2/e © 2012 Pearson Education 1

Answers to Review Questions

Chapter 9

Multiple Choice and True/False

1. c
2. c
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. b
9. c
10. a
11. b
12. False
13. False
14. True
15. False

Find the Error

1. The static method setValues cannot refer to the non-static fields x and y.
2. You cannot use the fully-qualified names of enum constants in the case
expressions.

Algorithm Workbench

1.

a) public String toString()

{
String str;
str = "Radius: " + radius +
" Area: " + getArea();
return str;
}

b) public boolean equals(Circle c)

{
boolean status;

if (c.getRadius() == radius)
status = true;
Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Data Structures, 2/e © 2012 Pearson Education 2

else
status = false;

return status;
}

c) public boolean greaterThan(Circle c)

{
boolean status;

if (c.getArea() > getArea())

status = true;
else
status = false;

return status;
}

2.
a) 3
b) 3
c) 1
d) 0
e) Thing.putThing(5);

3. enum Pet { DOG, CAT, BIRD, HAMSTER }

Short Answer

1. Access a non-static member.

2. They can be called directly from the class, as needed. They can be used to create
utility classes that perform operations on data, but have no need to collect and
store data.
3. When a variable is passed as an argument, a copy of the variable's contents is
passed. The receiving method does not have access to the variable itself. When an
object is passed as an argument, a reference to the object (which is the object's
address) is passed. This allows the receiving method to have access to the object.
4. The default equals method returns true if the memory addresses of the two
objects being compared are the same.
5. It means that an aggregate relationship exists. When an object of class B is a
member of class A, it can be said that class A "has a" class B object.
6. The program will crash.
7. It is not advisable because it will allow access to the private fields. The exception
to this is when the field is a String object. This is because String objects are
immutable, meaning that they cannot be changed.
Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Data Structures, 2/e © 2012 Pearson Education 3

8. The key word this is the name of a reference variable that an object can use to
refer to itself. It is available to all non-static methods.
9. a) Color
b) Color.RED, Color.ORANGE, Color.GREEN, Color.BLUE
c) Color myColor = Color.BLUE;
10. a) POODLE
BOXER
TERRIER
b) 0
1
2
c) BOXER is NOT greater than TERRIER

11. When there are no references to it.

Random documents with unrelated
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to succeed in hatching the ova of the Common Crab, during the
month of June, which presented exactly the appearance of the Zoea
taurus.”
The Common Crab, Cancer major, is so well-known, that any
description of its appearance would be useless.
One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power
that is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every
year; this power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable
them to increase in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly
impossible, from the peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they
are enclosed.
The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is
about to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-
secured retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones,
where it creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the
year when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at
which time their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in
the highest perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are
seen forsaking the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired
situation among the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in
safety from the attacks of their enemies. For some days before their
change, the animal discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no
longer seen laboriously harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or
fighting with others of its kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and
motionless, as if in anxious expectation of the approaching change.
Just before casting its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its
claws against each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its
feelers are agitated, and the whole body is in violent motion; it then
swells itself in an unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen
beginning to divide at its junctures, particularly at those of the belly,
where it was before seemingly united. It also seems turned inside
out; and its stomach comes away with its shell. After this, by the
same operation, it disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the
joints; the animal, with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a
man would kick off a boot that was too big for him.
Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at
liberty; but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for
several hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the
operation, that many of them die under it; and those which survive,
are in such a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take
food, nor venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change,
they have not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every
animal of the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither
escape nor oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish,
the cod, and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of
weakness continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than
two days, is seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as
hard as before; its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to
behold! the first object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own
stomach, which it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with
great eagerness. In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the
animal’s strength, the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as
that which was but just thrown aside. Previous to the time of
moulting or changing their skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each
side of the stomach; this is believed to form a store of earthy matter
for the renewal of the shell. These stones, popularly known as crabs’
eyes, were long highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but
in reality are not superior to so much chalk.
When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of
the old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.
Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing
a limb, or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This
faculty of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection;
but it has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious
injury, by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has
received the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the
wounded limb from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in
a direct and natural position, without touching any part of its body
or its other legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the
wounded part of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one
injured; this appears to be more easily done with respect to the
smaller legs, than in the case of an injury occurring to those which
bear the pincers.
When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and
grows callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every
change of the creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.
Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight
and kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of
breaking off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the
animal bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea
of the tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with
one of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off its
limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a length of
time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.
The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does
not, as it is said, walk exactly backwards.

The Land Crab, (Gecarcinus ruricola.)

Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water,
there is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama
Islands, whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and
highly curious in themselves.
 THE LAND CRAB, (Gecarcinus ruricola.)
Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make
these places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They
prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or May,
and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
experienced commander.
Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a
direct line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they
are not unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless
sleeper. If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue
to follow its course without attempting to cross it.
It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged to
halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who
never leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they
then descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of
fifty paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost
cover the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard
follows, a straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and
females, but neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties.
The night is their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they
march back in a confused manner, holding up their nippers and
clattering them loudly, to intimidate their enemies. Their general
food consists of vegetables; but if any of their companions should
become maimed, and unable to proceed, they are greedily devoured
by the rest.
After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this
manner, they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they
immediately enter the water, and after the waves have washed over
them several times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-
places, where they remain until the period of spawning. They then
once more seek the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to
the chance of being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish,
who have already repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in
expectation of their annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched
under the sand; and, soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs
are seen quitting the shore, and slowly travelling up to the
mountains. The old ones, however, are not so active to return: they
have become so feeble and lean, that they can hardly crawl about.
Most of them, therefore, are obliged to continue in the flat parts of
the country till they recover; making holes in the earth, into which
they creep, and cover themselves up with leaves and dirt; here they
throw off their old shells, and continue almost without motion for
about six days, during which time they become so fat, as to be
considered delicious food. In about six weeks, the new shell has
become tolerably hard, and the creatures may be seen slowly
returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the sugar-islands, it
is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the food of the
negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of seizing them,
so as to avoid their nippers.

The Hermit, or Soldier Crab,

(Pagurus bernhardus.)
This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit
of remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a
rock, it may fancy.

THE HERMIT CRAB, (Pagurus bernhardus.)

The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a
membranous state, while the tail, which assists the other species in
swimming, is almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a
shell for their hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed,
which enable them to maintain a secure hold of their borrowed
dwelling. When the body has grown too large for the shell occupied
by the animal, it is obliged to seek another of a larger size. The
numerous combats they enter into when seeking a new dwelling,
have caused this animal to receive the additional name of the Soldier
Crab.
“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body; and
yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome
appendage, till it can find another more convenient. It is seen
stopping at one shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to
another, contemplating that for a while, and then slipping its tail
from its old habitation, to try on a new. This, also, is found to be
inconvenient; and it quickly returns to its old shell again. In this
manner, it frequently changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy,
and commodious: to this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes
so large as to hide the body of the animal, claws and all.”
Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four
times back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious
antagonist.
When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry,
endeavouring to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten
upon, it will sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very
painful, and not easily cured.
On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the
shell of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle;
they not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or
under the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the
interstices of which they hide themselves.
The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is
evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their
poets:
 The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
And count the borrowed shell their native home;
Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
But when they larger grow they fill the place,
And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
And busy search around the pebbly shore,
Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
And long for the disputed shell engage;
The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.

The Lobster, (Astacus europæa.)

The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in
great abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of
Scotland is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the
coast of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water,
but the Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of
considerable depth. The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—
the most usual is by means of what are called Lobster-pots; these
are a sort of trap, formed of twigs, and baited with garbage; they
are made like a wire mouse-trap, so that when the Lobsters get in
there is no possibility of returning. These pots are fastened to a
cord, and sunk in the sea, their place being marked by a buoy.
Another method of taking them is by means of a kind of bag-net,
baited with animal substances. This fishery is only carried on in the
night. They are brought in vast quantities to the London market
from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.
Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the
other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its
food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the
other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when in
their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
beautiful deep blue.
A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs,
seems to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said
that in Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the
wagoners who transport them by land are obliged to keep watch
during the night, to prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if
one only was to go by, they say, not a single Lobster would be alive
in the morning!

The River Cray-Fish, (Potamobius fluviatilis.)

The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting
the banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance
that may happen to come in its way.
The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand,
which is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method
is thus described:—
Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then
the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of
the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there,
they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the
bait suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with
the bait, or will fall back into the net.
Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst of
a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be
found partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will
effectually prevent their escape.

The Phosphorescent Shrimp.

The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-
known to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been
ascertained, that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the
phosphorescent properties which are possessed by many of the
smaller inhabitants of the deep. Among these, the little animal,
figured above, is very frequently met with.
 Noctiluca Banksii magnified.
The line above shows the natural length.

The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue

from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal,
found by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous
property resided in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest,
resembled a most brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large
pinhead; from this there started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant
silvery light.
The author we have lately quoted, says,—
“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not
improbable, that the Deity, who has done nothing
in vain, and whose omniscience extends to every
epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the
means of tempting the trackless ocean, and explore
the most distant regions of our planet, has given it
as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy,
 and of diminishing the number of his dangers;
especially, if we consider that this luminosity is
seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
proportion to the darkness, disappearing even
before the feeble light of the moon,—and also that
it increases with the agitation of the sea, so that,
during the prevalence of storms, it greatly
diminishes the dense gloom which at such times is
often impenetrable to the moon, and the stars,
throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to
enable sailors to execute their allotted tasks with
certainty, and at all times points out to the cautious
mariner the lurking danger of sunken rocks, shoals,
and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or
snowy appearance which it gives to the breakers,
so as to render them visible at a considerable
distance.”

The Opossum Shrimp, (Mysis chamæleon.)

This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same
outward appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is
considerably smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most
singularly-formed creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is
found in tolerable abundance along the British coasts, but the
northern seas literally swarm with them; there, in spite of their small
size, they are destined to become the food of the stupendous whale,
whose enormous mouth encloses myriads at a time.
 Mysis chamæleon.
The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals
which have been called fissipeds, (split-feet,) on account of each of
their feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner
limb being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey,
and the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water
which is essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were,
wrapped round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the
action of the element. In the other Crustacea, which they most
nearly approach, such as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row
of five feet on each side: but the genus we are now describing
possesses as many as four rows of feet, each containing eight, so
that in all, the number of feet amounts to as many as thirty-two,—
sixteen adapted for swimming, and sixteen for seizing their prey. In
consequence of this organization, the Shrimps seek their food in the
sands at the bottom, while the present genus frequent the surface.
The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which
they are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female
possesses, fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave
pieces of shell; this pouch, which is very capacious, considering the
size of the animal, is destined to receive the eggs, which are
deposited in it, enveloped in a kind of jelly-like substance, most
probably forming the food of the young when first hatched. As fast
as the young assume the lengthened form of the perfect animals,
they are found to arrange themselves in this pouch closely and
regularly side by side, with their heads towards the breast of the
mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted together, and
present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily observed from
the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the large size and
blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp are not
so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch we
have described.
We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food
of the Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates
they serve as food for herrings.
It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-
finished master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful
magnifiers we still continue to bring new parts and touches into
view. If, for instance, after observing one of their members with the
naked eye, which has informed us that the part we have been
examining is composed but of one piece, we employ a magnifying
glass with a low power, the same part appears jointed, or composed
of several pieces articulated together. Employing a higher magnifier,
it appears fringed with long hairs, which, on further scrutiny, seem
to be themselves fringed with hairs still more minute; many of these
minute parts also, are evidently jointed, and perform sensible
motions. But what idea can we form of the various muscles which
put these parts in movement, of the nerves which actuate them, and
the vessels which supply them with the nourishment necessary for
growth and support, and which we know, from comparison with
other creatures, they must possess!
The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance
they are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if
placed in a vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.
The species represented in the engraving has been called the
Mysis chamæleon, from its colour varying according to the
substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray,
black, brown, and pink.

ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.

(Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously
placed, never concealed.)
The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each
other than those which are arranged in the last order, and
consequently we find among them some very singular in their
outward formation. Few of the species appear to be used as food by
mankind, but they constitute a great portion of the nourishment of
fishes and other inhabitants of the water. They are at times used by
fishermen as bait. Many of them are very minute, and form most
excellent objects for the microscope. They have been divided into
several sections, according to their outward form; but as so little is
known of their habits, we shall confine ourselves to a description of
some of the best known.

The Spotted Squill, (Squilla maculata.)

 The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and
present order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea
in which the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of
being distinct, appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It
has been called the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance
to an insect of that name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks
with which two of its foot-jaws are armed.
The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas;
it is the largest of the genus.
The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They
frequent the sandy bottom of the sea.

Squilla maculata.
There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which
the young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in
shelter under the plates with which the body of the mother is
covered.

The Common Cloportus, (Cloportus ascellus.)

This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It
is somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to a
group of small Crustacea known by the name Oniscus. Some, as we
see in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater
portion inhabit the water.

Cloportus ascellus.
(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)
Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute
species which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical
hole for its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a
few years timber which is covered with water is rendered useless.
The temporary wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock
Lighthouse was in the course of erection, was destroyed, to a great
extent, by this little creature. When the wood had been under water
for three years, beams ten inches square were reduced to seven
inches; at the rate of one inch a year. Another species, Cymothoa,
attaches itself to the backs of different species of fishes, living upon
the juices of their body.
A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
fifth volume of the American Philosophical Transactions; it is
accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself to
the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.

Head of Alewife.
Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.
 The insect seen from above.
“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February)
resort to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the
Oldwife, called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable
shoals, and in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They
are fully of the size of a large herring, and are principally
distinguished from the herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-
fin. They are, when caught from March to May, full-roed and fat, and
at least as good a fish for the table as the herring.
“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an
insect about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and
firmly holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.
“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps,
without injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore,
consider the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is
taken out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is
incapable of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous
instances to preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but
was always obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.
“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk
and lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he
immediately scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and
resumed his position. In every instance he was disgustingly
corpulent and unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he
had obtained his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller
or constant resident, or what else may be his business where he is
found, he certainly fares sumptuously every day.
“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time
with the shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and
continues to travel upwards from the beginning of March to the
middle of May. As long as they are caught on their passage up the
river, they are found fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had
the Oniscus in his mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more
ignorant fishermen, but by a very intelligent man who came down
now and then to divert himself with fishing, that in forty years’
observation he had never seen a Bay Alewife without the louse.”
The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its
enemies, many of them being caught with two or three leeches
attached to their body, and adhering so closely that their removal
cost them their heads.

The Molucca Crab, (Polyphemus gigas.)

Why the singular creature here represented should have the
name Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as
every schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses,
who is represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead;
whereas, this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting
from its being so nearly allied to many very minute species.
The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there
are but two species, which only differ from each other in the shape
of their buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian
Ocean, and has been called the Molucca Crab.
The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly
dreaded by the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is
venomous. The natives employ it to point their arrows, and as they
are in the habit of poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most
likely from this circumstance that the idea we have noticed
originated, for there is no other ground for the belief.
 Polyphemus gigas.
During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then
very easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
until their danger becomes imminent.
It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a
delicacy.
These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to
a considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by
the sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native
element. When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors
say that, if this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish,
unless the waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has
the power of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.

The Crab-like Limulus, (Limulus cancriformis.)

The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes,
&c.; they are frequently met with congregated together in great
numbers; their principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.
 Limulus cancriformis. (Natural size.)
“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group
in which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short.
They possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further
back. Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the
largest, spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their
extremity with silky articulated bristles.”

The Water Flea, (Cyclops quadricornis.)

There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea.
That represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms
a most interesting object for the microscope. We have availed
ourselves of Mr. Pritchard’s popular description of this curious
creature.
“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of
execution, as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that
no part of creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration,
has conferred on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our
unassisted vision, more elegance and variety of form, more richness
in their colouring, and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on
the whale or the elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by
the magnitude of the mass of living matter they present to us.
 Cyclops quadricornis. (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)
“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of
the year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most
abundant in July and August. I have collected great numbers of
them on a warm day in the latter month, with a small cloth net,
immersing it about an inch below the surface. They are mostly
colourless in ponds covered with herbage, but in small collections of
rain water, on a loamy soil, are of a fine rich colour.
“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side,
but have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of
the organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and
pointed: it is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the
head. A little above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the
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