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Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects 7e (Gaddis)
Chapter 8 A Second Look at Classes and Objects

TRUE/FALSE

1. The key word this is the name of a reference variable that an object can use to refer to itself.

ANS: T

2. The key word this is the name of a reference variable that is available to all static methods.

ANS: F

3. The names of the enum constants in an enumerated data type must be enclosed in quotation marks.

ANS: F

4. An enumerated data type is actually a special type of class.

ANS: T

5. enum constants have a toString method.

ANS: T

6. An instance of a class does not have to exist in order for values to be stored in a class's static fields.

ANS: T

7. A class's static methods do not operate on the fields that belong to any instance of the class.

ANS: T

8. You can declare an enumerated data type inside a method.

ANS: F

9. If a class has a method named finalize, it is called automatically just before an instance of the class
is destroyed by the garbage collector.

ANS: T

10. If a class has a method named finalize, it is called automatically just before a data member that has
been identified as final of the class is destroyed by the garbage collector.

ANS: F
 11. If you write a toString method for a class, Java will automatically call the method any time you
concatenate an object of the class with a string.

ANS: T

12. When an object is passed as an argument, it is actually a reference to the object that is passed.

ANS: T

13. Both instance fields and instance methods are associated with a specific instance of a class, and they
cannot be used until an instance of the class is created.

ANS: T

14. A single copy of a class's static field is shared by all instances of the class.

ANS: T

15. When an object reference is passed to a method, the method may change the values in the object.

ANS: T

16. If you write a toString method to display the contents of an object, object1, for a class,
Class1, then the following two statements are equivalent:

System.out.println(object1);
System.out.println(object1.toString());

ANS: T

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. __________ is the term for the relationship created by object aggregation.

a. "Has a" c. "Is a"
b. Inner class d. One-to-many
ANS: A

2. The only limitation that static methods have is __________.

a. they must be declared outside of the class
b. they cannot refer to nonstatic members of the class
c. they can only be called from static members of the class
d. they can refer only to nonstatic members of the class
ANS: B

3. A class that is defined inside another class is called a(n) __________.

a. nested class c. inner class
b. enumerated class d. helper class
ANS: C
 4. Static methods can only operate on __________ fields.
a. instance c. global
b. static d. local
ANS: B

5. When you make a copy of the aggregate object and of the objects that it references, __________.
a. you are performing a shallow copy
b. you are performing a nested copy
c. you are performing a deep copy
d. a compiler error will occur
ANS: C

6. A deep copy of an object __________.

a. is an assignment of that object to another object
b. is an operation that copies an aggregate object and all the objects that it references
c. is a bogus term and means nothing
d. is always a private method
ANS: B

7. Which of the following is not true about static methods?

a. It is not necessary for an instance of the class to be created to execute a static method.
b. They are called by placing the key word static after the access specifier in the method
header.
c. They are called from an instance of the class.
d. They are often used to create utility classes that perform operations on data but have no
need to collect and store data.
ANS: C

8. The "has a" relationship is sometimes called a(n) __________ because one object is part of a greater
whole.
a. enterprise c. mutual relationship
b. possession d. whole-part relationship
ANS: D

9. The whole-part relationship created by object aggregation is more often called a(n) __________
relationship.
a. "has a" c. extra class
b. inner class d. inside class
ANS: A

10. The JVM periodically performs the __________ process to remove unreferenced objects from
memory.
a. memory shuffling c. garbage collection
b. system restore d. memory sweeping
ANS: C
11. CRC stands for __________.
a. Class, Recyclability, Collaborations c. Class, Responsibilities, Collaborations
b. Class, Redundancy, Collections d. Code, Reuse, Constancy
ANS: C

12. Enumerated types have the __________ method which returns the position of an enum constant in the
declaration list.
a. position c. ordinal
b. location d. index
ANS: C

13. Java automatically stores a __________ value in all uninitialized static member variables.
a. 0 b. -1 c. null d. false
ANS: A

14. You cannot use the fully-qualified name of an enum constant for ___________.
a. a case expression c. a boolean expression
b. an argument to a method d. Any of these
ANS: A

15. When the this variable is used to call a constructor__________.

a. it must be the first statement in the constructor making the call
b. it can be anywhere in the constructor making the call
c. it must be the last statement in the constructor making the call
d. None of these. You cannot use the this variable in a constructor call.
ANS: A

16. When a reference variable is passed as an argument to a method __________.

a. a copy of the variable's value is passed into the method's parameter
b. the method has access to the object that the variable references
c. the method becomes a static method
d. the program terminates
ANS: B

17. When a method's return type is a class, what is actually returned to the calling program?
a. an object of that class
b. a reference to an object of that class
c. the values in the object that the method accessed
d. nothing - the return type is simply for documentation in this situation
ANS: B

18. In Java it is possible to write a method that will return __________.

a. a whole number c. a string of characters
b. a reference to an object d. Any of these
 ANS: D

19. You cannot use the == operator to compare the contents of __________.
a. objects c. integers
b. strings d. Boolean values
ANS: A

20. An object's __________ is simply the data that is stored in the object's fields at any given moment.
a. value c. record
b. assessment d. state
ANS: D

21. A static field is created by placing the key word static __________.
a. after the access specifier and the field's data type
b. after the access specifier and before the field's data type
c. after the field name
d. in brackets, before the field's data type
ANS: B

22. A declaration for an enumerated type begins with the __________ key word.
a. enumerated c. ENUM
b. enum type d. enum
ANS: D

23. When a field is declared static there will be __________.

a. a copy of the field for each method in the class
b. a copy of the field in each class object
c. only one copy of the field in memory
d. two reference copies of the field for each method in the class
ANS: C

24. If the this variable is used to call a constructor, __________.

a. a compiler error will result if it is not the first statement of the constructor
b. a compiler error will result if it is the first statement of the constructor
c. nothing will happen
d. the this variable cannot be used as a constructor call
ANS: A

25. To compare two objects in a class, __________.

a. use the == operator (for example, object1 == object2)
b. write a method to do a byte-by-byte compare of the two objects
c. write an equals method that will make a field by field compare of the two objects
d. This cannot be done since objects consist of several fields.
ANS: C
26. Which of the following is not true about static methods?
a. They are created by placing the key word static after the access specifier in the method
header.
b. It is necessary for an instance of the class to be created to execute the method.
c. They are called directly from the class.
d. They are often used to create utility classes that perform operations on data but have no
need to store and collect data.
ANS: B

27. If you attempt to perform an operation with a null reference variable __________.
a. the resulting operation will always be zero
b. the results will be unpredictable
c. the program will terminate
d. Java will create an object to reference the variable
ANS: C

28. If object1 and object2 are objects of the same class, to make object2 a copy of object1
__________.
a. write a method for the class that will make a field by field copy of object1 data
members into object2 data members
b. use the copy method that is a part of the Java language
c. use the default constructor to create object2 with object1 data members
d. use an assignment statement to make object2 a copy of object1
ANS: A

29. If you have defined a class, SavingsAccount, with a public static method,
getNumberOfAccounts, and created a SavingsAccount object referenced by the variable
account20, which of the following will call the getNumberOfAccounts method?
a. account20.getNumberOfAccounts();
b. SavingsAccount.getNumberOfAccounts();
c. getNumberOfAccounts();
d. SavingsAccount.account20.getNumberOfAccounts();
ANS: B

30. If you have defined a class, SavingsAccount, with a public static data member named
numberOfAccounts, and created a SavingsAccount object referenced by the variable
account20, which of the following will assign numberOfAccounts to numAccounts?
a. numAccounts = account20.numAccounts;
b. numAccounts = numOfAccounts;
c. numAccounts = SavingsAccount.numberOfAccounts;
d. numAccounts = account20;
ANS: C

31. Assume the class BankAccount has been created and the following statement correctly creates an
instance of the class.
BankAccount account = new BankAccount(5000.00);
 What is true about the following statement?
System.out.println(account);
a. A runtime error will occur.
b. The method will display unreadable binary data on the screen.
c. The account object's toString method will be implicitly called.
d. A compiler error will occur.
ANS: C

32. Given the following declaration:

enum Tree ( OAK, MAPLE, PINE )
What is the fully-qualified name of the PINE enum constant?
a. enum.PINE c. Tree.PINE
b. PINE d. enum.Tree.PINE
ANS: C

33. Given the following declaration:

enum Tree ( OAK, MAPLE, PINE )
What is the ordinal value of the MAPLE enum constant?
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
ANS: B

34. If the following is from the method section of a UML diagram, which of the statements below is true?
+ equals(object2:Stock) : boolean
a. This is a public method that accepts a Stock object as its argument and returns a
boolean value.
b. This is a public method that returns a reference to a String object.
c. This is a private method that receives two objects from the Stock class and returns a
boolean value.
d. This is a private method that returns a boolean value.
ANS: A

35. If the following is from the method section of a UML diagram, which of the statements below is true?
+ add(object2:Stock) : Stock
a. This is a private method named add that accepts and returns objects of the Stock class.
b. This is a private method named Stock that adds two objects.
c. This is a public method named add that accepts and returns references to objects in the
Stock class.
d. This is a public method named Stock that adds two objects.

ANS: C

36. Given the following method header, what will be returned from the method?
public Rectangle getRectangle()
a. the address of an object of the Rectangle class
b. the values stored in the data members of the Rectangle object
c. a graph of a rectangle
d. an object of the class Rectangle
ANS: A
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Selection.—In order to intelligently select a machine so that it will properly
harmonize with the conditions under which it is to operate, there are several
things to be considered.
1. Type;
2. Capacity;
3. Efficiency;
4. Construction.
The general type of machine to be used is, of course, dependent on the
system employed, that is, whether it be direct or alternating, single or
polyphase.
Thus, the voltage in most cases is fixed except on transformer systems where a
choice of voltage may be had by selecting a transformer to suit.

In alternating current constant pressure transmission circuits, an average

voltage of 2,200 volts with step down transformer ratios of 1⁄10 and 1⁄20 is in
general use, and is recommended.
For long distance, the following average voltages are recommended 6,000;
11,000; 22,000; 33,000; 44,000; 66,000; 88,000; and higher, depending on the
length of the line and degree of economy desired.

In alternating circuits the standard frequencies are 25, and 60 cycles. These
frequencies are already in extensive use and it is recommended to adhere to
them as closely as possible.

Fig. 2,784.—Diagram of connections for testing to obtain the saturation curve of an alternator. The
saturation curve shows the relation between the volts generated in the armature and the amperes of
field current (or ampere turns of the field) for a constant armature current. The armature current may
be zero, in which case the curve is called no load saturation curve, or sometimes the open circuit
characteristic curve. A saturation curve may be taken with full load current in the armature; but this is
rarely done, except in alternators of comparatively small output. If a full load saturation curve be
desired, it can be approximately calculated from the no load saturation curve. The figure shows the
connections. If the voltage generated is greater than the capacity of the voltmeter, a multiplying coil or
a step down pressure transformer may be used, as shown. A series of observations of the voltage
between the terminals of one of the phases, is made for different values of the field current. Eight or
nine points along the curve are usually sufficient, the series extending from zero to about fifty per cent.
above normal rated voltage. The points should be taken more closely together in the vicinity of normal
voltage than at other portions of the curve. Care must be taken that the alternator is run at its rated
speed, and this speed must be kept constant. Deviations from constant speed may be most easily
detected by the use of a tachometer. If the machine be two phase or three phase, the voltmeter may be
connected to any one phase throughout a complete series of observations. The voltage of all the phases
should be observed for normal full load excitation by connecting the voltmeter to each phase
successively, keeping the field current constant at normal voltage. This is done in order to see how
closely the voltage of the different phases agree.
In fixing the capacity of a machine, careful consideration should be given to the
conditions of operation both present and future in order that the resultant
efficiency may be maximum.
Most machines show the best efficiency at or near full load. If the load be
always constant, as for instance, a pump forcing water to a given head, it would be
a simple matter to specify the proper size of machine, but in nearly all cases, and
especially in electrical plants, the load varies widely, not only the daily and hourly
fluctuations, but the varying demands depending on the season of the year and
growth of the plant's business. All of these conditions tend to complicate the
matter, so that intelligent selection of capacity of a machine requires not only
calculation but mature judgment, which is only obtained by long experience.

Fig. 2,785.—Saturation curve taken from a 2,000 kw., three phase alternator of the revolving field type,
having 16 poles, and generating 2,000 volts, and 576 amperes per phase when run at 300 R.P.M.

In selecting a machine, or in fact any item connected with the plant its
construction should be carefully considered.
 Standard construction should be insisted upon so that in the event of damage a
new part can be obtained with the least possible delay.
The parts of most machines are interchangeable, that is to say, with the refined
methods of machinery a duplicate part (usually carried in stock) may be obtained
at once to replace a defective or broken part, and made with such precision that
little or no fitting will be required.

The importance of standard construction cannot be better illustrated than in

the matter of steam piping, that is, the kind of fittings selected for a given
installation.
With the exception of the exhaust line from engine to condenser, where
other than standard construction may sometimes be used to reduce the
frictional resistance to the steam, the author would adhere to standard
construction except in very exceptional cases. Those who have had practical
experience in pipe fitting will appreciate the wisdom of this.
For installations in places remote from large supply houses, the more usual
forms of standard fittings should be employed, such as ordinary T's, 45° and 90°
elbows, etc.
In such locations, where designers specify the less usual forms of standard
fittings such as union fittings, offset reducers, etc., or special fittings made to
sketch, it simply means, in the first instance that they usually cannot be
obtained of the local dealer, making it necessary to order from some large
supply house and resulting in vexatious delays.
As a rule, those who specify special fittings have found that their making
requires an unreasonable length of time, and the cost to be several times that of
the equivalent in standard fittings.
An examination of a few installations will usually show numerous special and
odd shape fittings, which are entirely unnecessary.
Moreover, a standard design, in general, is better than a special design,
because the former has been tried out, and any imperfection or weakness
remedied, and where thousands of castings of a kind are turned out, a better
article is usually the result as compared with a special casting.
In the matter of construction, in addition to the items just mentioned, it
should be considered with respect to
1. Quality;
2. Range;
3. Accessibility;
4. Proportion;
5. Lubrication;
6. Adjustment.
 It is poor policy, excepting in very rare instances, to buy a "cheap" article, as,
especially in these days of commercial greed, the best is none too good.

Figs. 2,786 and 2,787.—Wheel and roller pipe cutters illustrating range. The illustrations show the
comparative movements necessary with the two types of cutter to perform their function. The wheel
cutter requiring only a small arc of movement will cut a pipe in an inaccessible place as shown, which
with a roller cutter would be impossible. Accordingly, the wheel cutter is said to have a greater range
than the roller cutter.

Perhaps next in importance to quality, at least in most cases, is range. This

may be defined as scope of operation, effectiveness, or adaptability. The
importance of range is perhaps most pronounced in the selection of tools,
especially for plants remote from repair shops.
For instance, in selecting a pipe cutter, there are two general classes: wheel
cutters, and roller cutters. A wheel cutter has three wheels and a roller cutter one
wheel and two rollers, the object of the rollers being to keep the wheel
perpendicular to the pipe in starting the cut and to reduce burning. It must be
evident that in operation, a roller cutter requires sufficient room around the pipe to
permit making a complete revolution of the cutter, whereas, with a wheel cutter,
the work may be done by moving the cutter back and forth through a small arc, as
illustrated in figs. 2,786 and 2,787. Thus a wheel cutter has a greater range than a
roll cutter.
Range relates not only to ability to operate in inaccessible places but to the
various operations that may be performed by one tool.

PROPERTIES OF STANDARD WROUGHT IRON PIPE

Thick-
Diameter. Circumference. Transverse are
ness.
Nominal Actual Actual
External. Internal. External. Internal.
internal. external. internal.
Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Sq. ins. Sq. ins.
⅛ .405 .27 .068 1.272 .848 .129 .0573
¼ .54 .364 .088 1.696 1.144 .229 .1041
⅜ .675 .494 .091 2.121 1.552 .358 .1917
½ .84 .623 .109 2.639 1.957 .554 .3048
 ¾ 1.05 .824 .113 3.299 2.589 .866 .5333
1 1.315 1.048 .134 4.131 3.292 1.358 .8626
1¼ 1.66 1.38 .14 5.215 4.335 2.164 1.496
1½ 1.9 1.611 .145 5.969 5.061 2.835 2.038
2 2.375 2.067 .154 7.461 6.494 4.43 3.356
2½ 2.875 2.468 .204 9.032 7.753 6.492 4.784
3 3.5 3.067 .217 10.996 9.636 9.621 7.388
3½ 4. 3.548 .226 12.566 11.146 12.566 9.887
4 4.5 4.026 .237 14.137 12.648 15.904 12.73
4½ 5. 4.508 .246 15.708 14.162 19.635 15.961
5 5.563 5.045 .259 17.477 15.849 24.306 19.99
6 6.625 6.065 .28 20.813 19.054 34.472 28.888
7 7.625 7.023 .301 23.955 22.063 45.664 38.738
8 8.625 7.982 .322 27.096 25.076 58.426 50.04
9 9.625 8.937 .344 30.238 28.076 72.76 62.73
10 10.75 10.019 .366 33.772 31.477 90.763 78.839
11 12. 11.25 .375 37.699 35.343 113.098 99.402
12 12.75 12. .375 40.055 37.7 127.677 113.098

PROPERTIES OF STANDARD WROUGHT IRON PIPE

(Continued)
Length of
Length of
pipe per
Diam. pipe per Nominal Number of
square
containing weight threads
foot of
one cubic per foot. per inch.
Nominal External Internal
foot.
internal. surface surface
Inches Feet. Feet. Feet. Pounds.
⅛ 9.44 14.15 2513. .241 27
¼ 7.075 10.49 1383.3 .42 18
⅜ 5.657 7.73 751.2 .559 18
½ 4.547 6.13 472.4 .837 14
¾ 3.637 4.635 270. 1.115 14
1 2.904 3.645 166.9 1.668 11½
1¼ 2.301 2.768 96.25 2.244 11½
1½ 2.01 2.371 70.66 2.678 11½
2 1.608 1.848 42.91 3.609 11½
 2½ 1.328 1.547 30.1 5.739 8
3 1.091 1.245 19.5 7.536 8
3½ .955 1.077 14.57 9.001 8
4 .849 .949 11.31 10.665 8
4½ .764 .848 9.02 12.34 8
5 .687 .757 7.2 14.502 8
6 .577 .63 4.98 18.762 8
7 .501 .544 3.72 23.271 8
8 .443 .478 2.88 28.177 8
9 .397 .427 2.29 33.701 8
10 .355 .382 1.82 40.065 8
11 .318 .339 1.450 45.95 8
12 .299 .319 1.27 48.985 8
Open construction should be employed, wherever possible, so that all parts
of a machine that require attention, or that may become deranged in operation,
may be accessible for adjustment or repair.
The design should be such that there is ample strength, and the bearings for
moving parts should be of liberal proportions to avoid heating with minimum
attention.
A comparison of the proportions used by different manufacturers for a machine
of given size might profitably be made before a selection is made.

The matter of lubrication is important.

Fast running machines, such as generators and motors, should be provided with
ring oilers and oil reservoirs of ample capacity, as shown in figs. 2,788 to 2,794.
Fig. 2,788.—Sectional view showing a ring oiler or self oiling bearing. As shown the pedestal or bearing
standard is cored out to form a reservoir for the oil. The rings are in rolling contact with the shaft, and
dip at their lower part into the oil. In operation, oil is brought up by the rings which revolve because of
the frictional contacts with the shaft. The oil is in this way brought up to the top of the bearing and
distributed along the shaft gradually descending by gravity to the reservoir, being thus used over and
over. A drain cock, is provided in the base so that the oil may be periodically removed from the reservoir
and strained to remove the accumulation of foreign matter. This should be frequently done to minimize
the wear of the bearing.

All bearings subject to appreciable wear should be made adjustable so that

lost motion may be taken up from time to time and thus keep the vibration and
noise of operation within proper limits.
Selection of Generators.—This is governed by the class of work to be
done and by certain local conditions which are liable to vary considerably for
different stations.
These variable factors determine whether the generators must be of the
direct or alternating current type, whether they must be wound to develop a
high or a low voltage, and whether their outputs in amperes must be large or
small. Sufficient information has already been given to cover these various
cases; there are, however, certain general rules that may advantageously be
observed in the selection of generators designed to fill any of the
aforementioned conditions, and it is well to possess certain facts regarding their
construction.

Figs. 2,789 to 2,794.—Self oiling self aligning bearing open. Views showing oil grooves, rings, bolts etc.

Ques. Name an important point to be considered in selecting a

generator.
Ans. Its efficiency.
Ques. What are the important points with respect to efficiency?
Ans. A generator possessing a high efficiency at the average load is more
desirable than a generator showing a high efficiency at full load.
Ques. Why?
 Ans. The reason is that in station practice the full load limit is seldom
reached, the usual load carried by a generator ordinarily lying between the one-
half and three-quarter load points.
Ques. How do the efficiencies of large and small generators
compare?
Ans. There is little difference.

Fig. 2,795.—Rotor of Westinghouse type T turbine dynamo set. The dynamo is of the commutating pole
type either shunt or compound wound. The turbine is of the single wheel impulse type. The wheel is
mounted directly on the end of the shaft as shown. Steam is used two or more times on the wheel to
secure efficiency. A fly ball governor is provided with weights hung on hardened steel knife edges. In
case of over speeding, an automatic safety stop throttle valve is tapped shutting off the steam supply.
This type of turbine dynamo set is especially applicable for exciter service in modern, superheated
steam generating stations where the steam pressure exceeds 125 pounds. Westinghouse Type T
turbines operate directly (that is, without a reducing valve) on pressures up to 200 pounds per square
inch with steam superheated to 150 degrees Fahrenheit.

Ques. How are the sizes and number of generator determined?

Ans. The sizes and number of generator to be installed should be such as to
permit the engines operating them being worked at nearly full load, because the
efficiencies of the latter machines decrease rapidly when carrying less than this
amount.
Ques. What is understood by regulation?
Ans. The accuracy and reliability with which the pressure or current
developed in a machine may be controlled.
It is generally possible if purchasing of a reputable concern, to obtain access to
record sheets on which may be found results of tests conducted on the generator
in question, and as these are really the only means of ascertaining the values of
efficiency and regulation, the purchaser has a right to inspect them. If, for some
reason or other, he has not been afforded this privilege, he should order the
machine installed in the station on approval, and test its efficiency and regulation
before making the purchase.
 Fig. 2,796.—Cross section of electrical station showing small traveling crane.

Installation.—The installation of machines and apparatus in an electrical

station is a task which increases in difficulty with the size of the plant. When the
parts are small and comparatively light they may readily be placed in position,
either by hand, by erecting temporary supports which may be moved from place
to place as desired, or by rolling the parts along on the floor upon pieces of iron
pipe. If, however, the parts be large and heavy, a traveling crane such as shown
in fig. 2,797, becomes necessary.
Ques. What precaution should be taken in moving the parts of
machines?
Ans. Care should be taken not to injure the bearings and shafts, the joints in
magnetic circuits such as those between frame and pole pieces, and the
windings on the field and armature.
Fig. 2,797.—Cross section of electrical station showing a traveling crane for the installation or removal of
large and heavy machine parts. A traveling crane consists of an iron beam which, being supplied with
wheels at the ends, can be made to move either mechanically or electrically upon a track running the
entire length of the station. This track is not supported by the walls of the building, but rests upon
beams specially provided for the purpose. In addition to the horizontal motion thus obtained, another
horizontal motion at right angles to the former is afforded by means of the carriage which, being also
mounted on wheels, runs upon a track on the top of the beam. Electrical power is generally used to
move the carriage and also the revolving drums contained thereon, the latter of which give a vertical
motion to the main hoist or the auxiliary hoist, these hoists being used respectively for raising or
lowering heavy or light loads. In the larger sizes of electric traveling crane, a cage is attached to the
beam for the operator, who, by means of three controllers mounted in the cage, can move a load on
either the main or auxiliary hoist in any direction.
The insulations of the windings are perhaps the most vital parts of a generator,
and the most readily injured. The prick of a pin or tack, a bruise, or a bending of
the wires by resting their weight upon them or by their coming in contact with
some hard substance, will often render a field coil or an armature useless.
Owing to its costly construction, it is advisable when transporting armatures by
means of cranes to use a wooden spreader, as shown in fig. 2,798 to prevent the
supporting rope bruising the winding.

Fig. 2,798.—View of armature in transit showing use of a wooden spreader as a protection. If a chain be
used in place of the rope, a padding of cloth should be placed around the armature shaft and special
care taken that the chain does not scratch the commutator.

Ques. If an armature cannot be placed at once in its final position

what should be done?
Ans. It may be laid temporarily upon the floor, if a sheet of cardboard or
cloth be placed underneath the armature as a protection for the windings; in
case the armature is not to be used for some time, it is better practice to place it
in a horizontal position on two wooden supports near the shaft ends.
 Ques. What kind of base should be used with a belt driven
generator or motor?
Ans. The base should be provided with V ways and adjusting screws for
moving the machine horizontally to take up slack in the belt, as shown in fig.
2,799.
Owing to the normal tension on the belt, there is a moment exerted equal in
amount to the distance from the center of gravity of the machine to the center of
the belt, multiplied by the effective pull on the belt. This force tends to turn the
machine about its center of gravity. By placing the screws as shown, any turning
moment, as just mentioned, is prevented.

Fig. 2,799.—Plan of belt drive machine showing V ways and adjusting screws for moving the machine
forward from the engine or counter shaft to take up slack in the belt.

Ques. How should a machine be assembled?

Ans. The assembling should progress by the aid of a blue print, or by the
information obtained from a photograph of the complete machine as it appears
when ready for service. Each part should be perfectly clean when placed in
position, especially those parts between which there is friction when the
machine is in operation, or across which pass lines of magnetic force; in both
cases the surfaces in contact must be true and slightly oiled before placing in
position.
Contact surfaces forming part of electrical circuits must also be clean and tightly
screwed together. An important point to bear in mind when assembling a machine
is, to so place the parts that it will not be necessary to remove any one of them in
order to get some other part in its proper position. By remembering this simple rule
 much time will be saved, and in the majority of instances the parts will finally be
better fitted together than if the task has to be repeated a number of times.
When there are two or more parts of the machine similarly shaped, it is often
difficult to properly locate them, but in such cases notice should be taken of the
factory marks usually stamped upon such pieces and their proper places
determined from the instructions sent with the machine.

Figs. 2,800 to 2,802.—Starrett's improved speed indicator. In construction, the working parts are
enclosed like a watch. The graduations show every revolution, and with two rows of figures read both
right and left as the shaft may run. While looking at the watch, each hundred revolutions may be
counted by allowing the oval headed pin on the revolving disc to pass under the thumb as the
instrument is pressed to its work. A late improvement in this indicator consists in the rotating disc,
which, being carried by friction may be moved to the starting point where the raised knobs coincide.
When the spindle is placed in connection with the revolving shaft, pressing the raised knob with the
thumb will prevent the disc rotating, while the hand of the watch gets to the right position to take the
time. By releasing the pressure the disc is liberated for counting the revolutions of the shaft when every
100 may be noted by feeling the knob pass under the thumb lightly pressed against it, thus relieving the
eye, which has only to look on the watch to note the time.

Ques. What should be noted with respect to speed of generator?

Ans. Each generator is designed to be run at a certain speed in order to
develop the voltage at which the machine is rated. The speed, in revolutions per
minute, the pressure in volts, and the capacity or output in watts (volts ×
amperes) or in kilowatts (thousands of watts) are generally stamped on a
nameplate screwed to the machine.
This requirement frequently requires calculations to be made by the erectors to
determine the proper size pulleys to employ to obtain the desired speed.
Fig. 2,803.—Home made belt clamp. It is made with four pieces of oak of ample size to firmly grip the
belt ends where the bolts are tightened. The figure shows the clamp complete and in position on the
belt and clearly illustrates the details of construction. In making the long bolts the thread should be cut
about three-quarter length of bolt and deep enough so that the nuts will easily screw on.

Example.—What diameter of engine pulley is required to run a dynamo at a

speed of 1,450 revolutions per minute the dynamo pulley being 10 inches in
diameter and the speed of engine, 275 revolutions per minute?

The diameter of pulley required on engine is 10 × (1,450 ÷ 275) = 53

inches, nearly.
Rule.—To find the diameter of the driving pulley, multiply the speed of the
driven pulley by its diameter, divide the product by the speed of the driver and the
answer will be the size of the driver required.
Example.—If the speed of an engine be 325 revolutions per minute, diameter of
engine pulley 42 inches, and the speed of the dynamo 1,400 revolutions per
minute, how large a pulley is required on dynamo?

The size of the dynamo pulley is 42 × (325 ÷ 1,400) = 9¾ inches.

Rule.—To find the size of dynamo pulley, multiply the speed of engine by the
diameter of engine wheel and divide the product by the speed of the dynamo.
Figs. 2,804 and 2,805.—A good method of lacing a belt. The view at the left shows outer side of belt,
and at the right, inner or pulley side.

Example.—If a steam engine, running 300 revolutions per minute, have a belt
wheel 48 inches in diameter, and be belted to a dynamo having a pulley 12 inches
in diameter, how many revolutions per minute will the dynamo make?

The speed of dynamo will be 300 × (48 ÷ 12) = 1,200 rev. per min.
Rule.—When the speed of the driving pulley and its diameter are known, and
the diameter of the driven pulley is known, the speed of the driven pulley is found
by multiplying the speed of the driver by its diameter in inches and dividing the
product by the diameter of the driven pulley.
Example.—What will be the required speed of an engine having a belt wheel
46 inches in diameter to run a dynamo 1,500 revolutions per minute, the dynamo
pulley being 11 inches in diameter?

The speed of the engine is 1,500 × (11 ÷ 46) = 359 rev. per min. nearly.
Fig. 2,806.—Wiring diagram and directions for operating Holzer-Cabot single phase self-starting motor.
Location: The motor should be placed in as clear and dry a location as possible, away from acid or
other fumes which would attack the metal parts or insulation, and should be located where it is easily
accessible for cleaning and oiling. Erection: The motor should be set so that the shaft is level and
parallel with the shaft it is to drive so that the belt will run in the middle of the pulleys. Do not use a
belt which is too heavy or too tight for the work it has to do, as it will materially reduce the output of
the motor. The belt should be from one-half to one inch narrower than the pulley. Rotation: In order to
reverse the direction of rotation, interchange leads A and B. Suspended Motors: Motors with ring oil
bearings may be used on the wall or ceiling by taking off end caps and revolving 90 or 180 degrees until
the oil wells come directly below the bearings. Starting: Motors are provided with link across two
terminals on the upper right hand bracket at the front of the motor and with this connection should
start considerable overloads. If the starting current be too great with this connection, it may be reduced
by removing the link. Temperatures: At full load the motor will feel hot to the hand, but this is far
below the danger point. If too hot for touch, measure temperature with a thermometer by placing bulb
against field winding for 10 minutes, covering thermometer with cloth or waste. The temperature should
not exceed 75 degrees Fahr. above the surrounding air. Oiling: Fill the oil wells to the overflow before
starting and keep them full. See that the oil rings turn freely with shaft. Care: The motor must be kept
clean. Smooth collector rings with sandpaper and see that the brushes make good contact. When
brushes become worn they may be reversed. When fitting new brushes or changing them always
sandpaper them down until they make good contact with the collector rings, by passing a strip of
sandpaper beneath the brush.
Rule.—To find the speed of engine when diameter of both pulleys, and speed
of dynamo are given, multiply the dynamo speed by the diameter of its pulley and
divide by the diameter of engine pulley.

Ques. How are the diameters and speeds of gear wheels figured?
Ans. The same as belted wheels, using either the pitch circle diameters or
number of teeth in each gear wheel.

Figs. 2,807 to 2,809.—Wiring diagrams and directions for operating Holzer-Cabot slow speed alternating
current motors. Erecting: In installing the motor, be sure the transformer and wiring to the motor are
large enough to permit the proper voltage at the terminals. If too small, the voltage will drop and
reduce the capacity of the motor. Oiling: Maintain oil in wells to the overflow. Starting: Single phase
motors are started by first throwing the starting switch down into the starting position, and when the
motor is up to speed, throwing it up into the running position. Do not hold the switch in starting
position over 10 seconds. Starter for single phase motors above ½ H.P. are arranged with an adjusting
link at the bottom of the panel. The link is shown in the position of least starting torque and current.
Connect from W to 2 or W to 3 for starting heavier loads. Two or three phase motors are started simply
by closing the switch. These motors start full load without starters. The motor should start promptly on
closing the switch. It should be started the first time without being coupled to the line shaft. If the
motor start free, but will not start loaded, it shows either that the load upon the motor is too great, the
line voltage too low, or the frequency too high. The voltage and frequency with the motor running
should be within 5% of the name plate rating and the voltage with 10 to 15% while starting. If the
motor do not start free, either it is getting no current or something is wrong with the motor. In either
case an electrician should be consulted. Solution: To reverse the direction of rotation interchange the
leads marked "XX" in the diagrams. Temperature: At full load the motor should not heat over 75
degrees Fahr. above the temperature of the surrounding air; if run in a small enclosed space with no
ventilation, the temperature will be somewhat higher.

Ques. What should be noted with respect to generator pulleys?

Ans. A pulley of certain size is usually supplied with each generator by its
manufacturer, and it is not generally advisable to depart much from the
dimensions of this pulley. Accordingly, the solution of the pulley problem usually
consists in finding the necessary diameter of the driving pulley relative to that of
the pulley on the generator in order to furnish the required speed.
Ques. What is the chief objection to belt drive?
Ans. The large amount of floor space required.

Fig. 2,810.—Tandem drive for economizing floor space with belt transmission. Belts of different lengths
are used, as shown, each of which passes over the driving wheel d of the engine, and then over the
pulley wheel of one of the generators. In such an arrangement the belts would be run lengthwise
through the room in which the machines are placed, and it is obvious that since the width of the room
would be governed by the width of the machines thus installed, this method is a very efficient one for
accomplishing the end in view.

Ques. How may the amount of space that would ordinarily be

required for belt drive, be reduced?
Ans. By driving machines in tandem as in fig. 2,810, or by the double pulley
drive as in fig. 2,811.
Ques. What is the objection to the tandem method?
Ans. The most economical distance between centers cannot be employed for
all machines.
Ques. What is the objectionable tendency in resorting to floor
economy methods with belt transmission?
 Ans. The tendency to place the machines too closely together. This is poor
economy as it makes the cleaning of the machines a difficult and dangerous
task; it is therefore advisable to allow sufficient room for this purpose regardless
of the method of belting employed.

Fig. 2,811.—Double pulley drive for economizing floor space with belt transmission. Where a center
crank engine is used both pulleys may be employed by belting a machine to each as shown. Although
considerable floor space would be saved by the use of this scheme if the generators thus belted were
placed at M and G yet still more floor space would be saved by having them occupy the positions
indicated at M and S.

Ques. What is the approved location for an alternator exciter?

Ans. To economize floor space the exciter may be placed between the
alternator and engine at S in fig. 2,811.
Belts.—In the selection of a belt, the quality of the leather should be first
under consideration. The leather must be firm, yet pliable, free from wrinkles on
the grain or hair side, and of an even thickness throughout.

Fig. 2,812.—Separately excited belt driven alternator showing approved location of exciter. In an
electrical station where alternating current is generated, the alternators for producing the current
generally require separate excitation for their field windings; that is, it is usually necessary to install in
conjunction with an alternator a small dynamo for supplying current to the alternator field. The exciter
is a comparatively small machine; in fact, it requires only about 1 per cent. of the capacity of the
alternator which it excites, and so being small is often belted to an auxiliary pulley mounted on the
alternator shaft. Considerable floor space would be occupied by an installation of this nature if the
exciter be placed at M, and belted to the alternator as indicated by the dotted lines. By locating the
exciter at S, between the alternator and the engine, much floor space will be saved and the general
appearance of the installation improved.

If the belt be well selected and properly handled, it should do service for
twenty years, and even then if the worn part be cut off, the remaining portion
may be remade and used again as a narrower and shorter belt.
Besides leather belts, there are those made of rubber which withstand moisture
much better than leather belts, and which also possess an excellent grip on the
pulley; they are, however, more costly and much less durable under normal
conditions.
 In addition to leather and rubber belts, there are belts composed of cotton, of a
combination of cotton and leather, and of rope. The leather belt, however, is the
standard and is to be recommended.

Equally important with the quality of a belt is its size in order to transmit the
necessary power.
The average strain under which leather will break has been found by many
experiments to be 3,200 pounds per square inch of cross section. A good quality of
leather will sustain a somewhat greater strain. In use on the pulleys, belts should
not be subjected to a greater strain than one eleventh their tensile strength, or
about 290 pounds to the square inch or cross section. This will be about 55 pounds
average strain for every inch in width of single belt three-sixteenths inch thick. The
strain allowed for all widths of belting—single, light double, and heavy double—is in
direct proportion to the thickness of the belt.

Ques. How much horse power will a belt transmit?

Ans. The capacity of a belt depends on, its width, speed, and thickness. A
single belt one inch wide and travelling 1,000 feet per minute will transmit one
horse power; a double belt under the same conditions, will transmit two horse
power.

Fig. 2,813.—One horse power transmitted by belt to illustrate the rule given above. A pulley is driven by
a belt by means of the friction between the surfaces in contact. Let T be the tension on the driving side
of the belt, and T', the tension on the loose side; then the driving force = T-T'. In the figure T is taken
at 34 lbs. and T' at 1 lb.; hence driving force = 34-1 = 33 lbs. Since the belt is travelling at a velocity of
1,000 feet per minute the power transmitted = 33 lbs. × 1,000 ft. = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute = 1
horse power.

This corresponds to a working pull of 33 and 66 lbs. per inch of width

respectively.
Example.—What width double belt will be required to transmit 50 horse power
travelling at a speed of 3,000 feet per minute?
The horse power transmitted by each inch width of double belt travelling at the
stated speed is

( 1 × 3,000 / 1,000 ) × 2 = 6,
hence the width of belt required to transmit 50 horse power is
50 ÷ 6 = 8.33, say 8 inches.
 Ques. At what velocity should a belt be run?
Ans. At from 3,000 to 5,000 feet per minute.
Ques. How may the greatest amount of power transmitting capacity
be obtained from belts?
Ans. By covering the pulleys with leather.
Ques. How should belts be run?
Ans. With the tight side underneath as in fig. 2,814.

Figs. 2,814 and 2,815.—Right and wrong way to run a belt. The tight side should be underneath so as
to increase the arc of contact and consequently the adhesion, that is to say, a better grip, is in this way
obtained.

Ques. What is a good indication of the capacity of a belt in

operation?
Ans. Its appearance after a few days' run.
If the side of the belt coming in contact with the pulley assume a mottled
appearance, it is an indication that the capacity of the belt is considerably in excess
of the power which it is transmitting, inasmuch as the spotted portions of the belt
do not touch the pulley; and in consequence of this there is liable to be more or
less slipping.
Small quantities of a mixture of tallow and fish oil which have previously been
melted together in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter, will, if
applied to the belt at frequent intervals, do much toward softening it, and thus by
permitting its entire surface to come in contact with the pulley, prevent any
tendency toward slipping. The best results are obtained when the smooth side of
the belt is used next to the pulley, since tests conducted in the past prove that
more power is thus transmitted, and that the belt lasts longer when used in this
way.
Fig. 2,816.—The Hill friction clutch pulley for power control. The clutch mechanism will start a load
equivalent to the double belt capacity of the pulley to which the clutch is attached.

Ques. What is the comparison between the so called endless belts

and laced belts?
Ans. With an endless belt there is no uneven or noisy action as with laced
belts, when the laced joint passes over the pulleys, and the former is free from
the liability of breakage at the joint.
Ques. How should a belt be placed on the pulleys?
Ans. The belt should first be placed on the pulley at rest, and then run on
the other pulley while the latter is in motion.
The best results are obtained, and the strain on the belt is less, when the speed
at which the moving pulley revolves is comparatively low. With heavy belts,
particular care should be taken to prevent any portion of the clothing being caught
either by the moving belt or pulleys, as many serious accidents have resulted in the
past from carelessness in regard to this important detail. The person handling the
belt should, therefore, be sure of a firm footing, and when it is impossible to
secure this, it is advisable to stop the engine and fit the belt around the engine
pulley as well as possible by the aid of a rope looped around the belt.
Fig. 2,817—Sectional view of Hill clutch mechanism. In every case the mechanism hub A, and in a clutch
coupling the ring W, is permanently and rigidly secured to the shaft and need not be disturbed when
removing the wearing parts. When erected, the adjustment should be verified, and always with the
clutch and ring engaged and at rest. If the jaws do not press equally on the ring, or if the pressure
required on the cone be abnormal, loosen the upper adjusting nuts T´ on eye bolts and set up the
lower adjusting nuts T´´ until each set of jaws is under the same pressure. Should the clutch then slip
when started it is evident that the jaw pressure is insufficient and a further adjustment will be
necessary. All clutches are equipped throughout with split lock washers. Vibration or shock will not
loosen the nuts if properly set up. The jaws can be removed parallel to the shaft as follows: Remove the
gibs V, and withdraw the jaw pins P, then pull out the levers D. Do not disturb the eye bolt nuts T´ and
T´´. The outside jaws B can now be taken out. Remove the bolt nuts I allowing the fulcrum plates R to
be taken off. On the separable hub pattern the clamping bolts must be taken out before fulcrum plate is
removed. The inside jaws C may now be withdrawn. Always set the clutch operating lever in the
position as shown in fig. 2,816 to avoid interference with mechanism parts. Oil the moving parts of the
clutch. Keep it clean. Examine at regular intervals.

Ques. Under what conditions does a belt drive give the best results?
Ans. When the two pulleys are at the same level.
If the belt must occupy an inclined position it should not form a greater angle
than 45 degrees with the horizontal.

Ques. What is a characteristic feature in the operation of belts, and

why?
Ans. Belts in motion will always run to the highest side of a pulley; this is due
partially to the greater speed in feet per minute developed at that point owing
to the greater circumference of the pulley, and also to the effects of centrifugal
force.
If, therefore, the highest sides of both pulleys be in line with each other, and
the shafts of the respective pulleys be parallel to each other, there will be no
tendency for the belt to leave the pulleys when once in its proper position. In order
that these conditions be maintained, the belt should be no more than tight enough
to prevent slipping, and the distance between the centers of the pulleys should be
approximately 3.5 times the diameter of the larger one.
Fig. 2,818.—Hill clutch mechanism Smith type. The friction surfaces are wood to iron, the wood shoes
being made from maple. All parts of the toggle gear are of steel and forgings with the exception of the
connection lever which is of cast iron.

Ques. What minor appurtenances should be provided in a station?

Ans. Apparatus should be installed as a prevention against accidents, such as
fire, and protection of attendants from danger.
In every electrical station there should be a pump, pipes and hose; the pump
may be either directly connected to a small electric motor or belted to a
countershaft, while the pipes and hose should be so placed that no water can
accidentally reach the generators and electrical circuits. A number of fire bucket
filled with water should be placed on brackets around the station, and with these
there should be an equal number of bucket containing dry sand, the water being
used for extinguishing fire occurring at a distance from the machines and
conductors, and the sand for extinguishing fire in current carrying circuits where
water would cause more harm than benefit. To prevent the sand being blown
about the station, each sand bucket, when not in use, should be provided with a
cover.
Neat cans and boxes should be mounted in convenient places for greasy rags,
waste, nuts, screws, etc., which are used continually and which therefore cannot
be kept in the storeroom.
While it is important to guard against fire in the station, it is equally necessary
to provide for personal safety. All passages and dark pits should therefore be
thoroughly lighted both day and night, and obstacles of any nature that are not
absolutely necessary in the operation of the station, should be removed. Moving
belts, and especially those passing through the floor, should be enclosed in iron