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The document provides information about the 10th edition of 'Java Programming' by Joyce Farrell, available for download along with links to other related educational materials. It includes a detailed table of contents outlining various programming concepts and chapters covered in the book. The publication is copyrighted by Cengage Learning and emphasizes the importance of adhering to copyright laws and safety precautions while using the material.

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Java Programming (MindTap Course List), 10th Edition Joyce Farrell instant download

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Java
Programming
Tenth Edition

Joyce Farrell

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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2022

CHAPTER 1 Creating Java Programs�� 1

CHAPTER 2 Using Data�� 39
CHAPTER 3 Using Methods�� 83
CHAPTER 4 Using Classes and Objects�� 115
CHAPTER 5 Making Decisions�� 161
CHAPTER 6 Looping�� 201
CHAPTER 7 Characters, Strings, and the StringBuilder�� 237
CHAPTER 8 Arrays�� 267
CHAPTER 9 Inheritance and Interfaces�� 329
CHAPTER 10 Exception Handling�� 393
CHAPTER 11 File Input and Output�� 441
CHAPTER 12 Recursion�� 487
CHAPTER 13 Collections and Generics�� 511
CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Swing Components�� 545
APPENDIX A Working with the Java Platform �� 587

APPENDIX B Data Representation �� 591

APPENDIX C Formatting Output �� 595

APPENDIX D Generating Random Numbers �� 603

APPENDIX E Javadoc �� 607

APPENDIX F Using JavaFX and Scene Builder �� 613

GLOSSARY 625
INDEX 641

iii

Pitfall: Not Understanding Imprecision in Game Zone 113

Floating-Point Numbers 70 Case Problems 114
2.9 Understanding Type Conversion 72
Automatic Type Conversion 73 CHAPTER 4
Explicit Type Conversion 73
USING CLASSES AND OBJECTS 115
Don’t Do It 76 4.1 Learning About Classes
Summary 77 and Objects 115
Key Terms 77 4.2 Creating a Class 117
Review Questions 78
Programming Exercises 80
4.3 Creating Instance Methods
in a Class 119
Debugging Exercises 81
Game Zone 81 4.4 Declaring Objects and
Case Problems 82 Using Their Methods 124
Understanding Data Hiding 126

CHAPTER 3 4.5 Understanding That Classes

Are Data Types 128
USING METHODS 83 4.6 Creating and Using Constructors 131
3.1 Understanding Method Calls and Creating Constructors with Parameters 132
Placement83
4.7 Learning About the this
3.2 Understanding Method Reference134
Construction86 Using the this Reference to Make
Access Specifiers 86 Overloaded Constructors More Efficient 137
The static Modifier 87
4.8 Using static Fields 139
Return Type 87
Using Constant Fields 140
Method Name 87
Parentheses 88 4.9 Using Imported, Prewritten
Constants and Methods 143
3.3 Adding Parameters to Methods 91
The Math Class 144
Creating a Method That Receives a Single
Importing Classes That Are Not Imported
Parameter 91
Automatically 145
Creating a Method That Requires Multiple
Using the LocalDate Class 146
Parameters 94

3.4 Creating Methods That 4.10 U

nderstanding Composition
Return Values 95 and Nested Classes 150
Composition 150
3.5 Understanding Blocks and Scope 99
Nested Classes 151
3.6 Overloading a Method 104
3.7 Learning about Ambiguity 107 Don’t Do It 153
Summary 153
Don’t Do It 108 Key Terms 154
Summary 108 Review Questions 154
Key Terms 109 Programming Exercises 156
Review Questions 109 Debugging Exercises 158
Programming Exercises 111 Game Zone 158
Debugging Exercises 113 Case Problems 159

CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6
MAKING DECISIONS 161 LOOPING201
5.1 Planning Decision-Making Logic 161 6.1 Learning About the Loop
5.2 The if and if…else Statements 163 Structure201
The if Statement 163 6.2 Creating while Loops 202
Pitfall: Misplacing a Semicolon in an if Statement 164 Writing a Definite while Loop 202
Pitfall: Using the Assignment Operator Instead Pitfall: Failing to Alter the Loop Control Variable
of the Equivalency Operator 165 Within the Loop Body 204
Pitfall: Attempting to Compare Objects Using Pitfall: Unintentionally Creating a Loop with
the Relational Operators 165 an Empty Body 204
The if…else Statement 166 Altering a Definite Loop’s Control Variable 206
Writing an Indefinite while Loop 206
5.3 Using Multiple Statements in
if and if…else Clauses 168 Validating Data 208

5.4 Nesting if and if…else 6.3 Using Shortcut Arithmetic

Statements172 Operators210
5.5 Using Logical AND and OR 6.4 Creating a for Loop 214
Operators174 Variations in for Loops 215
The AND Operator 174 6.5 Learning How and When to Use
The OR Operator 175 a do…while Loop 217
Short-Circuit Evaluation 175 6.6 Learning About Nested Loops 220
5.6 Making Accurate and Efficient 6.7 Improving Loop Performance 223
Decisions178 Avoiding Unnecessary Operations 223
Making Accurate Range Checks 178 Considering the Order of Evaluation of
Making Efficient Range Checks 180 Short-Circuit Operators 224
Using && and || Appropriately 180 Comparing to Zero 224
5.7 Using switch 181 Employing Loop Fusion 226
Using the switch Expression 183 A Final Note on Improving Loop Performance 226

5.8 Using the Conditional and NOT

Operators186 Don’t Do It 228
Summary 228
Using the NOT Operator 187
Key Terms 229
5.9 Understanding Operator
Review Questions 229
Precedence187
Programming Exercises 232
5.10 M
aking Constructors More Debugging Exercises 233
Efficient by Using Decisions in
Game Zone 234
Other Methods 189
Case Problems 235

Don’t Do It 193

Summary 193 CHAPTER 7
Key Terms 194
CHARACTERS, STRINGS, AND
Review Questions 194
THE StringBuilder 237
Programming Exercises 197
Debugging Exercises 198 7.1 Understanding String Data
Game Zone 199
Problems237
Case Problems 200 7.2 Using Character Class Methods 238

7.3 Declaring and Comparing 8.8 Using Two-Dimensional and Other

String Objects 241 Multidimensional Arrays 300
Comparing String Values 241 Passing a Two-Dimensional Array to a Method 302
Empty and null Strings 245 Using the length Field with a Two-Dimensional
Array303
7.4 Using a Variety of String
Methods246 Understanding Jagged Arrays 304
Using Other Multidimensional Arrays 304
Converting String Objects to Numbers 249

7.5 Learning About the StringBuilder 8.9 Using the Arrays Class 307
and StringBuffer Classes 253 8.10 Creating Enumerations 311

Don’t Do It 257 Don’t Do It 316

Summary 258 Summary 317
Key Terms 258 Key Terms 318
Review Questions 258 Review Questions 318
Programming Exercises 260 Programming Exercises 320
Debugging Exercises 262 Debugging Exercises 323
Game Zone 263 Game Zone 323
Case Problems 264 Case Problems 327

CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9
ARRAYS267 INHERITANCE AND INTERFACES 329
8.1 Declaring an Array 267 9.1 Learning About the Concept of
8.2 Initializing an Array 271 Inheritance329
Inheritance Terminology 331
8.3 Using Variable Subscripts with an
Array273 9.2 Extending Classes 332
Using the Enhanced for Loop 275 9.3 Overriding Superclass Methods 336
Using Part of an Array 275 Using the @Override Annotation 337
8.4 Declaring and Using Arrays 9.4 Calling Constructors During
of Objects 277 Inheritance339
Using the Enhanced for Loop with Objects 279 Using Superclass Constructors That Require
Manipulating Arrays of Strings 279 Arguments 340

8.5 Searching an Array and Using 9.5 Accessing Superclass Methods 344
Parallel Arrays 284 Comparing this and super 345
Using Parallel Arrays 284
9.6 Employing Information Hiding 346
Searching an Array for a Range Match 286
9.7 Methods You Cannot Override 348
8.6 Passing Arrays to and Returning
Arrays from Methods 289 A Subclass Cannot Override static Methods
in Its Superclass 348
Returning an Array from a Method 291
A Subclass Cannot Override final Methods
8.7 Sorting Array Elements 292 in Its Superclass 350
Using the Bubble Sort Algorithm 293 A Subclass Cannot Override Methods in a final
Improving Bubble Sort Efficiency 295 Superclass 351
Sorting Arrays of Objects 295 9.8 Creating and Using Abstract
Using the Insertion Sort Algorithm 296 Classes352

9.9 Using Dynamic Method Binding 359 10.7 T

racing Exceptions Through the
Using a Superclass as a Method Parameter Type 360 Call Stack 415
9.10 C
reating Arrays of Subclass 10.8 C
reating Your Own Exception
Objects361 Classes419
9.11 U
sing the Object Class and Its 10.9 Using Assertions 421
Methods364 10.10 Displaying the Virtual Keyboard 430
Using the toString() Method 364
Using the equals() Method 366 Don’t Do It 433
Overloading equals() 367 Summary 434
Overriding equals() 369 Key Terms 434
9.12 Creating and Using Interfaces 371 Review Questions 435
Creating Interfaces to Store Related Constants 374 Programming Exercises 437
Debugging Exercises 439
9.13 U
sing records, Anonymous Inner
Classes, and Lambda Expressions 377 Game Zone 439

Using records 377 Case Problems 440

Using Anonymous Inner Classes 379

Using Lambda Expressions 380 CHAPTER 11
FILE INPUT AND OUTPUT 441
Don’t Do It 381
Summary 381
11.1 Understanding Computer Files 441
Key Terms 383 11.2 U
sing the Path and Files
Review Questions 383 Classes443
Programming Exercises 385 Creating a Path 443
Debugging Exercises 389 Retrieving Information About a Path 444
Game Zone 390 Converting a Relative Path to an Absolute One 445
Case Problems 391 Checking File Accessibility 446
Deleting a Path 447
Determining File Attributes 448
CHAPTER 10
11.3 F
ile Organization, Streams, and
EXCEPTION HANDLING 393 Buffers450
10.1 Learning About Exceptions 393 11.4 Using Java’s IO Classes 452
10.2 T
rying Code and Catching Writing to a File 454
Exceptions397 Reading from a File 454
Using a try Block to Make Programs “Foolproof” 400 11.5 C
reating and Using Sequential
Declaring and Initializing Variables in try…catch Data Files 457
Blocks 402
11.6 L
earning About Random Access
10.3 T
hrowing and Catching Multiple Files461
Exceptions404
11.7 W
riting Records to a Random
10.4 Using the finally Block 408 Access Data File 463
10.5 U
nderstanding the Advantages 11.8 R
eading Records from a Random
of Exception Handling 410 Access Data File 468
10.6 S
pecifying the Exceptions That Accessing a Random Access File Sequentially 468
a Method Can Throw 412 Accessing a Random Access File Randomly 470

Don’t Do It 479 13.4 Using the LinkedList Class 524

Summary 479
13.5 Using Iterators 528
Key Terms 480
Review Questions 480
13.6 Creating Generic Classes 530
Programming Exercises 482 13.7 Creating Generic Methods 532
Debugging Exercises 484 Creating a Generic Method with More than One
Game Zone 484 Type Parameter 533

Case Problems 485

Don’t Do It 537

CHAPTER 12 Summary 538

Key Terms 538
RECURSION487 Review Questions 539

12.1 Understanding Recursion 487 Programming Exercises 541

Debugging Exercises 542
12.2 U
sing Recursion to Solve
Game Zone 542
Mathematical Problems 489
Case Problems 543
Computing Sums 490
Computing Factorials 491
12.3 U
sing Recursion to Manipulate CHAPTER 14
Strings495
INTRODUCTION TO Swing
Using Recursion to Separate a Phrase into Words 495
Using Recursion to Reverse the Characters in a
COMPONENTS545
String 496 14.1 U
nderstanding Swing
12.4 U
sing Recursion to Create Visual Components545
Patterns499 14.2 Using the JFrame Class 547
12.5 R
ecursion’s Relationship to Customizing a JFrame’s Appearance 549
Iterative Programming 500 14.3 Using the JLabel Class 552
Changing a JLabel’s Font 553
Don’t Do It 503
14.4 Using a Layout Manager 555
Summary 503
Key Terms 504 14.5 Extending the JFrame Class 557
Review Questions 504 14.6 A
dding JTextFields and
Programming Exercises 506 JButtons to a JFrame 559
Debugging Exercises 508 Adding JTextFields to a JFrame 559
Game Zone 509 Adding JButtons to a JFrame 560
Case Problems 510 14.7 L
earning About Event-Driven
Programming563
CHAPTER 13 Preparing Your Class to Accept Event Messages 564
Telling Your Class to Expect Events to Happen 564
COLLECTIONS AND GENERICS 511 Telling Your Class How to Respond to Events 564
13.1 U
nderstanding the Collection Writing an Event-Driven Program 565
Interface511 Using Multiple Event Sources 566
13.2 U
nderstanding the List Using the setEnabled() Method 567
Interface513
14.8 U
nderstanding Swing Event
13.3 Using the ArrayList Class 514 Listeners569

14.9 U
sing the JCheckBox, APPENDIX C
ButtonGroup, and JComboBox
Classes572 FORMATTING OUTPUT 595
The JCheckBox Class 572
The ButtonGroup Class 574 APPENDIX D
The JComboBox Class 575
GENERATING RANDOM
Don’t Do It 580 NUMBERS 603
Summary 581
Key Terms 581 APPENDIX E
Review Questions 582
JAVADOC 607
Programming Exercises 584
Debugging Exercises 585
Game Zone 585
APPENDIX F
Case Problems 586 USING JAVAFX AND SCENE
BUILDER613
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY 625
WORKING WITH THE INDEX 641
JAVA PLATFORM 587

APPENDIX B
DATA REPRESENTATION 591

This course assumes that you have little or no programming experience. It provides a solid background in
good object-oriented programming techniques and introduces terminology using clear, familiar language. The
programming examples are business examples; they do not assume a mathematical background beyond high
school business math. In addition, the examples illustrate only one or two major points; they do not contain so
many features that you become lost following irrelevant and extraneous details. Complete, working programs
appear frequently in each chapter; these examples help students make the transition from the theoretical
to the practical. The code presented in each chapter also can be downloaded from the Cengage website, so
students easily can run the programs and experiment with changes to them.

The student using Java Programming, Tenth Edition builds applications from the bottom up rather than
starting with existing objects. This facilitates a deeper understanding of the concepts used in object-oriented
programming and engenders appreciation for the existing objects students use as their knowledge of the
language advances. When students complete this course, they will know how to modify and create simple Java
programs, and they will have the tools to create more complex examples. They also will have a fundamental
knowledge of object-oriented programming, which will serve them well in advanced Java courses or in studying
other object-oriented languages such as C++, C#, and Visual Basic.

Organization and Coverage

Java Programming, Tenth Edition presents Java programming concepts, enforcing good style, logical thinking,
and the object-oriented paradigm. Objects are covered right from the beginning, earlier than in many other
Java courses. You create your first Java program in Chapter 1. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 increase your understanding
about how data, classes, objects, and methods interact in an object-oriented environment.

Chapters 5 and 6 explore input and repetition structures, which are the backbone of programming logic and
essential to creating useful programs in any language. You learn the special considerations of string and array
manipulation in Chapters 7 and 8.

Chapters 9 and 10 thoroughly cover inheritance, interfaces, and exception handling. Inheritance is the object-
oriented concept that allows you to develop new objects quickly by adapting the features of existing objects,
interfaces define common methods that must be implemented in all classes that use them, and exception
handling is the object-oriented approach to handling errors. All of these are important concepts in object-
oriented design. Chapter 11 provides information about handling files so you can store and retrieve program
output.

Chapter 12 explains recursion, and Chapter 13 covers Java collections and generics. Both are important
programming concepts, and Java provides excellent ways to implement and learn about them. Chapter 14
introduces GUI Swing components, which are used to create visually pleasing, user-friendly, interactive
applications.

New in This Edition

The following features are new for the Tenth Edition:

❯❯Java: All programs have been tested using Java 16.

❯❯Java help: Instructions on searching for Java help have been updated to avoid using specific URLs because new
Java versions are now being released twice a year.
❯❯Text blocks: Chapter 2 introduces text blocks—a new feature since Java 13.

❯❯Methods: Methods are covered thoroughly in Chapter 3, including topics such as overloading methods and
avoiding ambiguity. In previous editions, the material was split between chapters.
❯❯Classes and objects: Classes and objects are covered thoroughly in Chapter 4. In previous editions, the material
was split between chapters.
❯❯The switch expression: Chapter 5 includes the switch expression, which became a new feature in Java 14.

❯❯Arrays: Chapter 8 covers beginning and advanced array concepts. In previous editions, this content was split
between chapters.
❯❯Inheritance and interfaces: Chapter 9 covers inheritance and interfaces. In previous editions, this content was
split between chapters.
❯❯The record keyword: Chapter 9 also introduces the record keyword, which allows simple classes to be
developed more quickly because a constructor and methods to get and set fields are created automatically
based on field definitions.
❯❯Recursion: Chapter 12 is a new chapter on recursion. The chapter presents techniques to use to solve
mathematical problems, manipulate strings, and create visual patterns using recursion.
❯❯Collections and generics: Chapter 13 is a new chapter on collections and generics. The chapter covers the
Collection and List interfaces, the ArrayList and LinkedList classes, Iterators, and generic
classes and methods.

Additionally, Java Programming, Tenth Edition includes the following features:

❯❯Objectives: Each chapter begins with a list of objectives so you know the topics that will be presented in the
chapter. In addition to providing a quick reference to topics covered, this feature provides a useful study aid.
❯❯You Do It: In each chapter, step-by-step exercises help students create multiple working programs that
emphasize the logic a programmer uses in choosing statements to include. These sections provide a means for
students to achieve success on their own—even those in online or distance learning classes.
❯❯Notes: These highlighted tips provide additional information—for example, an alternative method of performing
a procedure, another term for a concept, background information about a technique, or a common error to
avoid.
❯❯Emphasis on student research: The student frequently is advised to use the Web to investigate Java classes,
methods, and techniques. Computer languages evolve, and programming professionals must understand how to
find the latest language improvements.
❯❯Figures: Each chapter contains many figures. Code figures are most frequently 25 lines or fewer, illustrating one
concept at a time. Frequent screenshots show exactly how program output appears. Callouts appear where
needed to emphasize a point.
❯❯Color: The code figures in each chapter contain all Java keywords in blue. This helps students identify keywords
more easily, distinguishing them from programmer-selected names.
❯❯Files: More than 200 student files can be downloaded from the Cengage website. Most files contain the code
presented in the figures in each chapter; students can run the code for themselves, view the output, and make

changes to the code to observe the effects. Other files include debugging exercises that help students improve
their programming skills.
❯❯Two Truths & a Lie: A short quiz reviews almost every chapter section, with answers provided. This quiz
contains three statements based on the preceding section of text—two statements are true, and one is false.
Over the years, students have requested answers to problems, but we have hesitated to distribute them in case
instructors want to use problems as assignments or test questions. These true-false quizzes provide students
with immediate feedback as they read, without “giving away” answers to the multiple-choice questions and
programming exercises.
❯❯Don’t Do It: This section at the end of each chapter summarizes common mistakes and pitfalls that plague new
programmers while learning the current topic.
❯❯Summary: Following each chapter is a summary that recaps the programming concepts and techniques covered
in the chapter. This feature provides a concise means for students to check their understanding of the main
points in each chapter.
❯❯Key Terms: Each chapter includes a list of newly introduced vocabulary, shown in alphabetical order. The list of
key terms provides a short review of the major concepts in the chapter.
❯❯Review Questions: Each chapter includes 20 multiple-choice questions that serve as a review of chapter topics.

❯❯Programming Exercises: Multiple programming exercises are included with each chapter. These challenge
students to create complete Java programs that solve real-world problems.
❯❯Debugging Exercises: Four debugging exercises are included with each chapter. These are programs that
contain logic or syntax errors that the student must correct. Besides providing practice in deciphering error
messages and thinking about correct logic, these exercises provide examples of complete and useful Java
programs after the errors are repaired.
❯❯Game Zone: Each chapter provides one or more exercises in which students can create interactive games
using the programming techniques learned up to that point; 50 game programs are suggested in the course.
The games are fun to create and play; writing them motivates students to master the necessary programming
techniques. Students might exchange completed game programs with each other, suggesting improvements and
discovering alternate ways to accomplish tasks.
❯❯Cases: Each chapter contains two running case problems. These cases represent projects that continue to
grow throughout a semester using concepts learned in each new chapter. Two cases allow instructors to assign
different cases in alternate semesters or to divide students in a class into two case teams.
❯❯Glossary: A glossary contains definitions for all key terms in the course.

❯❯Appendices: This edition includes useful appendices on working with the Java platform, data representation,
formatting output, generating random numbers, creating Javadoc comments, and JavaFX.
❯❯Quality: Every program example, exercise, and game solution was tested by the author and then tested again by
a quality assurance team.

MindTap Instructor Resources

MindTap activities for Java Programming, Tenth Edition are designed to help students master the skills they need in
today’s workforce. Research shows employers need critical thinkers, troubleshooters, and creative problem-solvers
to stay relevant in our fast-paced, technology-driven world. MindTap helps you achieve this with assignments and
activities that provide hands-on practice and real-life relevance. Students are guided through assignments that help
them master basic knowledge and understanding before moving on to more challenging problems.

All MindTap activities and assignments are tied to defined unit learning objectives. MindTap provides the analytics and
reporting so you can easily see where the class stands in terms of progress, engagement, and completion rates. Use

the content and learning path as is or pick and choose how our materials will wrap around yours. You control what
the students see and when they see it. Learn more at http://www.cengage.com/mindtap/.

In addition to the readings, the Java Programming, Tenth Edition MindTap includes the following:

❯❯Gradeable assessments and activities: All assessments and activities from the readings will be available as
gradeable assignments within MindTap, including Review Questions, Game Zone, Case Problems, and Two
Truths & a Lie.
❯❯Videos: Each unit is accompanied by videos that help to explain important unit concepts and provide demos on
how students can apply those concepts.
❯❯Coding Snippets: These short, ungraded coding activities are embedded in the MindTap Reader and provide
students an opportunity to practice new programming concepts “in the moment.” The coding Snippets help
transition the students from conceptual understanding to application of Java code.
❯❯Coding labs: These assignments provide real-world application and encourage students to practice new coding
skills in a complete online IDE. Guided feedback provides personalized and immediate feedback to students as
they proceed through their coding assignments so that they can understand and correct errors in their code.
❯❯Interactive study aids: Flashcards and PowerPoint lectures help users review main concepts from the units.

Instructor and Student Resources

Additional instructor and student resources for this product are available online. Instructor assets include an
Instructor’s Manual, Educator’s Guide, PowerPoint® slides, Solution and Answer Guide, solutions, and a test bank
powered by Cognero®. Student assets include data files. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com to search for and access
this product and its online resources.

❯❯Instructor’s Manual: The Instructor’s Manual includes additional instructional material to assist in class
preparation, including sections such as Chapter Objectives, Complete List of Chapter Activities and
Assessments, Key Terms, What’s New In This Chapter, Chapter Outline, Discussion Questions, Suggested Usage
for Lab Activities, Additional Activities and Assignments, and Additional Resources. A sample syllabus also is
available.
❯❯PowerPoint presentations: The PowerPoint slides can be used to guide classroom presentations, to make
available to students for chapter review, or to print as classroom handouts.
❯❯Solution and Answer Guide: Solutions to all end-of-chapter assignments are provided along with feedback.

❯❯Solutions: Solutions to all programming exercises are available. If an input file is needed to run a programming
exercise, it is included with the solution file.
❯❯Test bank: Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to:
■■ Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage solutions.
■■ Create multiple test versions in an instant.
■■ Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.
❯❯Educator’s Guide: The Educator’s Guide contains a detailed outline of the corresponding MindTap course.

❯❯Transition Guide: The Transition Guide outlines information on what has changed from the Ninth Edition.

❯❯Data files: Data files necessary to complete some of the steps and projects in the course are available. The Data
Files folder includes Java files that are provided for every program that appears in a figure in the text.

About the Author

Joyce Farrell has taught computer programming at McHenry County College, Crystal Lake, Illinois; the University of
Wisconsin, Stevens Point, Wisconsin; and Harper College, Palatine, Illinois. Besides Java, she has written books on
programming logic and design, C#, and C++ for Cengage.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all of the people who helped to make this project a reality, including Tran Pham, Associate Product
Manager; Mary Convertino, Learning Designer; Maria Garguilo, Senior Content Manager; Dan Seiter, Developmental
Editor, and John Freitas, Quality Assurance Tester. I am lucky to work with these professionals who are dedicated to
producing high-quality instructional materials.

I am also grateful to the reviewers who provided comments and encouragement during this course’s development,
including Dr. Ross Foultz, Coastal Carolina University; and Dr. Carl M. Rebman, Jr., University of San Diego. Also, thank
you to Charles W. Lively III, Ph.D. – Academic Faculty, Georgia Institute of Technology, who provided the appendix on
JavaFX.

Thanks, too, to my husband, Geoff, for his constant support, advice, and encouragement. Finally, this project is
dedicated to Norman Williams Peterson, who has brought a smile to my face every time I have seen him.

Joyce Farrell

Read This Before You Begin

The following information will help you as you prepare to complete this course.

To the User of the Data Files

To complete the steps and projects in this course, you need data files that have been created specifically for some of
the exercises. Your instructor will provide the data files to you. You also can obtain the files electronically by signing
up or signing in at www.cengage.com and then searching for and accessing this product and its online resources. Note
that you can use a computer in your school lab or your own computer to complete the exercises.

Using Your Own Computer

To use your own computer to complete the steps and exercises, you need the following:

❯❯Software: Java SE 16 or later, available from www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index.html. Although almost

all of the examples in this course will work with earlier versions of Java, a few require Java 16 or later. You also
need a text editor, such as Notepad. A few exercises ask you to use a browser for research.
❯❯Hardware: For operating system requirements (memory and disk space), see http://java.com/en/download/
help.

Features
This text focuses on helping students become better programmers and understand Java program development through
a variety of key features. In addition to Chapter Objectives, Summaries, and Key Terms, these useful features will help
students regardless of their learning styles.

You Do It

These sections walk students through program development step by step.

These notes provide additional information—for example, a common error to watch out for or
Note background information on a topic.

Two Truths & a Lie

These quizzes appear after almost every chapter section, with answers provided. Each quiz contains three
statements based on the preceding section of text—two statements are true and one is false.

Answers give immediate feedback without “giving away” answers to the multiple-choice questions and
programming problems later in the chapter. Students also have the option to take these quizzes in MindTap.

Don’t Do It Icon
The Don’t Do It icon illustrates how NOT to do something—for example, having a dead code path in a program. These
icons provide a visual jolt to the student, emphasizing that particular practices are NOT to be emulated and making
students more likely to recognize problems in existing code.

import java.util.Scanner;
public class GetUserInfo2 Don’t Do It
{
public static void main(String[] args) If you accept numeric
{ input prior to string input,
String name; the string input is ignored
int age; unless you take special
Scanner inputDevice = new Scanner(System.in); action.
System.out.print("Please enter your age >> ");
age = inputDevice.nextInt();
System.out.print("Please enter your name >> ");
name = inputDevice.nextLine();
System.out.println("Your name is " + name +
" and you are " + age + " years old.");
}
}

Don’t Do It
These sections at the end of each chapter list advice for avoiding common programming errors.

Assessment

Review Questions
Review Questions test student comprehension of the major ideas and techniques presented. Twenty questions follow
each chapter.

Programming Exercises
Programming Exercises provide opportunities to practice concepts. These exercises allow students to explore each
major programming concept presented in the chapter. Additional coding labs and snippets are available in MindTap.

Debugging Exercises
Debugging Exercises are included with each chapter because examining programs critically and closely is a crucial
programming skill. Students and instructors can download these exercises at www.cengage.com.

Game Zone
Game Zone exercises are included at the end of each chapter. Students can create games as an additional entertaining
way to understand key programming concepts.

Case Problems
Case Problems provide opportunities to build more detailed programs that continue to incorporate increasing
functionality throughout the course.

Creating Java
Programs
Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter, you will be able to:

1.1 Define basic programming terminology

1.2 Compare procedural and object-oriented programming
1.3 Describe the features of the Java programming language
1.4 Analyze a Java application that produces console output
1.5 Compile a Java class and correct syntax errors
1.6 Run a Java application and correct logic errors
1.7 Add comments to a Java class
1.8 Create a Java application that produces GUI output
1.9 Identify and consult resources to help develop Java programming skills

1.1 Learning Programming Terminology

You see many computers every day. There might be a laptop on your desk, and there also are computers in
your phone, in your car, and perhaps in your thermostat, washing machine, and vacuum cleaner. When you
learn computer terminology and how to program a computer, you learn a bit about how these devices work,
you develop your critical thinking skills, and you learn to communicate more clearly. You will reap all these
benefits as you work through this course.

Computer systems consist of both hardware and software.

❯❯Computer equipment, such as a monitor or keyboard, is hardware.

❯❯Programs are software. A computer program (or simply, program) is a set of instructions that you write
to tell a computer what to do.

Software can be divided into two broad categories:

❯❯A program that performs a task for a user (such as calculating and producing paychecks, word processing, or
playing a game) is application software. Programs that are application software are called applications, or apps
for short.
❯❯A program that manages the computer itself (such as Windows or Linux) is system software.

The logic behind any computer program, whether it is an application or system program, determines the exact order of
instructions needed to produce desired results. Much of this course describes how to develop the logic for application
software.

You can write computer programs in high- or low-level programming languages:

❯❯A high-level programming language such as Java, Visual Basic, C++, or C# allows you to use English-like, easy-
to-remember terms such as read, write, and add.
❯❯A low-level programming language corresponds closely to a computer’s circuitry and is not as easily read or
understood. Because they correspond to circuitry, low-level languages must be customized for every type of
machine on which a program runs.

All computer programs, even high-level language programs, ultimately are converted to the lowest-level language,
which is machine language. Machine language, or machine code, is the most basic set of instructions that a computer
can execute. Each type of processor (the internal hardware that handles computer instructions) has its own set of
machine language instructions. Programmers often describe machine language using 1s and 0s to represent the on-
and-off circuitry of computer systems.

The system that uses only 1s and 0s is the binary numbering system. Appendix B describes the binary
Note system in detail. Later in this chapter, you will learn that bytecode is the name for the binary code created
when Java programs are converted to machine language.

Every programming language has its own syntax, or rules about how language elements are combined correctly to
produce usable statements. For example, depending on the specific high-level language, you might use the verb print
or write to produce output. All languages have a specific, limited vocabulary (the language’s keywords) and a specific
set of rules for using that vocabulary. When you are learning a computer programming language, such as Java, C++, or
Visual Basic, you are learning the vocabulary and syntax for that language.

Using a programming language, programmers write a series of program statements, which are similar to English
sentences. The statements carry out the program’s tasks. Program statements are also known as commands because
they are orders to the computer, such as Output this word or Add these two numbers.

After the program statements are written in a high-level programming language, a computer program called a compiler
or interpreter translates the statements into machine language. A compiler translates an entire program before carrying
out any statements, or executing them, whereas an interpreter translates one program statement at a time, executing
a statement as soon as it is translated.

Whether you use a compiler or interpreter often depends on the programming language you use.
Note For example, C++ is a compiled language, and Visual Basic is an interpreted language. Each type of
translator has its supporters; programs written in compiled languages execute more quickly, whereas
programs written in interpreted languages can be easier to develop and debug. Java uses the best of
both technologies: a compiler to translate your programming statements and an interpreter to read the
compiled code line by line when the program executes (also called at run time).

Compilers and interpreters issue one or more error messages each time they encounter an invalid program statement—
that is, a statement containing a syntax error, or misuse of the language. Examples of syntax errors include misspelling
a keyword or omitting a word that a statement requires. When a syntax error is detected, the programmer can correct
the error and attempt another translation. Repairing all syntax errors is the first part of the process of debugging a
program—freeing the program of all flaws or errors, also known as bugs. Figure 1-1 illustrates the steps a programmer
takes while developing an executable program. You will learn more about debugging Java programs later in this chapter.

Figure 1-1 The program development process

Plan program logic

Write program language statements

that correspond to the logic

Debugging process
Use translating software (a compiler or
interpreter) that translates programming
language statements to machine language

Debugging process
Can all statements No Examine list of
be successfully
syntax errors
translated?

Yes

Execute the program

Examine
program output

Are there runtime Yes

or output errors?

As Figure 1-1 shows, you might write a program that compiles successfully (that is, it contains no syntax errors), but
it still might not be a correct program because it might contain one or more logic errors. A logic error is a bug that
allows a program to run, but that causes it to operate incorrectly. Correct logic requires that all the right commands
be issued in the appropriate order. Examples of logic errors include multiplying two values when you meant to divide
them or producing output prior to obtaining the appropriate input. When you develop a program of any significant
size, you should plan its logic before you write any program statements.
Correcting logic errors is much more difficult than correcting syntax errors. Syntax errors are discovered by the
language translator when you compile a program, but a program can be free of syntax errors and execute while still

retaining logic errors. Sometimes you can find logic errors by carefully examining the structure of your program (when
a group of programmers do this together, it is called a structured walkthrough), but sometimes you can identify logic
errors only when you examine a program’s output. For example, if you know an employee’s paycheck should contain
the value $4,000, but when you examine a payroll program’s output you see that it holds $40, then a logic error has
occurred. Perhaps an incorrect calculation was performed, or maybe the hours-worked value was output by mistake
instead of the net pay value. When output is incorrect, the programmer must carefully examine all the statements
within the program, revise or move the offending statements, and translate and test the program again.

Just because a program produces correct output does not mean it is free from logic errors. For example,
Note suppose that a program should multiply two values entered by the user, that the user enters two 2s, and
that the output is 4. The program might actually be adding the values by mistake. The programmer would
discover the logic error only by entering different values, such as 5 and 7, and examining the result.

Programmers call some logic errors semantic errors. For example, if you misspell a programming
Note language word, you commit a syntax error, but if you use a correct word in the wrong context, you
commit a semantic error.

Two Truths & a Lie Learning Programming Terminology

In each “Two Truths & a Lie” section, two of the numbered statements are true, and one is false. Identify the false
statement and explain why it is false.

1. Unlike a low-level programming language, a high-level programming language allows you to use
a vocabulary of reasonable terms instead of the sequences of on-and-off switches that perform the
corresponding tasks.

2. A syntax error occurs when you violate the rules of a language; locating and repairing all syntax errors is
part of the process of debugging a program.

3. Logic errors are fairly easy to find because the software that translates a program finds all the logic errors for you.

The false statement is #3. A language translator finds syntax errors, but logic errors can still exist in a program that
is free of syntax errors.

1.2 C
omparing Procedural and Object-Oriented
Programming Concepts
All computer programmers must deal with syntax errors and logical errors in much the same way, but they might take
different approaches to the entire programming process. Procedural programming and object-oriented programming
describe two different approaches to writing computer programs.

Procedural Programming
Procedural programming is a style of programming in which operations are executed one after another in sequence.

The typical procedural program defines and uses named computer memory locations; each of these named locations
that can hold data is called a variable. For example, data might be read from an input device and stored in a location
the programmer has named rateOfPay. The variable value might be used in an arithmetic statement, used as the
basis for a decision, sent to an output device, or have other operations performed with it. The data stored in a variable
can change, or vary, during a program’s execution.

For convenience, the individual operations used in a computer program are often grouped into logical units called
procedures. For example, a series of four or five comparisons and calculations that together determine a person’s
federal withholding tax value might be grouped as a procedure named calculateFederalWithholding(). (As a
convention, this course will show parentheses following every procedure name.) As a procedural program executes
its statements, it can sometimes pause to call a procedure. When a program calls a procedure, the current logic is
temporarily suspended so that the procedure’s commands can execute. A single procedural program might contain any
number of procedure calls. Procedures are also called modules, methods, functions, and subroutines. Users of different
programming languages tend to use different terms. As you will learn later in this chapter, Java programmers most
frequently use the term method.

Object-Oriented Programming
Object-oriented programming is an extension of procedural programming in which you take a slightly different approach
to writing computer programs. Writing object-oriented programs involves the following:

❯❯Creating classes, which are blueprints for objects

❯❯Creating objects, which are specific instances of those classes

❯❯Creating applications that manipulate or use those objects

Programmers use OO as an abbreviation for object-oriented; it is pronounced oh oh. Object-oriented

Note programming is abbreviated OOP, and pronounced to rhyme with soup.

Originally, object-oriented programming was used most frequently for two major types of applications:

❯❯Computer simulations, which attempt to mimic real-world activities so that their processes can be improved or
so that users can better understand how the real-world processes operate
❯❯Graphical user interfaces (GUIs), pronounced gooeys, which allow users to interact with a program in a graphical
environment

Thinking about objects in these two types of applications makes sense. For example, a city might want to develop a
program that simulates traffic patterns and controls traffic signals to help prevent tie-ups. Programmers would create
classes for objects such as cars and pedestrians that contain their own data and rules for behavior. For example, each
car has a speed and a method for changing that speed. The specific instances of cars could be set in motion to create
a simulation of a real city at rush hour.

Creating a GUI environment for users is also a natural use for object orientation. It is easy to think of the components
a user manipulates on a computer screen, such as buttons and scroll bars, as similar to real-world objects. Each
GUI object contains data—for example, a button on a screen has a specific size and color. Each object also contains
behaviors—for example, each button can be clicked and reacts in a specific way when clicked. Some people consider
the term object-oriented programming to be synonymous with GUI programming, but object-oriented programming
means more. Although many GUI programs are object oriented, not all object-oriented programs use GUI objects.
Modern businesses use object-oriented design techniques when developing all sorts of business applications, whether
they are GUI applications or not. Early in this course, you will learn object-oriented techniques that are appropriate
for any program type; in the last chapters, you will apply what you have learned about those techniques specifically
to GUI applications.

Understanding object-oriented programming requires grasping three basic concepts:

❯❯Encapsulation as it applies to classes as objects

❯❯Inheritance

❯❯Polymorphism

Understanding Classes, Objects, and Encapsulation

In object-oriented terminology, a class is a group or collection of objects with common properties. In the same way
that a blueprint exists before any houses are built from it, and a recipe exists before any cookies are baked from it, a
class definition exists before any objects are created from it. A class definition describes what attributes its objects
will have and what those objects will be able to do. Attributes are the characteristics that define an object; they are
properties of the object. When you learn a programming language such as Java, you learn to work with two types of
classes: those that have already been developed by the language’s creators and your own new, customized classes.

An object is a specific, concrete instance of a class. Creating an instance is called instantiation. You can create objects
from classes that you write and from classes written by other programmers, including Java’s creators. The values
contained in an object’s properties often differentiate instances of the same class from one another. For example, the
class Automobile describes what Automobile objects are like. Some properties of the Automobile class are
make, model, year, and color. Each Automobile object possesses the same attributes, but not necessarily the same
values for those attributes. One Automobile might be a 2014 white Honda Civic, and another might be a 2021 red
Chevrolet Camaro. Similarly, your dog has the properties of all Dogs, including a breed, name, age, and whether the
dog’s shots are current. The values of the properties of an object are referred to as the object’s state. In other words,
you can think of objects as roughly equivalent to nouns (words that describe a person, place, or thing), and of their
attributes as similar to adjectives that describe the nouns.

When you understand an object’s class, you understand the characteristics of the object. If your friend purchases an
Automobile, you know it has a model name, and if your friend gets a Dog, you know the dog has a breed. Knowing
what attributes exist for classes allows you to ask appropriate questions about the states or values of those attributes.
For example, you might ask how many miles the car gets per gallon, but you would not ask whether the car has had
shots. Similarly, in a GUI operating environment, you expect each component to have specific, consistent attributes and
methods, such as a window having a title bar and a close button, because each component gains these properties as a
member of the general class of GUI components. Figure 1-2 shows the relationship of some Dog objects to the Dog class.

By convention, programmers using Java begin their class names with an uppercase letter. Thus, the class
Note that defines the attributes and methods of an automobile probably would be named Automobile, and
the class for dogs probably would be named Dog. This convention, however, is not required to produce a
workable program.

Besides defining properties, classes define methods their objects can use. A method is a self-contained block of
program code that carries out some action, similar to a procedure in a procedural program. An Automobile, for
example, might have methods for moving forward, moving backward, and determining the status of its gas tank.
Similarly, a Dog might have methods for walking, eating, and determining its name, and a program’s GUI components
might have methods for maximizing and minimizing them as well as determining their size. In other words, if objects
are similar to nouns, then methods are similar to verbs.

In object-oriented classes, attributes and methods are encapsulated into objects. Encapsulation refers to two closely
related object-oriented notions:

❯❯Encapsulation is the enclosure of data and methods within an object. Encapsulation allows you to treat all of an
object’s methods and data as a single entity. Just as an actual dog contains all of its attributes and abilities, so
would a program’s Dog object.

Figure 1-2 Dog class definition and some objects created from it

Dog class definition Dog class instances (objects)

istock.com/GlobalP
istock.com/GlobalP

istock.com/olaser
Every Dog that is
created will have a:

Name

Age

Breed Ginger Bowser Roxy

6 2 1
Shot status Akita Retriever Beagle
Up to date Up to date Up to date

❯❯Encapsulation also refers to the concealment of an object’s data and methods from outside sources. Concealing
data is sometimes called information hiding, and concealing how methods work is implementation hiding; you
will learn more about both terms as you learn more about classes and objects. Encapsulation lets you hide
specific object attributes and methods from outside sources and provides the security that keeps data and
methods safe from inadvertent changes.

If an object’s methods are well written, the user can be unaware of the low-level details of how the methods are
executed, and the user must simply understand the interface or interaction between the method and the object. For
example, if you can fill your Automobile with gasoline, it is because you understand the interface between the gas
pump nozzle and the vehicle’s gas tank opening. You don’t need to understand how the pump works mechanically
or where the gas tank is located inside your vehicle. If you can read your speedometer, it does not matter how the
displayed value is calculated. As a matter of fact, if someone produces a superior, more accurate speed-determining
device and inserts it in your Automobile, you don’t have to know or care how it operates, as long as your interface
remains the same. The same principles apply to well-constructed classes used in object-oriented programs—programs
that use classes only need to work with interfaces.

Understanding Inheritance and Polymorphism

An important feature of object-oriented program design that differentiates it from procedural program design is
inheritance—the ability to create classes that share the attributes and methods of existing classes, but with more
specific features. For example, Automobile is a class, and all Automobile objects share many traits and abilities.
Convertible is a class that inherits from the Automobile class; a Convertible is a type of Automobile that has
and can do everything a “plain” Automobile does—but with an added ability to lower its top. (In turn, A
utomobile
inherits from the Vehicle class.) Convertible is not an object—it is a class. A specific Convertible is an object—
for example, my1967BlueMustangConvertible.

Inheritance helps you understand real-world objects. For example, the first time you encounter a convertible, you
already understand how the ignition, brakes, door locks, and other systems work because you realize that a convert-
ible is a type of automobile. Therefore, you need to be concerned only with the attributes and methods that are “new”
with a convertible. The advantages in programming are the same—you can build new classes based on existing classes
and concentrate on the specialized features you are adding.

A final important concept in object-oriented terminology (that does not exist in procedural programming terminology)
is polymorphism. Literally, polymorphism means many forms—it describes the feature of languages that allows the

same word or symbol to be interpreted correctly in different situations based on the context. For example, although the
classes Automobile, Sailboat, and Airplane all inherit from Vehicle, methods such as turn() and stop()
work differently for instances of those classes. The advantages of polymorphism will become more apparent when you
begin to create GUI applications containing features such as windows, buttons, and menu bars. In a GUI application,
it is convenient to remember one method name, such as setColor() or setHeight(), and have it work correctly
no matter what type of object you are modifying.

When you see a plus sign (+) between two numbers, you understand they are being added. When you
Note see it carved in a tree between two names, you understand that the names are linked romantically.
Because the symbol has diverse meanings based on context, it is polymorphic. Later in this course, you
will learn more about inheritance and polymorphism and how they are implemented in Java. Using Java,
you can write either procedural or object-oriented programs. In this course, you will learn about how to
do both.

Two Truths & a Lie Comparing Procedural and Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

1. An instance of a class is a created object that possesses the attributes and methods described in the class
definition.

2. Encapsulation protects data by hiding it within an object.

3. Polymorphism is the ability to create classes that share the attributes and methods of existing classes, but
with more specific features.

The false statement is #3. Inheritance is the ability to create classes that share the attributes and methods of
existing classes, but with more specific features; polymorphism describes the ability to use one term to cause
multiple actions.

1.3 Features of the Java Programming Language

Java was developed by Sun Microsystems as an object-oriented language for general-purpose business
applications and for interactive, World Wide Web-based Internet applications. (Sun was later acquired by Oracle
Corporation.) Some of the advantages that make Java a popular language are its security features and the fact
that it is architecturally neutral. In other words, unlike many other languages, you can use Java to write a program
that runs on any operating system (such as Windows, macOS, or Linux) or any device (such as PCs, phones, and
tablet computers).

Java can be run on a wide variety of computers and devices because it does not execute instructions on a computer
directly. Instead, Java runs on a hypothetical computer known as the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). When programmers
call the JVM hypothetical, they mean it is not a physical entity created from hardware, but is composed only of
software.

Figure 1-3 shows the Java environment. Programming statements written in a high-level programming language
are source code. When you write a Java program, you first construct the source code using a plain text editor
such as Notepad, or you can use a development environment such as Eclipse, NetBeans, or JDeveloper.
A development environment is a set of tools that help you write programs by providing such features as
displaying a language’s keywords in color.

Figure 1-3 The Java environment

Java Source Code

Source code is
stored on a disk in
a file with a name
ending in .java

Java Compiler

Compiler creates
bytecode that
is stored on a
disk in a file with
a name ending in
Java Virtual Machine .class

Java Interpreter

JVM (named java.exe)

performs security checks
and translates bytecode to
machine language, which
Computer Operating
executes
System

When you write a Java program, the following steps take place:

❯❯The Java source code statements you write are saved in a file.

❯❯The Java compiler converts the source code into a binary program of bytecode.

❯❯A program called the Java interpreter then checks the bytecode and communicates with the operating system,
executing the bytecode instructions line by line within the JVM.

Because the Java program is isolated from the operating system, it is also insulated from the particular hardware on
which it is run. Because of this insulation, the JVM provides security against intruders accessing your computer’s
hardware through the operating system. Therefore, Java is more secure than other languages. Another advantage
provided by the JVM means less work for programmers—when using other programming languages, software vendors
usually have to produce multiple versions of the same product (a Windows version, Macintosh version, UNIX version,
Linux version, and so on) so all users can run the program. With Java, one program version runs on all these platforms.
“Write once, run anywhere” (WORA) is the slogan developed by Sun Microsystems to describe the ability of one Java
program version to work correctly on multiple platforms.

Java also is simpler to use than many other object-oriented languages. Java is modeled after C++. Although neither
language is easy to read or understand on first exposure, Java does eliminate some of the most difficult-to-understand
features in C++, such as pointers and multiple inheritance.

You can write two types of Java applications:

❯❯Console applications, which support character or text output to a computer screen

❯❯Windowed applications, which create a GUI with elements such as menus, toolbars, and dialog boxes

Console applications are the easier applications to create; you start using them in the next section. You will create
your first simple GUI application later in this chapter.

Two Truths & a Lie Features of the Java Programming Language

1. Java was developed to be architecturally neutral, which means that anyone can build an application without
extensive study.

2. After you write a Java program, the compiler converts the source code into a binary program of bytecode.

3. You can create both console applications and windowed applications using Java.

The false statement is #1. Java was developed to be architecturally neutral, which means that you can use Java to
write a program that will run on any platform.

1.4 A
nalyzing a Java Application That Produces
Console Output
At first glance, even the simplest Java application involves a fair amount of confusing syntax. Consider the application
in Figure 1-4. This program is written on seven lines, and its only task is to display First Java application on the screen.

Figure 1-4 The First class

public class First
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("First Java application");
}
}

In program code in figures in this course, Java keywords as well as true, false, and null are blue, and
Note all other program elements are black. A complete list of Java keywords is shown later in this chapter.

The code for every complete program shown in this course is available in a set of student files you can
Note download so that you can execute the programs on your own computer.

Understanding the Statement That Produces the Output

Although the program in Figure 1-4 occupies several lines, it contains only one Java programming statement. This
statement does the actual work of the program:
System.out.println("First Java application");

Like all Java statements, this one ends with a semicolon. Most Java programming statements can be spread across as many
lines as you choose, as long as you place line breaks in appropriate places. For example, in the program in Figure 1-4, you
could place a line break immediately before or after the opening parenthesis, or immediately before or after the closing
parenthesis. However, you usually want to place a short statement on a single line.

The text First Java application is a literal string of characters—a series of characters that will appear in output exactly as
entered. Any literal string in Java is written between double quotation marks. In Java, a literal string cannot be broken
and placed on multiple lines. Figure 1-5 labels this string and the other parts of the statement.

Figure 1-5 Anatomy of a Java statement

"First Java application"

out is a property of the is a literal string that is the argument
System is a class. System class. to the println() method.

System.out.println("First Java application");

Dots separate classes, println() is a method. Every Java statement ends

objects, and methods. Method names are always with a semicolon.
followed by parentheses.

The string within quotation marks, "First Java application", appears within parentheses because the string
is an argument to a method, and arguments to methods always appear within parentheses following the method name.
Arguments are pieces of information that are sent into a method. The act of sending arguments to a method is called
passing arguments to the method.

As an analogy, consider placing a catalog order with a company that sells sporting goods. Processing a catalog order
is a method that consists of a set of standard procedures—recording the order, checking the availability of the item,
pulling the item from the warehouse, and so on. Each catalog order also requires a set of data items, such as which
item number you are ordering and the quantity of the item desired; these data items can be considered the arguments
to the order-processing method. If you order two of item 5432 from a catalog, you expect different results than if you
order 1,000 of item 9008. Likewise, if you pass the argument "Happy Holidays" to a Java display method, you expect
different results than if you pass the argument "First Java application".

Within the statement System.out.println("First Java application");, the method to which you are
passing "First Java application" is named println(). The Java methods println() and print() both
produce output, with a small difference:

❯❯With println(), after the output is displayed, the insertion point moves to the following line so that
subsequent output appears on a new line.
❯❯With print(), the insertion point does not advance to a new line, so subsequent output appears at
the end of the current line.

When you call a method, you always use parentheses following the method name. In this course, you will learn about
many methods that require arguments between their parentheses, and many others for which you leave the paren-
theses empty. The println() method can be used with no arguments when you want to output a blank line. Later
in this chapter, you will learn about a method named showMessageDialog() that requires two arguments. Other
methods require more.

Within the statement System.out.println("First Java application");, out is an object that is a property
of the System class; out refers to the standard output device for a system, normally the monitor. The out object
itself is an instance of the PrintStream class, which contains several methods, including println(). Technically,
you could create the out object and write the instructions within the println() method yourself, but it would be
time consuming, and the creators of Java assumed you would want to frequently display output on a screen. Therefore,
the System and PrintStream classes, the out object, and the println() and print() methods were created as
conveniences for the programmer.

Within the statement System.out.println("First Java application");, System is a class. Therefore,

System defines attributes for System objects, just as the Dog class defines the attributes for Dog objects. One
of the System attributes is out. (You can probably guess that another attribute is in and that it represents an
input device.)

The dots (periods) in System.out.println() are used to separate the names of the components in the statement.
You will use this format repeatedly in your Java programs. Java is case sensitive; the class named System is a
completely different class from one named system, SYSTEM, or even sYsTeM, and out is a different object from one
named Out or OUT. You must pay close attention to using correct uppercase and lowercase values when you write
Java programs.

So, the statement that displays the string "First Java application" contains the following:

❯❯A class name

❯❯An object reference

❯❯A method call

❯❯A method argument

❯❯A statement-ending semicolon

The statement that displays the string cannot stand alone; it is embedded within a class, as shown in Figure 1-4.

Understanding the First Class

Everything that you use within a Java program must be part of a class. When you write public class First, you
are defining a class for which you have chosen the name First. You can define a Java class using any name or identifier
you need, as long as it meets the following requirements:

❯❯A Java identifier must begin with a letter of the English alphabet, a non-English letter (such as a or p), an
underscore, or a dollar sign. A class name cannot begin with a digit.
❯❯A Java identifier can contain only letters, digits, underscores, or dollar signs.

❯❯A Java identifier cannot be a reserved keyword, such as public or class. (See Figure 1-6 for a list of reserved
keywords.)

Figure 1-6 Java reserved keywords

The underscore _ double int strictfp

character is a abstract else interface super
reserved keyword
assert enum long switch
in Java.
boolean extends native synchronized
break final new this
byte finally non-sealed throw
catch float package throws
char for private transient
class goto protected try
const if public void
continue implements return volatile
default import short while
do instanceof static

❯❯A Java identifier cannot be one of the following values: true, false, or null. These are not keywords (they
are primitive values), but they are reserved and cannot be used.
❯❯The following are not keywords, but their use is restricted in some contexts: permits, record, sealed, var,
and yield. It is better not to use these words as identifiers.

Java is based on Unicode, which is an international system of character representation. The term letter
Note indicates English-language letters as well as characters from Arabic, Greek, and other alphabets. You can
learn more about Unicode in Appendix B.

The first entry in Figure 1-6, the underscore, was added as a keyword in Java 9. The keyword non-sealed
Note was added in Java 15. The keyword non-sealed is unconventional, as no other keywords use a hyphen.

Although const and goto are reserved as keywords, they are not used in Java programs, and they have
Note no function. Both words are used in other languages and were reserved in case developers of future
versions of Java wanted to implement them.

It is a Java standard, although not a requirement, to begin class identifiers with an uppercase letter and employ other
uppercase letters as needed to improve readability. (By contrast, method identifiers, like println(), conventionally
begin with a lowercase letter.) The style that joins words in which each word begins with an uppercase letter is
called Pascal casing, or sometimes upper camel casing. You should follow established conventions for Java so your
programs will be easy for other programmers to interpret and follow. This course uses established Java programming
conventions.

Table 1-1 lists some valid and conventional class names that you could use when writing programs in Java. Table 1-2
provides some examples of class names that could be used in Java (if you use these class names, the class will compile)
but that are unconventional and not recommended. Table 1-3 provides some class name examples that are illegal.

Table 1-1 Some valid class names in Java

Class Name Description
Employee Begins with an uppercase letter
UnderGradStudent Begins with an uppercase letter, contains no spaces, and emphasizes each new word with an
initial uppercase letter
InventoryItem Begins with an uppercase letter, contains no spaces, and emphasizes the second word with an
initial uppercase letter
Budget2024 Begins with an uppercase letter and contains no spaces

Table 1-2 Legal but unconventional and nonrecommended class names in Java
Class Name Description
Undergradstudent New words are not indicated with initial uppercase letters, making this identifier difficult to read
Inventory_Item An underscore is not commonly used to indicate new words
BUDGET2024 Using all uppercase letters for class identifiers is not conventional
budget2024 Conventionally, class names do not begin with a lowercase letter

Table 1-3 Some illegal class names in Java

Class Name Description
Inventory Item The space character is illegal in an identifier
class class is a reserved keyword
2024Budget Class names cannot begin with a digit
phone# The number symbol (#) is illegal in an identifier

Figure 1-7 shows the parts of the First class shell in its first, second, and last lines—its header, and its opening and
closing curly braces. The class header contains the keyword class, which identifies First as a class. The keyword
public is an access specifier. An access specifier defines the circumstances under which a class can be accessed
and the other classes that have the right to use a class. Public access is the most liberal type of access; you will learn
about public access and other types of access when you learn more about methods.
After the class header, you enclose the contents of a class within curly braces ({ and }); any data items and methods
between the curly braces make up the class body. A class body can be composed of any number of data items and
methods. In Figure 1-7 (and again in Figure 1-8), the class First contains four lines between the curly braces; these
will be described in the next section.

Figure 1-7 The parts of a typical class

The keyword class

public is an access identifies First as First is the name of
specifier. a class. the class.

This line is
public class First
the class
header. {
public static void main(String[] args)
Everything {
between the System.out.println("First Java application");
curly braces is }
the class body. }

Understanding the main() Method

The main() method in Figure 1-8 is made up of the four lines between the curly braces of the First class.

Figure 1-8 The parts of a typical main() method

static means this method works without

instantiating an object of the class.

public is an access specifier. void is the method’s return type.

public class First

{
This line is the public static void main(String[] args)
method header.
{
System.out.println("First Java application");
Everything between
}
the curly braces is the
method body.
}

String is a class. Any The square brackets mean the args is the identifier of the array of
arguments to this method argument to this method is an Strings that is the argument to
must be String objects. array of Strings. You will this method.
learn about arrays later in this
course.

A method header is the first line in a method; it contains information about how other methods can interact with it.
In Figure 1-8, the method header is public static void main(String[] args). The meaning and purpose
of each of the terms used in the method header will become clearer as you complete this course; a brief explanation
will suffice for now.

❯❯The keyword public is an access specifier, just as it is when you use it to define the First class.

❯❯The keyword static means that a method is accessible and usable even though no objects of the class
exist.
❯❯The keyword void indicates that the main() method does not return any value when it is called. This doesn’t
mean that main() doesn’t produce output—in fact, this method does. It only means that the main() method
does not send any value back to any other method that might use it. You will learn more about return values
when you study methods in more detail.
❯❯The name of the method is main(). As is the convention with Java methods, its identifier begins with
a lowercase letter. Not all classes have a main() method; in fact, many do not. All Java applications,
however, must include a class containing a public method named main(), and most Java applications
have additional classes and methods. When you execute a Java application, the JVM always executes the
main() method first.
❯❯In the method header, the contents between the parentheses, String[] args, represent the type of
argument that can be passed to the main() method, just as the string "First Java application"
is an argument passed to the println() method. The String class is a Java class that can be used to
hold character strings. According to Java convention, it begins with an uppercase letter, like other classes.
The brackets following String mean that the argument is a list of Strings. You will learn more about the
String class and lists later in this course. The identifier args is used to hold any String objects that
might be sent to the main() method. The main() method could do something with those arguments,
such as display them, but in Figures 1-4, 1-7, and 1-8, the main() method does not actually use the args
identifier. Nevertheless, you must place an identifier within the main() method’s parentheses. The
identifier does not need to be named args—it could be any legal Java identifier—but the name args is
traditional.

In this course, you won’t pass any arguments to a program’s main() method, but when you run a
Note program, you could. Even though you pass no arguments, the main() method must contain String[]
and a legal identifier (such as args) within its parentheses.

The simple application originally shown in Figure 1-4 has many Figure 1-9 Shell code
pieces to remember. However, for now, you can use the Java code
shown in Figure 1-9 as a shell, in which you replace AnyClassName public class AnyClassName
{
with a class name you choose and the line /******/ with any public static void main(String[] args)
statements that you want to execute. {
/******/
}
}
Indent Style
In general, whitespace is optional in Java. Whitespace is any com-
bination of nonprinting characters. You use whitespace to organize your program code and make it easier to read.
You can insert whitespace between words or lines in your program code by typing spaces, tabs, or blank lines
because the compiler ignores these extra spaces. However, you cannot use whitespace within an identifier or
keyword, or surrounding the dots in any class-object-method combination.

For every opening curly brace ({) in a Java program, there must be a corresponding closing curly brace (}), but the
placement of the opening and closing curly braces is not important to the compiler. For example, the following class

executes in exactly the same way as the one shown in Figure 1-4. The only difference is the layout of the braces—the
line breaks occur after the opening braces instead of before them.
public class First{
public static void main(String[] args){
System.out.println("First Java application");
}
}

The indent style shown in the preceding example, in which opening braces do not stand alone on separate
lines, is known as the K & R style and is named for Kernighan and Ritchie, who wrote the first book about the
C programming language. The indent style shown in Figures 1-4, 1-7, and 1-8, in which curly braces are aligned
and each occupies its own line, is called the Allman style and is named for Eric Allman, a programmer who
popularized the style. The Allman style is used throughout this course. However, Java programmers use a variety
of indent styles, and all can produce workable Java programs. When you write your own code, you should develop
a consistent style. In school, your instructor might have a preferred style, and when you get a job as a Java
programmer, your organization most likely will have a preferred style. With many development environments,
indentations are made for you automatically as you type.

Most programmers indent a method’s statements a few spaces more than its curly braces. Some programmers indent
two spaces, some three, and some four. Some programmers use the Tab key to create indentations, but others are
opposed to this practice because the Tab key can indicate different indentation sizes on different systems. Some pro-
grammers don’t care whether tabs or spaces are used, as long as they are not mixed in the same program. The Java
compiler does not care how you indent. Again, the most important rule is to develop a consistent style of which your
organization approves.

Saving a Java Class

When you write a Java class, you must save it using a writable storage medium such as a disk, DVD, or USB device. In
Java, if a class is public (that is, if you use the public access specifier before the class name), you must save the
class in a file with exactly the same name and a .java extension. For example, the First class must be stored in a file
named First.java. The class name and filename must match exactly, including the use of uppercase and lowercase char-
acters. If the extension is not .java, the Java compiler does not recognize the file as containing a Java class. Appendix
A contains additional information about saving a Java application.

Two Truths & a Lie Analyzing a Java Application That Produces Console Output

1. In the method header public static void main(String[] args), the word public is an access specifier.

2. In the method header public static void main(String[] args), the word static means that a
method is accessible and usable, even though no objects of the class exist.

3. In the method header public static void main(String[] args), the word void means that the
main() method is an empty method.

The false statement is #3. In the method header public static void main(String[] args), the word void
means that the main() method does not return any value when it is called.

You Do It Your First Application

Now that you understand the basics of an application written in Java, you are ready to enter your own Java
application into a text editor. It is a tradition among programmers that the first program you write in any language
produces “Hello, world!” as its output. You will create such a program now. You can use any text editor, such as
Notepad or TextPad, or a development environment, such as Eclipse.

It is best to use the simplest available text editor when writing Java programs. Multifeatured word-
Note processing programs save documents as much larger files because of all the built-in features, such as font
styles and margin settings, which the Java compiler cannot interpret. Additionally, one school of thought
is that you should use a simple text editor such as Notepad because it does not provide features such as
automatically completing statements for you or color-coding language features, thus forcing you to better
learn all the nuances of the language.

1. Start the text editor, and then open a new document.

2. Type the class header as follows:

public class Hello

In this example, the class name is Hello. You can use any valid name you want for the class. If you choose
Hello, you always must refer to the class as Hello, and not as hello, because Java is case sensitive.

3. Press Enter once, type { (opening curly brace), press Enter again, and type } (closing curly brace). You will add
the main() method between these curly braces. Although it is not required, the convention used in this course
is to place each curly brace on its own line and to align opening and closing curly brace pairs with each other.
Using this format makes your code easier to read.

4. As shown in Figure 1-10, add the main() method header between the curly braces, and then type a set of
curly braces for main().

5. Next, add the statement within the main() method that will produce the output Hello, world!. Use Figure 1-11
as a guide for adding the println() statement to the main() method.

6. Save the application as Hello.java. The class name and filename must match exactly, and you must use the .java
extension.

Figure 1-10 The main() method shell Figure 1-11 Complete Hello class
for the Hello class
public class Hello
public class Hello {
{ public static void main(String[] args)
public static void main(String[] args) {
{ System.out.println("Hello, world!");
} }
} }

1.5 C
ompiling a Java Class and Correcting
Syntax Errors
After you write and save an application, two steps must occur before you can view the application’s output.

1. You must compile the class you wrote (called the source code) into bytecode.
2. You must use the Java interpreter to translate the bytecode into executable statements.

Compiling a Java Class

If you are using a development environment, you can compile your program by clicking the Compile button or by
clicking the Build menu and selecting Compile. If you are using a text editor such as Notepad, you can compile your
source code file from the command line. Your prompt should show the folder or directory where your program file is
stored. Then you type javac followed by the name of the file that contains the source code. For example, to compile
a file named First.java, you type the following and then press Enter:
javac First.java

Compiling the program will produce one of three outcomes:

❯❯You receive a message such as 'javac' is not recognized as an internal or external

command, operable program or batch file.
❯❯You receive one or more programming language error messages.

❯❯You receive no messages, which means that the application compiled successfully.

When compiling, if the source code file is not in the current path, you can type a full path with the
Note filename. For example:

javac c:\java\MyClasses\Chapter.01\First.java

In a DOS environment, you can change directories using the cd command. For example, to change from
Note the current directory to a subdirectory named MyClasses, you type cd MyClasses and press Enter.
Within any directory, you can back up to the root directory by typing cd\ and pressing Enter.

If you receive an error message that the command is not recognized, it might mean one of the following:

❯❯You misspelled the command javac.

❯❯You misspelled the filename.

❯❯You are not within the correct subfolder or subdirectory on your command line.

❯❯Java was not installed properly, or the class or classpath variable was not set correctly.
(See Appendix A for information about installation, class, and classpath.)

If you receive a programming language error message, it means the source code has one or more syntax errors. Recall
that a syntax error is a programming error that occurs when you introduce typing errors into your program or use
the programming language incorrectly. For example, if your class name is first (with a lowercase f ) in the source
code but you saved the file as First.java (with an uppercase F ), you will receive an error message when you compile
the application. The error message will be similar to class first is public, should be declared in a file named first.java

because first and First are not the same in a case-sensitive language. If this error occurs, you must reopen the text file
that contains the source code, make the necessary corrections, and then save the file and attempt to compile it again.

Appendix A contains information about troubleshooting, including how to change filenames in a

Note Windows environment.

If you receive no error messages after compiling the code in a file named First.java, the application compiled successfully.
In that case, a file named First.class is created and saved in the same folder as the text file that holds the source code.
After a successful compile, you can execute the program (run the class file) on any computer that has a Java language
interpreter. You will learn how to execute a program in the next section.

Correcting Syntax Errors

Frequently, you might make typing errors as you enter Java statements into your text editor. When you issue the com-
mand to compile a class containing errors, the Java compiler produces one or more error messages. The exact error
message that appears varies depending on the compiler you are using.

The FirstWithMissingSemicolon class shown in Figure 1-12 contains an error—the semicolon is missing at the
end of the println() statement. (Of course, this class has been helpfully named to alert you to the error.) When you
compile this class, an error message similar to the one shown in Figure 1-13 is displayed.

Figure 1-12 The FirstWithMissingSemicolon class

public class FirstWithMissingSemicolon

{
Don’t Do It
public static void main(String[] args) The statement-ending
semicolon has been
{ omitted.
System.out.println("First Java application")
}

Figure 1-13 Error message generated when the FirstWithMissingSemicolon

class is compiled

The first line of the error message in Figure 1-13 displays the name of the file in which the error was found
(FirstWithMissingSemicolon.java), the line number in which it was found (5), and the nature of the error (’;’ expected).
The next line of the error message displays the statement that contains the error, including a caret that points to the
exact location where the error was first discovered. As you will see when you write and compile Java programs, the

place where an error is discovered is not necessarily where the error was made. For example, sometimes an error is
not discovered until the line that follows the line that contains the error. Fairly frequently, it takes a little detective
work to interpret an error message and determine its cause.

Finally, the message generated in Figure 1-13 includes a count of the number of errors found—in this case, there is just
one error. This error is an example of a compile-time error, or one in which the compiler detects a violation of language
syntax rules and is unable to translate the source code to machine code.

When you compile a class, the compiler reports as many errors as it can find so that you can fix as many errors as
possible. Sometimes, one error in syntax causes multiple error messages that normally would not be errors if the
first syntax error did not exist, so fixing one error might eliminate multiple error messages. Sometimes, when you fix
a compile-time error and recompile a program, new error messages are generated. That’s because when you fix the
first error, the compiler can proceed beyond that point and possibly discover new errors. Of course, no programmer
intends to type a program containing syntax errors, but when you do, the compiler finds them all for you.

Two Truths & a Lie Compiling a Java Class and Correcting Syntax Errors

1. After you write and save an application, you can compile the bytecode to create source code.

2. When you compile a class, you create a new file with the same name as the original file but with a .class
extension.

3. Syntax errors are compile-time errors.

The false statement is #1. After you write and save an application, you can compile the source code to create
bytecode.

You Do It Compiling a Java Class

You are ready to compile the Hello class that you created in the previous “You Do It” section.

1. If it is not still open on your screen, open the Hello.java file that you saved in the previous “You Do It” section.

2. If you are using a development environment, you can compile a program by clicking the Compile button.
Otherwise, you can compile a program from the command prompt. Go to the command-line prompt for the
drive and folder or subdirectory in which you saved Hello.java. At the command line, type the following:

javac Hello.java

After a few moments, you should return to the command prompt. If you see error messages instead, reread the
previous section to discover whether you can determine the source of the error.

If the error message indicates that the command was not recognized, make sure that you spelled the javac
command correctly, including using the correct case. Also, make sure you are using the correct directory or folder
where the Hello.java file is stored.

If the error message indicates a language error, check your file against Figure 1-11, making sure it matches exactly.
Fix any errors, and compile the application again. If errors persist, read through the next section to see if you can
discover the solution.
Correcting Syntax Errors
In this section, you examine error messages and gain firsthand experience with syntax errors.

1. If your version of the Hello class did not compile successfully, examine the syntax error messages. Now that
you know the messages contain line numbers and carets to pinpoint mistakes, it might be easier for you to fix
problems. After you determine the nature of any errors, resave the file and recompile it.

2. Even if your Hello class compiled successfully, you Figure 1-14 The HelloErrors class
need to gain experience with error messages. Your
student files contain a file named HelloErrors.java. public class HelloErrors
{
Find this file and open it in your text editor. If you do public static void main(String[] args)
not have access to the student files that accompany {
System.out.println("Hello");
this course, you can type the file yourself, as shown System.out.println("This is a test");
in Figure 1-14. }
}
3. Save the file as HelloErrors.java in the folder in which
you want to work. Then compile the class using the
following command to confirm that it compiles without error:

javac HelloErrors.java
4. In the first line of the file, remove the c from class, making the first line read public lass HelloErrors. Save
the file and compile the program. Error messages are generated similar to those shown in Figure 1-15. Even
though you changed only one keystroke in the file, four error messages appear. The first indicates that class,
interface, or enum is expected in line 1. You haven’t learned about the Java keywords enum or interface
yet, but you know that you caused the error by altering the word class. The next three errors in lines 3, 6, and 7
show that the compile is continuing to look for one of the three keywords, but fails to find them.

Figure 1-15 Error messages generated when class is misspelled in the

HelloErrors program

5. Repair the program by reinserting the c in class. Save the file and compile it again. The program should
compile successfully. In this case, when you fix one error, four error messages are removed.

6. Next, remove the word void from the third line of the program. Save the file and compile it. Figure 1-16
shows the error message, which indicates that a return type is required. The message does not indicate
that void is missing because Java supports many return types for methods. In this case, however, void is
the correct return type, so reinsert it into the correct place in the program, and then save and recompile
the file.

Figure 1-16 Error message generated when void is omitted from the
main() method header in the HelloErrors program

7. Remove the final closing curly brace from the HelloErrors program. Save the file and recompile it.
Figure 1-17 shows the generated message “reached end of file while parsing.” Parsing is the process the
compiler uses to divide your source code into meaningful portions; the message means that the compiler
was in the process of analyzing the code when the end of the file was encountered prematurely. If you repair
the error by reinserting the closing curly brace, saving the file, and recompiling it, you remove the error
message.

Figure 1-17 Error message generated when the closing curly brace is
omitted from the HelloErrors program

8. Continue to introduce errors in the program by misspelling words, omitting punctuation, and adding
extraneous keystrokes. Remember to save each program version before you recompile it; otherwise, you will
recompile the previous version. When error messages are generated, read them carefully and try to understand
their meaning in the context of the error you purposely caused. After all compiler error messages have been
eliminated, you can run the program using the java command.

Occasionally, even though you inserted an error into the program, no error messages will be generated. That
does not mean your program is correct. It only means that the program contains no syntax errors. A program
can be free of syntax errors but still not be correct, as you will learn in the next section.

1.6 R
unning a Java Application and Correcting
Logic Errors
After a program compiles with no syntax errors, you can execute it. Just because a program compiles and executes,
however, does not mean the program is error free.

Running a Java Application

To run an application from a development environment, you can click the Run button or click the Build menu and then
click Run. To run the First application from the command line, you type the following:
java First

Figure 1-18 shows the application’s output in the command window. In Figure 1-18 Output of the First
this example, you can see that the First class is stored in a folder named application
Java on the C drive. After you type the java command to execute the
program, the literal string in the call to the println() method is output,
so First Java application appears on the screen. Control then returns to
the command prompt.

The procedure to confirm the storage location of your First.java class varies depending on your operating
Note system. In a Windows operating system, for example, you can open Windows Explorer, locate the icon
representing the storage device you are using, find the folder in which you have saved the file, and
expand the folder. You should see the First.java file.

When you run a Java application using the java command, do not add the .class extension to the filename. If you type
java First, the interpreter looks for a file named First.class. If you type java First.class, the interpreter looks
for a file named First.class.class.

Modifying a Compiled Java Class

After viewing the application output, you might decide to modify the class to get a different result. For example, you
might decide to change the First application’s output from First Java application to the following:
My new and improved
Java application

To produce the new output, first you must modify the text Figure 1-19 First class containing output
file that contains the existing class. You need to change the modified from the original version
existing literal string and then add an output statement for
public class First
another text string. Figure 1-19 shows the class that changes
{
the output. public static void main(String[] args)
{
The changes to the First class include the addition of System.out.println("My new and improved");
System.out.println("Java application");
the statement System.out.println("My new and }
improved"); and the removal of the word First from the }
string in the other println() statement.

If you make changes to the file, as shown in Figure 1-19, and save the file without recompiling it, then when you execute
the program by typing java First at the command line, you will not see the new output—you will see the old output
without the added line. Even though you save a text file that contains the modified source code for a class, the class
in the already-compiled class file executes. After you save the file named First.java, the previously compiled version
of the class with the same name is still stored on your computer. Before the new source code can execute, you must
do the following:

1. Save the file with the changes (using the same filename).
2. Recompile the class with the javac command.
3. Interpret the class bytecode and execute the class using the java command.

Figure 1-20 shows the new output. Figure 1-20 Execution of modified
First class
When you recompile a class, the original version of the compiled
file with the .class extension is replaced, and the original version no
longer exists. When you modify a class, you must decide whether
you want to retain the original version. If you do, you must give the
new version a new class name and a new filename, or you must save
it in a different folder.

Once in a while, when you make a change to a Java class and then recompile and execute it, the old
Note version still runs. The simplest solution is to delete the .class file and compile again. Programmers call this
creating a clean build.

Correcting Logic Errors

A second kind of error occurs when the syntax of the program is Figure 1-21 Output of FirstBadOutput
correct and the program compiles but produces incorrect results program
when you execute it. This type of error is a logic error, which is
often more difficult to find and resolve. For example, Figure 1-21
shows the output of the execution of a successfully compiled pro-
gram named FirstBadOutput. If you glance at the output too
quickly, you might not notice that Java is misspelled. The compiler
does not find spelling errors within a literal string; it is legitimate
to produce any combination of letters as output. Other examples
of logic errors include multiplying two values when you meant to add, printing one copy of a report when you meant
to print five, or forgetting to produce a total at the end of a business report when a user has requested one. Errors of
this type must be detected by carefully examining the program output. It is the responsibility of the program author
to test programs and find any logic errors.

You have already learned that syntax errors are compile-time errors. A logic error is a type of runtime error—an error
not detected until the program asks the computer to do something wrong, or even illegal, while executing. Not all
runtime errors are the fault of the programmer. For example, a computer’s hardware might fail while a program is
executing. Good programming practices, however, can help to minimize runtime errors.

The process of fixing computer errors has been known as debugging since a large moth was found
Note wedged into the circuitry of a mainframe computer at Harvard University in 1947. You can search the Web
for pictures of the moth.

Two Truths & a Lie Running a Java Application and Correcting Logic Errors

1. In Java, if a class is public, you must save the class in a file with exactly the same name and a .java
extension.

2. To compile a file named MyProgram.java, you type java MyProgram, but to execute the program, you
type java MyProgram.java.

3. When you compile a program, sometimes one error in syntax causes multiple error messages.

The false statement is #2. To compile a file named MyProgram.java, you type javac MyProgram.java, but to
execute the program, you type the following:

java MyProgram

1.7 Adding Comments to a Java Class

As you can see, even the simplest Java class requires several lines of code and contains somewhat perplexing
syntax. Large applications that perform many tasks include much more code, and as you write larger applications,
it becomes increasingly difficult to remember why you included steps or how you intended to use particular
variables. Documenting your program code helps you remember why you wrote lines of code the way you did.
Program comments are nonexecuting statements that you add to a program for the purpose of documentation.
In other words, comments are designed for people reading the source code and not for the computer executing
the program.

Programmers use comments to leave notes for themselves and for others who might read their programs in the future.
At the very least, your Java class files should include comments indicating the author, the date, and the class name
or function. The best practice dictates that you also include a brief comment to describe the purpose of each method
you create within a class.

As you work through this course, add comments as the first lines of every file. The comments should contain the class
name and purpose, your name, and the date. Your instructor might ask you to include additional comments.

Turning some program statements into comments can sometimes be useful when you are developing an application.
If a program is not performing as expected, you can “comment out” various statements and subsequently run the pro-
gram to observe the effect. When you comment out a statement, you turn it into a comment so the compiler does not
translate it, and the JVM does not execute its command. This can help you pinpoint the location of errant statements
in malfunctioning programs.

Java supports three types of comments:

❯❯Line comments start with two forward slashes ( // ) and continue to the end of the current line. A line comment
can appear on a line by itself or at the end (and to the right) of a line following executable code. Line comments
do not require an ending symbol.
❯❯Block comments start with a forward slash and an asterisk ( /* ) and end with an asterisk and a forward slash
( */ ). A block comment can appear on a line by itself, on a line before executable code, or on a line after
executable code. Block comments also can extend across as many lines as needed.
❯❯Javadoc comments are a special case of block comments called documentation comments because they are
used to automatically generate nicely formatted program documentation with a program named Javadoc.
Javadoc comments begin with a forward slash and two asterisks ( /** ) and end with an asterisk and a forward
slash ( */ ). Appendix E teaches you how to create Javadoc comments.

Copyright 2023 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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sufficient interest in the details to buy a paper. Next morning
telegrams of condolence from her friends, and perusal of the
morning papers told her what had happened, and incidentally
apprised her that she inherited as his widow a much larger share of
Monsieur Calmette’s large fortune than would otherwise have been
hers. Gaston Calmette was of course a very rich man, for some years
ago Monsieur Chauchard, the founder and principal shareholder of
the Magasins du Louvre had left him a large slice of his great wealth.
Paris gossip had, as I have said, been busy linking the names of
Messieurs Calmette and Caillaux, and this is not to be wondered at
when it is remembered that Monsieur Calmette was on the point of
being divorced, that Monsieur Caillaux had been divorced once from
Madame Gueydan-Caillaux, the divorced wife of Monsieur Dupré,
and that his present wife was the divorced wife of another man.
Monsieur Caillaux in his evidence to Monsieur Boucard declared,
however, that the stories of a disunion in his married life were
absolute nonsense, and that it was so absurd to say that there was
any disunion between him and his present wife that the two of them
used to laugh at the gossip to which I have referred. He added that
there was no reason for any personal animosity towards himself on
Monsieur Calmette’s part, and that he had never given him any
reason for such animosity. “On several occasions,” he said, “during
the last few months I was asked to start a campaign against
Monsieur Calmette personally, and papers to support it were brought
to me. I always refused these offers.” Monsieur Caillaux then spoke
of the other documents in Monsieur Calmette’s possession. These
were of course the letter written by the Procureur Général, Monsieur
Victor Fabre, which Monsieur Barthou read in the Chamber of
Deputies on March 17, and other documents which are known as
“the green papers.” These were telegrams and copies of telegrams
referring to the incident of Agadir. They were of so grave a nature
that Monsieur Calmette had been asked not to publish them for
diplomatic reasons. “I should like to point out” (said Monsieur
Caillaux), “that I could have no possible fear personally of the
publication of these documents. On the contrary I should as far as I
am myself concerned have been glad to see them published. A day
will come when time has smoothed over old sores, and I shall be
able to speak freely. I have written a book on Agadir, and it will be
seen when that can be published that the documents, the letters,
and the telegrams in this book will convince all Frenchmen, not only
of my patriotism, but of my political clearness of vision.” Monsieur
Caillaux declared that he knew exactly what was going on in the
Figaro office, and that he knew that Monsieur Calmette would make
use of any weapons in his power to cause his overthrow. He then
referred to a conversation in the street under a gas lamp between
Monsieur Barthou and Madame Gueydan, his, Monsieur Caillaux’s,
former wife. During this conversation, he said, Madame Gueydan
had read extracts from letters to Monsieur Barthou, and Monsieur
Caillaux declared that he had understood from Monsieur Barthou
that these letters were the two private letters which had been stolen
from him. The examining magistrate confronted Monsieur Barthou
and Monsieur Caillaux at this point, and Monsieur Barthou stated
that Monsieur Caillaux must have been mistaken. It was true that he
had had a conversation with Madame Gueydan, but the letters she
read to him were the Fabre letter and the “Ton Jo” letter, and it was
to them that Monsieur Barthou had alluded afterwards in his
conversation with Monsieur Caillaux. When the “Ton Jo” letter
appeared in the Figaro on March 13 Monsieur Caillaux was greatly
upset, although the more personal portions of the letter had been
cut. On the next day, Saturday the 14th, he stated, he received an
anonymous letter saying that the Figaro was going to publish the
other two letters, and the same day he received from other sources
confirmation of this. “I had told my wife all about these things,” he
said. “She was entirely in my confidence, and she expected these
stolen letters to be published. Their publication would have affected
me comparatively little, but would have wounded my wife in her
dignity as a woman, and distressed her more than I can say.”
Monsieur Caillaux then told the examining magistrate the events of
the day of the murder as he knew them, beginning with the
statement that his wife’s nerves were shattered, and that she was
and had been for some time, in a state of considerable over-
excitement. She read the Figaro every morning, her general health
was bad, and the campaign had overpowered her. “At nine o’clock on
the morning of March 16 my wife walked into my dressing-room with
the Figaro in her hand,” said Monsieur Caillaux. “She showed me the
paper with a headline ‘Intermède Comique—Ton Jo.’ ‘Presently,’ she
said, ‘we shall see your pet name for me in the public Press like this,’
and she threw the paper angrily on a chair. ‘Can’t you put a stop to
this campaign?’ she asked me. And we decided to consult Monsieur
Monier the President of the Civil Tribunal of the Seine.”
Miroir, Photo, Paris.
M. BARTHOU MOUNTING THE STAIRS OF THE LAW COURTS ON HIS
WAY TO GIVE EVIDENCE IN THE CAILLAUX CASE.
“It was my intention to go and see him that day at half-past one,
but I forgot that he would be busy at the Palace of Justice at that
time. I had to go to the meeting of the Cabinet at the Elysée, and
when Monsieur Monier called at half-past ten my wife received him
alone.” Monsieur Caillaux then repeated his conversation with his
wife when she called for him before luncheon at the Ministère de
Finances. His evidence on this point and the evidence of Madame
Caillaux are identical. From the examining magistrate’s report of the
evidence given by Monsieur Caillaux he appears to have said nothing
to his wife of his own conversation with the President of the
Republic. Monsieur Caillaux confirms his wife’s statement that he
said to her, “I shall go and smash Calmette’s face.” Their car was in
the Rue Royale when Madame Caillaux asked him whether he
intended to do so that day. “I answered,” Monsieur Caillaux said,
“No, not to-day. I shall choose my own time, but the time is not far
off.”
After luncheon, as Monsieur Caillaux was leaving the house,
Madame Caillaux told him that she was afraid she would not be able
to dine at the Italian Embassy. “She certainly looked ill and worn
out,” Monsieur Caillaux said, “and I asked her to send my servant to
the Ministry of Finance with my evening clothes. I understand that
my wife sent a telephone message to the Italian Embassy a little
later to say that I should go to the dinner without her. This, I would
like to point out, shows that she had no idea at that time of what
was going to happen, for if she had made up her mind then, she
would either have said that neither of us was going to the Italian
Embassy or she would have said nothing. I left my wife without any
apprehensions, except that I was uneasy at her weakness and the
condition of her nerves. At about three o’clock that afternoon I met
Monsieur Ceccaldi at the Senate, and told him how uneasy I felt.
When I returned to the Ministry of Finance I learned what had
happened, and went to the police-station at once. My wife’s first
words to me when I got there and saw her were, ‘I do hope that I
haven’t killed him. I merely wanted to give him a lesson. ’”
This was the end of Monsieur Caillaux’s evidence in the
examining magistrate’s room at the Palace of Justice on April 8,
1914. Monsieur Privat-Deschanel was called and confirmed that
portion of it which referred to the burning of the Gueydan-Caillaux
letters, and the declaration by Monsieur Caillaux’s first wife that she
had kept no copies or photographs of them. “The scene,” said
Monsieur Privat-Deschanel, “was such a moving one, and impressed
me so deeply, that though it happened four years ago everything
that was done and every word that was spoken have remained
graven on my memory.”
V

THE CAMPAIGN OF THE “FIGARO”

In order to understand the details of the Caillaux drama, it is

necessary to search for the reasons which contributed to the bitter
campaign in the Figaro against Madame Caillaux’s husband, the
Minister of Finance. In order to understand these reasons fully it will
be necessary to go some way back into the history of French politics,
when some insight will be possible into the inner meaning of the
campaign, into the interests which lay behind it, and the reason of
its bitterness. When Monsieur Raymond Poincaré was elected
President of the French Republic, his election gave great offence to
that breaker of Cabinets, the veteran statesman Georges
Clemenceau. Monsieur Clemenceau had been a supporter of
Monsieur Poincaré’s rival, Monsieur Pams, and resented deeply the
election of the man whom he had not backed. Soon after the
presidential election the new President of the Republic gave another
cause for offence to Monsieur Clemenceau by choosing Monsieur
Louis Barthou as Prime Minister.
Monsieur Clemenceau vowed revenge, and true to his invariable
system of playing the Eminence Grise in French politics, he buried
the hatchet with Monsieur Caillaux, whom during the Agadir crisis he
had openly declared to be liable to a trial before the high court for
high treason, and with Monsieur Briand’s help did everything
possible to make matters uncomfortable for Monsieur Barthou and
his Cabinet, and for the man whose policy that Cabinet represented,
the new President of the French Republic, Monsieur Raymond
Poincaré.
The campaign was almost a French War of the Roses. It was
conducted with bitterness on either side, and the Clemenceau
faction won the first battle, overthrowing the Barthou Cabinet, and
securing the return to power of Monsieur Caillaux, while Monsieur
Briand, by his own choice stood aside. Nominally the new Cabinet
was under the leadership of the Prime Minister, Monsieur Gaston
Doumergue.
Actually Monsieur Caillaux as Minister of Finance and Monsieur
Monis as Minister of Marine were the two twin rulers in the new
Government of France with Monsieur Clemenceau behind them as
general adviser.
Now Monsieur Briand, though Monsieur Clemenceau’s sworn
friend, politically, was no real friend politically of Monsieur Caillaux.
The two men represented different factions, for in the
neighbourhood of 1913 Monsieur Caillaux had founded the radical
unified party, the programme of which he announced in a great
meeting at Pau that year, and Monsieur Briand very shortly
afterwards founded the Federation of the Left, a form of moderate
Socialism which combated the extreme radicalism of Monsieur
Caillaux’s party on many points. Then Monsieur Caillaux began to
make mistakes, most of which were largely due to his impulsiveness,
his ill-temper in the wrong places, and his natural gift for making
enemies. Monsieur Barthou set to work to fight Monsieur Caillaux
and called Monsieur Calmette to help him. Public rumour added that
there was personal animosity and personal rivalry between these
two men, but whether this be true or not their political rivalry was
undoubted, and the reasons for such political rivalry are plain. Both
were rich men, but while Monsieur Caillaux represented reforms for
the lower middle class at the expense of the rich, Monsieur Calmette
representing the party of property, the party which we in England
should describe as that of men having a stake in the country, fought
these reforms with all the influence at his command as editor and
director of a great newspaper. He set out to pull Caillaux down from
his position, and his task was a comparatively easy one owing to the
unreasoned outbursts of temper with which Monsieur Caillaux
exposed the weak points in his armour on many occasions, the
number of mistakes impulse had caused him to make in the past,
and his growing unpopularity. From the beginning of January 1914
until his death on March 16, hardly a day passed without an article
of a column or more, and sometimes much more, by Monsieur
Calmette in the Figaro attacking Monsieur Caillaux, Monsieur
Caillaux’s past, and Monsieur Caillaux’s policy. He was attacked as a
politician, as a man, and as a financier, and his silence under attack
made the attacks which followed more bitter instead of putting an
end to them. Six years ago the Rochette affair had, directly and
indirectly, been the cause of more than one storm in the French
political tea-cup. It had brought the fierce light of publicity to bear
on many public men, and politicians feared publication of the details
of the case as much, almost, as the side issues of the Dreyfus case
were feared some years before, and as, before that, the Panama and
other scandals had been feared. During the Agadir trouble Monsieur
Caillaux had laid himself open to a great deal of criticism, and the
Figaro did not hesitate to disinter both these affairs and use them as
a weapon against Monsieur Caillaux. Another affair of lesser
importance in which Monsieur Caillaux’s name was mentioned in the
Figaro campaign was the affair of the Prieu inheritance. In this
connexion the Figaro did not hesitate to accuse Monsieur Caillaux of
dishonourable conduct, and to base on it his unfitness for the post of
a Minister of France. It is almost impossible in the space at my
command to give all the details of a newspaper campaign such as
this against a Minister in power. The campaign lasted nearly three
months, and it was so many-sided that I should need another
volume if I were to attempt to set down its details fully. But I may
resume the broad lines of the Figaro campaign against Monsieur
Caillaux and the reason which the Figaro itself gave to its readers for
that campaign. Monsieur Calmette from the first declared that he
considered the return to power of Monsieur Joseph Caillaux after his
downfall in 1911 as a veritable misfortune to France. He considered
that the presence of Monsieur Caillaux in the Cabinet was of real
peril to French interests, and, as I have explained, it was
undoubtedly a peril to the interests of the rich men’s party which the
Figaro represented, for Monsieur Caillaux was determined to carry
through his tax on accumulated property, and the general idea of
this tax was decidedly popular. There is nothing Frenchmen love so
much as making a rich man pay. Monsieur Caillaux with political
astuteness saw the vote-catching possibilities of his measure, was
doing everything in his power to maintain the Doumergue Ministry,
of which he was the leading member, at the helm of public affairs
until this year’s elections, and would undoubtedly have succeeded.
Monsieur Calmette, with the help of Monsieur Caillaux’s political
enemies, was working hard for the overthrow of the Cabinet, or
rather for the overthrow of Monsieur Caillaux, for, as the Figaro
wrote, it was Caillaux alone, Caillaux the Minister, Caillaux the
politician, whom Calmette the politician wished to pull headlong. Day
by day in the Figaro he put his adversary in the pillory. He
stigmatized his conduct of the Franco-German negotiations in 1911,
he recalled in stinging terms the general indignation which had
wrecked the Caillaux Ministry after the resignation of Monsieur De
Selves, the Minister for Foreign Affairs. He recalled the work and the
report of the Commission of Inquiry, over which Monsieur Raymond
Poincaré (who was of course not President of the Republic then)
presided, and wrote scathingly, fiercely almost, of Monsieur Caillaux’s
difficulties and quarrels with the Spanish Ambassador and with his
Majesty’s Ambassador Sir Francis Bertie. He recalled words used by
Monsieur Caillaux which almost suggested that France under a
Caillaux régime cared very little for the entente cordiale, and
reproduced a threat, which rumour had reported, of undiplomatic
reprisals towards Spain. Some months ago, to be precise on
December 18, 1913, Monsieur Caillaux made a counter declaration
to me personally in reply to the rumours that he had spoken against
the entente cordiale. This declaration was made three weeks before
the beginning of the daily campaign in the Figaro, and Monsieur
Caillaux said for publication in the Daily Express, of which paper I
was at that time the Paris correspondent, “I defy anyone to find in
any word that I have spoken publicly, to find in any act of my public
life, any ground for an assertion that I am not a whole-hearted
partisan of the entente cordiale.” Monsieur Caillaux added that he
had relatives in England, that he was a great admirer of England and
of Englishmen, and said: “I am convinced that the entente cordiale
is an asset for the peace of Europe, and while as a Frenchman and a
servant of France, I point out that France expects to reap equally
with her partner the benefits of the entente cordiale, I am sure that
England in her inherent fairness understands this, and is as anxious
both to give and to take as France can be. I wish to express my
amazement and my sorrow that even for a moment Englishmen
should have thought me anything but their friend.”
On the occasion of this interview, which was a long one, lasting a
full hour at the beginning of the afternoon, and another half-hour
later the same day when I submitted what I had written to Monsieur
Caillaux before sending it to London, in order that there should be
no discussion possible afterwards as to what he had really said, a
good deal passed which I did not put into print.
In the interview as printed appeared an allusion by Monsieur
Caillaux to the undue interference by Englishmen in France’s home
affairs. Monsieur Caillaux spoke that afternoon with ebullient
freedom of expression about the British Ambassador in Paris, Sir
Francis Bertie. He declared that Sir Francis went out of his way to
make trouble and that he had worked against him (Monsieur
Caillaux) in London for the sheer pleasure of stirring up strife.
I thought it quite unnecessary to say these things aloud in an
English newspaper, especially as, after saying them, Monsieur
Caillaux asked me not to include them in the interview as he had no
wish for a newspaper discussion with the British Ambassador. I
quote them now merely for the purpose of showing the peculiar and
unstatesmanlike quarrelsomeness of Monsieur Caillaux’s temper. The
man has very little self-restraint, and while many of his public acts
and public sayings prove this, few of them prove it so conclusively as
his outburst in his room at the Ministry of Finance, in the presence
of the representative of an English newspaper, against the British
Ambassador in Paris.
Following up these attacks on his personality the Figaro
impugned Monsieur Caillaux’s honour. It did this with the
outspokenness which is a peculiarity of French newspaperdom, and
which would be magnificent if it were not so frequently misused.
Monsieur Caillaux was accused of changing his policy half a dozen
times with the one pre-occupation of retaining his portfolio, was
twitted with self-contradiction with regard to the income-tax law,
and the immunity from taxation of French Rentes, and was openly
taxed with encouraging dishonourable and dishonest speculation, if
not of indulging in it himself. According to the Figaro Monsieur
Caillaux made deliberate arrangements to allow friends of his to
speculate and make large sums of money on the Paris Bourse,
tuning his public statements to time with the deals of the
speculators, and in answer to these accusations Monsieur Caillaux
said nothing.
“The income-tax was Monsieur Caillaux’s hobby horse. He has
stated frequently that he has always been in favour of it,” wrote the
Figaro one day. “For many years the income-tax was the principal
item of Monsieur Caillaux’s political programme, and he told his
constituents at Mamers that his political programme had never
changed in its main lines.” Then the Figaro reproduced in facsimile
Monsieur Caillaux’s letter to the first Madame Caillaux in which the
words occurred: “I crushed the income-tax while pretending to
defend it.”
But these attacks on Monsieur Caillaux were by no means the
only ones, and Monsieur Calmette also accused Monsieur Caillaux of
favouring Rochette’s escape and interfering with the course of
justice. These are the broad lines of the Figaro campaign against
Monsieur Caillaux.
That some of the attacks were justifiable is undoubtedly the fact.
That the manner of them was a worthy one is more open to
discussion. Politicians must of course expect to be attacked by
newspapers which oppose them, but there is little doubt that the
bitterness and the persistence of this newspaper campaign worked
its victim up to a state of frenzy, and the calm observer knows what
effect daily attacks on a public man are likely to have on that public
man’s life within the four walls of his home. Monsieur Caillaux’s
excited declaration to the President of the Republic, his excitement
in the motor car, when, driving with Madame Caillaux he declared
that he would go down to the Figaro and chastise Monsieur
Calmette, show the man’s state of mind, and show us very clearly
how that state of mind is likely to have reacted on his wife. I repeat
that this book is in no sense an apology for Madame Caillaux’s act of
murder. I repeat that I do not wish to defend either Monsieur
Caillaux or his wife. But in common fairness I cannot do otherwise
than present as faithfully as possible the effect of the Figaro
campaign against him, on Monsieur Caillaux and on his constant
companion. Nor do I hesitate to say that while the bitterness of the
Figaro campaign in no way excuses the murder of its editor by
Madame Caillaux, no one can deny, I think, that it explains it.
VI

CALMETTE v. CAILLAUX

Whenever an official in the French Colonial Office had to refuse the

application of a subordinate for leave, he would tone down his
refusal with the metaphor, “We’ll try and give you leave at all events
before the affaire Prieu is decided finally.” For many years l’affaire
Prieu had been the Jarndyce v. Jarndyce case of the French Colonial
Office, and it was almost forgotten when Monsieur Caillaux and the
Figaro brought it back at a bound into the domain of actuality. The
case was forgotten so thoroughly that when the Figaro mentioned it
under the title of “Monsieur Caillaux’s Secret Combinations” in an
article signed by Monsieur Gaston Calmette on January 8, 1914, the
name Prieu was misspelled “Priou”.
The case in itself was one of concessions in Brazil. In the early
years of the Third Republic a French merchant named Prieu died in
France after a long life spent in Brazil. He had been a rich man and
with the help of the French Consul in Rio de Janeiro had secured
certain profitable concessions. At his death the French Government
considered that these concessions lapsed to the State, and sold
them. Monsieur Prieu’s heirs claimed from the State a considerable
sum, something between £120,000 and £160,000, of which their
lawyers contended that the Government of France had frustrated
them. The case dragged on for many years, and in 1909, when
Monsieur Cochery was Finance Minister and Monsieur Renoult Under
Secretary of State for Finance (Monsieur Renoult is Minister of the
Interior in the Doumergue Cabinet), the case was practically
shelved.
At that time the heirs of Monsieur Prieu, after getting a refusal to
their offer to abandon their entire claim against the French
Government in return for a cash payment of £20,000, were inclined
to drop the whole case, the legal expenses of which were becoming
embarrassing. They had put matters in the hands of a man of
affairs, but he and they had little hope of any result, when,
according to the Figaro, Monsieur Caillaux, on January 5, 1914, sent
for their representative. The Figaro declared on the 8th, over the
signature of Monsieur Gaston Calmette, that Monsieur Caillaux had
stated to this gentleman that the claim of the Prieu family appeared
to him to be justified, that the French Government would probably
have to pay from £200,000 to £240,000 including compound interest
on the debt, and that a transaction might be possible if the Prieu
heirs were inclined to hand over a considerable percentage on the
money paid them to the French Government for political needs.
Obviously if Monsieur Caillaux really did make such an offer, did
really offer to settle a case which had been in litigation for years and
was about to lapse, provided the claimants would agree to pay a
large percentage of the money back for party needs, he made an
offer which he would find it difficult to defend in Parliament or
elsewhere.
The Figaro was most assertive. Monsieur Calmette declared that
Monsieur Caillaux had said: “If you get this money we must get
some of it. The Government has its duties, and its needs.” Monsieur
Calmette went on to declare that a second interview had taken place
at the Ministry of Finance the next day, the Tuesday, when Monsieur
Caillaux had demanded 80 per cent. of the debt for the party coffers,
and that on the Wednesday, the day before the Figaro article
appeared, the representative of Monsieur Prieu’s heirs and the
Finance Minister had come to an agreement on terms somewhat less
onerous than the 80 per cent. mentioned at first.
The disclosure of these curious proceedings created a storm in
the political world of Paris, and although Monsieur Caillaux published
a denial, in general terms his contradictions were not considered
very satisfactory. The article in the Figaro had of course one result.
Any settlement of the Prieu case on the lines above mentioned
became quite impossible. One is inclined to wonder, now, whether
the claimants will proceed against the French Government,
prosecute their claim again, and call Monsieur Caillaux as a witness
to declare in court that he considers the claim justifiable. It was
rumoured at the time that Monsieur Calmette had offered to
compensate the Prieu claimants for the loss which the publication in
the Figaro of their dealings or attempt at dealing with Monsieur
Caillaux would entail.
Whether this offer was actually made or not will probably be
shown at the trial of Madame Caillaux, for the examining magistrate,
Monsieur Boucard, has questioned the parties concerned. As I have
said, the Prieu case is an old one. It has been discussed in the
Chamber of Deputies at intervals during the last thirty years, and the
first interpellation on it goes back thirty-three years to July 8, 1881.
Pierre Marcel Prieu was a candidate for Parliament in 1876 and in
1877. He died in 1899, in France, in poverty. To his last day he had
protested against what he called “the theft” of his concessions by
the French Government, and he had protested with such violence
that he had been imprisoned for some months because of his
protests. His claim was that the Brazilian Government had on August
30, and on September 6, 1879, paid the French Minister for Foreign
Affairs in two cheques, one for £200,000 and one for £400,000, as a
settlement of his concessions. These cheques were, he declared,
made payable to the firm of Baring Brothers in London, and on
January 4, 1880, the money—£600,000—was paid over by the
Baring firm to the Paris bankers Hottinguer and Co. Pierre Marcel
Prieu declared that the payment of this money was compensation by
the Brazilian Government due to him personally for the unjustifiable
seizure of thirteen merchant ships with merchandise by the Brazilian
Customs. After Prieu’s death his heir, Monsieur D’Ariste, did not care
to fight the case and made over his rights in it—whether with or
without a quid pro quo does not appear—to relatives and friends of
Prieu, who formed a syndicate for the purpose of recovering the
debt or part of it from the French Government. The principal
members of the little syndicate were Monsieur A. Boileau and
Monsieur Prosper Sauvage. Their lawyer is Monsieur Antoine De
Fonvielle, and they put their claims in the hands of a man of affairs,
Monsieur Auguste Schneider. It is this gentleman who, according to
the Figaro and Monsieur Gaston Calmette, called by appointment on
Monday January 5, Tuesday the 6th, and Wednesday the 7th, 1914,
at the Ministry of Finance, and agreed with Monsieur Caillaux to a
settlement on the terms already stated.
According to Monsieur Calmette, Monsieur Caillaux bound himself
to see that the full amount of the claim should be paid, and
Monsieur Schneider was to sign an agreement on Saturday, January
10, by which he handed a large proportion of the money over to the
party funds. Whether such an agreement was ever come to or not is
the affair of the law courts. It must resolve itself into a case of hard
swearing, for the contradictory assertions of both parties will be, in
all probability, somewhat difficult of proof. The disclosures of these
matters in the Figaro naturally enough put an end to all negotiations
if such negotiations really took place.
On January 10 Monsieur Antoine de Fonvielle wrote a letter to
Monsieur Calmette which I subjoin in full. It was printed in the
Figaro on January 12. It is dated from Paris, where Monsieur de
Fonvielle has a flat at 77 Rue du Rocher. “Monsieur le Directeur,” he
writes, “I was informed at about twelve o’clock on Friday last,
January 8, of the campaign in the Figaro on the Prieu affair, of which
I knew all the details. There are certain mistakes in the Figaro
article, and it struck me as advisable to put the people interested in
direct touch with the Figaro. I went therefore, on the evening of
January 8, at about half-past ten, to see Monsieur Schneider, who
lives at 57 Boulevard Beauséjour at Auteuil. Two people went with
me and waited for me in a taxicab at the door of the house. I went
to see Monsieur Schneider because he has for several years been
the mandatory of the claimants in the Prieu affair. Monsieur
Schneider has taken all the necessary steps to press the claims of
the Prieu heirs with the French Foreign Office both in France and
abroad, in England, and in Brazil.
“Monsieur Schneider, who was very surprised at my visit,
introduced me to a journalist, Monsieur Vidal, who was with him. I
asked Monsieur Schneider to go with me and see Monsieur Calmette
at the Figaro office. Monsieur Schneider replied, ‘There is no reason
why I should put myself out for Monsieur Calmette. He has
interfered quite enough already (Il m’a assez mis des bâtons dans
les roues). If it had not been for his interference, the affair would
have been settled by now.’ I then told Monsieur Schneider that
Monsieur Calmette had not sent me to ask him to come, but that I
thought that in his own interests and in those of the heirs, he would
do well to go to the Figaro office without delay, and tell the truth
and all that he knew about this business. Monsieur Vidal got up from
his seat, and said to Monsieur Schneider, ‘Sir, I do not advise you to
go. You must know what has been agreed.’ I insisted, and Madame
Schneider, who was putting her baby to bed in a room next door,
came brusquely into the room and said to her husband, ‘Do what
Monsieur Vidal tells you, and do not go with Monsieur de Fonvielle.’ I
insisted again that he ought to go to the Rue Drouot with me, and
Madame Schneider, who showed some excitement, told her husband
to do what she suggested, adding, ‘You can’t do any good by going.
Besides, you know what you promised Monsieur Caillaux.’ I then
thought it best to go. When I got downstairs I told the two people
with me what had happened. One of them has material interests in
the affair. (Signed) Antoine de Fonvielle.”
Immediately under Monsieur de Fonvielle’s letter, Monsieur
Calmette published in the Figaro of January 12 letters from two
members of the Prieu syndicate, Monsieur Boileau and Monsieur
Prosper Sauvage. Monsieur Boileau made the following declaration:
“As the papers had spoken of the Prieu affair, a meeting was called
to hear what Monsieur Schneider had to say. Monsieur Schneider
declared: ‘I was very much surprised at the fuss made in the papers.
The affair was going to be settled, and I had an appointment to-
morrow, Saturday, January 10 (the meeting was at half-past eleven
on the evening of the Friday), to receive a definite proposal.’ I left
the meeting with Monsieur Schneider, and as we went away together
he made this remark to me: ‘If the affair succeeds we shall have to
leave a good many feathers behind us.’”
The third letter published by the Figaro was from another
member of the Prieu syndicate, Monsieur Prosper Sauvage: “I was
present at the meeting which was called to discuss the situation
created by the articles in the Figaro,” he wrote. “I was one of the
first to arrive, and met Messieurs Monniot, Mazars, and Boileau.
Naturally the conversation bore on the incidents of the day, and
when I expressed my astonishment and my indignation at the
proposal that the Government should take 80 per cent. for its
electoral needs while the heirs received only 20 per cent. of the
money, Monsieur Monniot declared that Monsieur Schneider had told
him about the interview which he had had, and had confirmed these
figures. He added that Monsieur Schneider had found the rate
excessively high, and quite unacceptable. (Signed) Prosper
Sauvage.”
These letters appeared in the Figaro on January 12. The same
day Monsieur Calmette accused Monsieur Caillaux of having extorted
£16,000 from the Comptoir d’Escompte for the party funds. Monsieur
Calmette wrote that Monsieur Ulmann, of the Comptoir d’Escompte,
had been received at five o’clock one afternoon by Monsieur
Caillaux, and that some days afterwards the £16,000 had been
placed at the disposition of the Minister of Finance. Everybody
concerned contradicted these statements very flatly, and as they
have no bearing on the Caillaux drama other than to show the
bitterness and personal nature of the attacks in the Figaro against
Monsieur Caillaux we may leave them on one side.
Three days later, on January 15, Monsieur Francois Lebon
published in L’Œuvre, a little weekly paper which has been in bitter
opposition to the present Government, an article on the scandals of
the week, in which he referred to the Prieu affair, and to the affair of
the Comptoir d’Escompte. In this article, which is the more worth
quoting because it attacks not only Monsieur Caillaux but the
present parliamentary régime in France as well, Monsieur Lebon
exclaims against the outcry which many people raise against such
revelations as those made by the Figaro, that “they tarnish the good
name of the Republic.”
“The republican régime,” writes Monsieur Lebon, “is settling
down in the mud. We may consider it permissible to think that a few
more stains will not be much more visible. When a man is drowning
it is perhaps an excess of precaution to refrain from throwing him a
rope for fear of splashing him with a few drops of water. One of
these days it will become perceptible that if the Third Republic fell so
low, it was because the Third Republic was ‘la République des
camarades. ’”
This is severe language from a Frenchman about France, but
unfortunately there is much in the political history of recent years to
support this charge of graft and of corruption. Charges of corruption
in the N’Goko Tanga affair, charges which were not altogether denied
satisfactorily, were brought by Monsieur Ceccaldi when the colonial
Budget came up for discussion, and the fact that Monsieur Ceccaldi
has since become a close friend and supporter of the Caillaux
Government makes these charges all the more significant now. Each
Government in France has a secret fund of £44,000; £24,000 of this
fund are used comparatively openly. The little balance of £20,000 is
not nearly enough for the funds needed by the Government at the
general elections, and it is a well-known fact that a great deal more
is spent.
The question as to where this money comes from is hardly a
mystery. The Mascuraud committee, an association of
parliamentarians and commercial men, has been generous with
money in the past. This year it is said to have withheld a large
proportion of its usual subsidy, and the Figaro and other Opposition
papers declare that Monsieur Caillaux did what he did for the
purpose of ensuring at the coming elections the election of
Government candidates for the Chamber of Deputies.
Agence Nouvelle—Photo, Paris.
MONSIEUR CAILLAUX’S FRIEND, M. CECCALDI.

On January 15 another long article over Monsieur Calmette’s

signature in the Figaro dealt severely with Monsieur Caillaux’s

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CHAPTER 1 Creating Java Programs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1

APPENDIX B Data Representation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 591

APPENDIX C Formatting Output �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 595

APPENDIX D Generating Random Numbers ������������������������������������������������������������ 603

APPENDIX F Using JavaFX and Scene Builder ����������������������������������������������������������� 613

Pitfall: Not Understanding Imprecision in Game Zone 113

CHAPTER 3 4.5 Understanding That Classes

3.4 Creating Methods That 4.10 U

5.4 Nesting if and if…else 6.3 Using Shortcut Arithmetic

5.8 Using the Conditional and NOT

Don’t Do It 193

7.3 Declaring and Comparing 8.8 Using Two-Dimensional and Other

Don’t Do It 257 Don’t Do It 316

9.9 Using Dynamic Method Binding 359 10.7 T

Using records 377 Case Problems 440

Using Anonymous Inner Classes 379

Don’t Do It 479 13.4 Using the LinkedList Class 524

Case Problems 485

CHAPTER 12 Summary 538

12.1 Understanding Recursion 487 Programming Exercises 541

Organization and Coverage

New in This Edition

❯❯Java: All programs have been tested using Java 16.

Additionally, Java Programming, Tenth Edition includes the following features:

MindTap Instructor Resources

Instructor and Student Resources

About the Author

Read This Before You Begin

To the User of the Data Files

Using Your Own Computer

❯❯Software: Java SE 16 or later, available from www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index.html. Although almost

These sections walk students through program development step by step.

Two Truths & a Lie

1.1 Define basic programming terminology

1.1 Learning Programming Terminology

Computer systems consist of both hardware and software.

❯❯Computer equipment, such as a monitor or keyboard, is hardware.

Software can be divided into two broad categories:

You can write computer programs in high- or low-level programming languages:

Figure 1-1 The program development process

Plan program logic

Write program language statements

Execute the program

Are there runtime Yes

Two Truths & a Lie Learning Programming Terminology

❯❯Creating classes, which are blueprints for objects

❯❯Creating objects, which are specific instances of those classes

❯❯Creating applications that manipulate or use those objects

Programmers use OO as an abbreviation for object-oriented; it is pronounced oh oh. Object-oriented

Understanding object-oriented programming requires grasping three basic concepts:

❯❯Encapsulation as it applies to classes as objects

Understanding Classes, Objects, and Encapsulation

Dog class definition Dog class instances (objects)

Breed Ginger Bowser Roxy

Understanding Inheritance and Polymorphism

2. Encapsulation protects data by hiding it within an object.

1.3 Features of the Java Programming Language

Figure 1-3 The Java environment

Java Source Code

JVM (named java.exe)

CHAPTER 1 Creating Java Programs�� 1

APPENDIX B Data Representation �� 591

APPENDIX C Formatting Output �� 595

APPENDIX D Generating Random Numbers �� 603

APPENDIX F Using JavaFX and Scene Builder �� 613

Pitfall: Not Understanding Imprecision in Game Zone 113

Don’t Do It 193

7.3 Declaring and Comparing 8.8 Using Two-Dimensional and Other

Don’t Do It 257 Don’t Do It 316

9.9 Using Dynamic Method Binding 359 10.7 T

Using records 377 Case Problems 440

Using Anonymous Inner Classes 379

Don’t Do It 479 13.4 Using the LinkedList Class 524

Case Problems 485

CHAPTER 12 Summary 538

12.1 Understanding Recursion 487 Programming Exercises 541