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C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-1

Chapter 9
Records (structs)

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
In Chapter 9, students will be introduced to a data type that can be heterogeneous. They
will learn how to group together related values that are of differing types using records,
which are also known as structs in C++. First, they will explore how to create
structs, perform operations on structs, and manipulate data using a struct.
Next, they will examine the relationship between structs and functions and learn
how to use structs as arguments to functions. Finally, students will explore ways to
create and use an array of structs in an application.

Objectives
In this chapter, the student will:
• Learn about records (structs)
• Examine various operations on a struct
• Explore ways to manipulate data using a struct
• Learn about the relationship between a struct and functions
• Discover how arrays are used in a struct
• Learn how to create an array of struct items

Teaching Tips
Records (structs)

1. Define the C++ struct data type and describe why it is useful in programming.

Discuss how previous programming examples and projects that used parallel
Teaching
arrays or vectors might be simplified by using a struct to hold related
Tip
information.

2. Examine the syntax of a C++ struct.

3. Using the examples in this section, explain how to define a struct type and then
declare variables of that type.

Accessing struct Members

1. Explain how to access the members of a struct using the C++ member access
operator.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-3

2. Use the code snippets in this section to illustrate how to assign values to struct
members.

Mention that the struct and class data types both use the member access
operator. Spend a few minutes discussing the history of the struct data type
and how it relates to C++ classes and object-oriented programming. Note that the
struct is a precursor to the class data type. Explain that the struct was
introduced in C to provide the ability to group heterogeneous data members
together and, for the purposes of this chapter, is used in that manner as well.
Teaching However, in C++, a struct has the same ability as a class to group data and
Tip
operations into one data type. In fact, a struct in C++ is interchangeable with
a class, with a couple of exceptions. By default, access to a struct from
outside the struct is public, whereas access to a class from outside the
class is private by default. The importance of this will be discussed later in the
text. Memory management is also handled differently for structs and
classes.

Quick Quiz 1
1. True or False: A struct is typically a homogenous data structure.
Answer: False

2. The components of a struct are called the ____________________ of the struct.

Answer: members

3. A struct statement ends with a(n) ____________________.

Answer: semicolon

4. True or False: A struct is typically defined before the definitions of all the functions
in a program.
Answer: True

Assignment

1. Explain that the values of one struct variable are copied into another struct
variable of the same type using one assignment statement. Note that this is equivalent to
assigning each member variable individually.

Note how memory is handled in assignment operations involving struct

Teaching
variables of the same type; namely, that the values of the members of one
Tip
struct are copied into the member variables of the other struct.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-4

Comparison (Relational Operators)

1. Emphasize that no relational aggregate operations are allowed on structs. Instead,

comparisons must be made member-wise, similar to an array.

Ask your students why they think assignment operations are permitted on
Teaching
struct types, but not relational operations. Discuss the issue of determining
Tip
how to compare a data type that consists of other varying data types.

Input/Output

1. Note that unlike an array, aggregate input and output operations are not allowed on
structs.

Mention that the stream and the relational operators can be overloaded to provide
Teaching
the proper functionality for a struct type and, in fact, that this is a standard
Tip
technique used by C++ programmers.

struct Variables and Functions

1. Emphasize that a C++ struct may be passed as a parameter by value or by reference,

and it can also be returned from a function.

2. Illustrate parameter passing with structs using the code snippets in this section.

Arrays versus structs

1. Using Table 9-1, discuss the similarities and differences between structs and arrays.

Spend a few minutes comparing the aggregate operations that are allowed on
Teaching structs and arrays. What might account for the differences? Use your previous
Tip exposition on the history of structs and memory management to facilitate this
discussion.

Arrays in structs

1. Explain how to include an array as a member of a struct.

2. Using Figure 9-5, discuss situations in which creating a struct type with an array as a
member might be useful. In particular, discuss its usefulness in applications such as the
sequential search algorithm.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-5

Ask your students to think of other applications in which using an array as a

member of a struct might be useful. For example, are there applications in
Teaching
which parameter passing might be reduced by using struct members in
Tip
conjunction with arrays? Also, are there other data members that would be useful
to include in the listType struct presented in this section?

3. Discuss situations in which a struct should be passed by reference rather than by

value. Use the sequential search function presented in this section as an example.

structs in Arrays

1. Discuss how structs can be used as array elements to organize and process data
efficiently.

2. Examine the employee record in this section as an example of using an array of

structs. Discuss the code for the struct as well as the array processing code. Use
Figure 9-7 to clarify the code.

Emphasize that using a structured data type, such as a struct or class, as the
Teaching element type of an array is a common technique. Using the vector class as an
Tip example, reiterate that object-oriented languages typically have containers such
as list or array types that in turn store objects of any type.

structs within a struct

1. Discuss how structs can be nested within other structs as a means of organizing
related data.

2. Using the employee record in Figure 9-8, illustrate how to reorganize a large amount of
related information with nested structs.

3. Encourage your students to step through the “Sales Data Analysis” Programming
Example at the end of the chapter to consolidate the concepts discussed in this chapter.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-6

Quick Quiz 2
1. What types of aggregate operations are allowed on structs?
Answer: assignment

2. Can struct variables be passed as parameters to functions? If so, how?

Answer: struct variables can be passed as parameters either by value or by reference.

3. True or False: A variable of type struct may not contain another struct.
Answer: False

4. True or False: A variable of type struct may contain an array.

Answer: True

Class Discussion Topics

1. With the advent of object-oriented programming, is it ever necessary to use C-type
structs rather than classes? If so, when? What are the advantages or disadvantages of
each approach?

2. Discuss how the object-oriented concept of reusability relates to structs, structs

within arrays, arrays within structs, and structs within structs. Ask students to
think of some applications in which defining these data types for later use would be
beneficial.

Additional Projects
1. In Chapter 8, you were asked to write a program that keeps track of important birthdays.
Modify this program to store one person’s birthday information in a struct data type.
The struct should consist of two other structs: one struct to hold the person’s
first name and last name, and another to hold the date (day, month, and year). Consider
including other information as well, such as a vector of strings with a list of possible
gift ideas.

2. In Chapter 8, you were asked to write a program that listed all the capitals for countries
in a specific region of the world. Modify this program to use an array of structs to
store this information. The struct should include the capital, the country, and the
continent. You might include additional information as well, such as the languages
spoken in each capital.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 9-7

Additional Resources
1. Data Structures:
www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/structures.html

2. struct (C++):
http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/64973255.aspx

3. Classes, Structures, and Unions:

http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/4a1hcx0y.aspx

Key Terms
 Member access operator: the dot (.) placed between the struct and the name of one
of its members; used to access members of a struct
 struct: a collection of heterogeneous components in which the components are
accessed by the variable name of the struct, the member access operator, and the
variable name of the component
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path and near the house so that they may be easily got at without
walking on the newly cultivated ground.

SALSIFY
Is another plant that is started very early in the spring and eaten
as soon as the frost is out of the ground. It is one of the most useful
and delicious of this class of plants and is not nearly as much
cultivated as it should be. Sliced and cooked tender it makes, when
combined with milk, seasoning and cracker crumbs, a most
acceptable substitute for oyster soup or, cooked, mashed and mixed
with a little flour and seasoning and butter, dipped in egg and bread
crumbs, it makes delicious little cakes when fried. Its culture is
simple, any good, light fertile soil producing a good crop, but to
produce clean, smooth roots it should be deeply dug and well
cultivated. Sow the seed in shallow drills early in the season; thin to
stand six inches apart in the row. It is hardy and may remain in the
ground all winter, but a supply for winter use should be dug at the
approach of cold weather and stored in boxes of sand or earth in the
root cellar. As soon as the frost is out of the ground in spring and
before growth starts they must be dug. If it is desired to grow seed
the plants should be set out again, or may be left where they are if
the ground is not needed for other vegetables, and cultivated the
same as seedling plants.

SPINACH
The most important of the vegetables grown for greens, should
be sown in the open ground as early as the ground can be worked if
wanted for early spring and summer use. For fall and winter use sow
in September. For a succession sow every two weeks. Sow in drills
one foot apart and one inch deep, in soil as fertile as one can
compass; the soil cannot be too rich for spinach, as upon the
rapidity of its growth depends the tenderness and succulence of its
leaves; in poor soil, especially if allowed to suffer for water, the
leaves will be tough and ill-flavored. Light applications of nitrate of
soda have a magic effect on spinach and should be applied lightly
every two weeks.
The Round Seeded Savoy is a standard sort, with thick, fleshy
leaves, curled and crinkled; the New Zealand is a good sort for
summer as it withstands heat well and is slow to run to seed. In
gathering the spinach the entire top may be cut off a bit above the
crown; this induces a new, quick, tender growth of leaves.
In planting for spring and winter use the beds should be covered
with straw at the approach of cold weather. Spinach often self-sows
and gives a volunteer crop the following spring. When the spinach
begins to send up seed stalks it may be cut and fed to the rabbits
and so waste that would otherwise ensue may be avoided.
 CHAPTER IX
MID-SEASON VEGETABLES

BEANS

B EING somewhat tender, should not be planted until the ground

is warm in spring. Corn-planting time will do for the field and
navy bean, but the white podded string bean and the lima bean
should not go into the ground until all danger of frost is past and the
ground is in growing condition. At the present advanced cost of seed
—fifty-five cents a pound for the string and lima sorts with postage
added by some dealers, it will not do to take any chances by being
in too much of a hurry to get seed into the ground; neither will it
pay to buy seed of any but reliable dealers. There has never been a
time when so much importance attaches to choosing one's seed
merchant wisely. Cheap seed never pays, for the time lost in
replanting seed of poor germination, or, worse still, that comes
untrue to name, giving one inferior or mongrel vegetables, offsets,
many times, the amount saved in money.
String beans are the first form in which this favorite vegetable
appears on the table and a very delicious and attractive dish they
make when such white wax or golden wax as Wardwell's Kidney,
Davis's Kidney Wax, Improved Golden Wax are selected; well grown
plants of these varieties, well laden with their long, wax-like pods
are a joy to the gardener; and if the pods are gathered as fast as
they mature, and this may be done as soon as they whiten, up to
the time they are fully grown, when they will still be sweet and
tender, the bushes will continue to bear heavily until cut down by the
frost; this should always be done whether the beans are wanted for
use or not; they can be canned, sold, or given away or fed to the pig
—anything rather than to check the vines' bearing. If one wishes to
save seed for the next year's planting, and this is worth while when
such high prices prevail, it will be well to set aside a row, or portion
of a row, for seed, allowing the first pods to ripen as this establishes
the early bearing characteristic of the plant.
In planting beans good soil should be chosen, but beans do not
need rich soil as many other garden vegetables do. It is said that
beans will grow on soil that will not grow anything else; this is rather
an extreme statement, but it is a fact that they will thrive where
more exacting plants will languish; this is accounted for by the fact
that the bean is a legume and so empowered to draw an important
part of its nourishment from the air in the form of nitrates, which it
stores in little pockets or nodules on its roots and so has a larder of
its own to draw on.
Open a drill a couple of inches deep and drop the beans at
regular intervals two or three inches apart, or they may be planted
three or four in hills, six inches apart; cover and tramp down the
rows and draw the rake lightly over them. Except for the distance at
which they are planted, all beans require practically the same
treatment; they should never be cultivated when wet or gathered or
handled in any way; the rule should be to give them a wide berth in
wet weather; working among them when wet is the cause of the
disfiguring rust that makes them unsalable and in bad cases
uneatable. Wardwell's and Davis's Kidney Wax are as free from rust
as any of the white podded varieties and are the best selections the
amateur gardener can make.
For those who like a green podded bean the Stringless Green
Pod is a fine variety and very popular with gardeners. Giant
Stringless, Green Pod and Longfellow make up a trio of beans hard
to beat.
Boston pea bean or navy bean is the best selection for baked
beans; these should be allowed to ripen their pods until quite dry.
The usual method of harvesting is to wait until all the beans are ripe
in late summer and harvest by pulling the vines and piling in heaps
until dry; this is not an economical way, however, nor specially
adapted to the small home garden; a better way is to gather the
pods as fast as they ripen, storing them in a dry, airy place until
ready to shell easily; if this is done many more beans will be
produced and there will be no loss from the earlier beans shelling
out on the ground as they will when the vines are left for the entire
crop to ripen. Usually it will be necessary to go over the vines about
four times but the result will be a much greater quantity of beans
and all in the finest possible condition; when left until all are ripe it
will be found that there is a considerable amount of mouldy or
injured beans.
Lima beans require somewhat different treatment from the
string or navy bean; to begin with they require a much richer soil
and the ground should be well manured and a supplementary
dressing of hen manure, rabbit droppings or ashes about the plants
when well established will be of much benefit; they require more
room in the row than the string beans, not less than eight or nine
inches with the rows two feet apart; the beans should be planted
about two inches deep, setting the seed with the eyes downward
and covering and tramping the rows. Rather late planting is
advisable for limas than for string beans and for very early beans a
few may be started in the hotbed and transplanted in the open
ground about the twentieth of May at the north—add or subtract a
week for each hundred miles north or south. The bean, having no
tap root and a broad spread of lateral roots, is one of the easiest
plants to transplant and by starting a hundred plants in the hotbed a
much earlier crop will be obtained; that will be filling up the time
while the open air planting is coming forward.
Another very important advantage in starting seed in the hotbed
is the larger per cent. of plants obtained; if good seed is used every
one may be depended upon to grow. The hotbed also affords
protection from the enemies that destroy the lima, one of the most
destructive being hens, and it will be wise to assure Biddy's absence
from the garden until the beans are showing their first leaves as the
succulent looking white seeds that first break through the ground
have an irresistible attraction for her and she will walk along the
rows, nipping off every pod as it appears; this seems to be due to
curiosity as she does not eat, but drops them on the ground; I have
seen whole plantings of lima beans destroyed in this way. English
sparrows also are known to destroy the tops. String beans do not
offer the temptation that the limas do so are seldom molested.
For the home garden the bush limas are to be preferred as they
take less room and are easier to handle. The Improved Fordhook
Bush Lima is one of the best varieties if not the best. The New
Wonder Bush Lima is highly recommended. Beans may be planted
every two weeks for succession up to August. Dry limas that remain
on the vines in fall may be used for cooking in winter. Limas are not
injured by light frosts as much as the other varieties of beans; the
pods cuddling under the thick foliage are protected and one can
frequently gather a mess after the frost has cut everything else in
the garden; the thick pods, too, are a protection to the beans inside.
If it is desired to grow pole limas set the poles four feet apart
each way and plant five or six beans to each hill and thin to three
when the plants are up; when the plants have reached the top of
the pole pinch out the top; add a spadeful of well-rotted manure to
each hill before planting, mixing it thoroughly with the soil.
Carpenteria is about the best of the pole limas and Early Leviathan
Lima is another good sort. Wire netting may be used in place of
poles and will be found more convenient and economical. Treating
the beans with farmogerm, Mulford or other culture is advisable.

CABBAGE
For early cabbage sow seed in the hotbed or in flats in the house
and transplant to the open ground in May. Cabbage are not injured
by light frosts and can go into the ground earlier than most other
garden stuff; usually the early sorts are selected for first planting but
the late and winter sorts will, if started in heat, do about as well as
the early; it is largely a matter of handling. The Late Flat Dutch is an
excellent sort for the first planting as it is a very sure header, giving
large, flat heads of the best quality. In twelve years' experience in
growing this variety I have never found a diseased plant nor, except
in a year of very exceptional weather, a soft head. They keep well
over winter and are altogether a very satisfactory all round cabbage.
In transplanting the plants from the hotbed to the open ground
all but the upper pair of leaves should be removed and these may
have the upper half clipped; this gives the roots a chance to
establish themselves before they are called upon to support top
growth. Set the plants about two feet apart each way, or the rows
two feet apart and the plants twenty inches; the nearer distance is
tenable if one raises rabbits as the lower leaves may be removed
and fed to them, thus giving the plants more room; they should
close up the gaps between them when fully grown as this shades
the ground and conserves moisture—an important feature in a dry
season. The ground should be kept well cultivated and free from
weeds as long as work can be carried on among them and when the
cultivator can no longer be used the scuffle-hoe can be introduced
under and between them without injury to the leaves. In hoeing or
cultivating draw the earth up towards the plants.
When the heads are filled out and hard and it is not desired to
gather them they may be kept from splitting by pulling the roots
loose on one side and bending them over.
The principal enemy of the cabbage is the white butterfly and its
offspring—the green caterpillar. There are many ways of combating
this pest; the most effectual way, early in the season is dusting with
Paris green mixed with flour. A convenient way to apply is to take a
quart Mason jar, take the lid, remove the porcelain lining and punch
the top full of holes, fill the can with flour mixed with one teaspoon
of fresh Paris green and sift over the plants while wet with dew at
the first appearance of the pest; this should not be used after the
heads have formed; after this sprinkling with salt and working it in
between the loose leaves of the head is often effectual. Dusting with
dry earth sometimes has a deterrent effect on the worms.
The grey aphis is another most troublesome pest; this comes so
insidiously that the plants are well infested before their presence is
suspected. Spraying with kerosene emulsion is sometimes effectual if
the heads are not too far advanced. Spraying with zenoleum—a
tablespoonful to two quarts of water—will kill every louse it touches
and by its odor discourage any intending arrivals, but this should not
be used where the heads are at all advanced, though a hard rain
would rid the plants of the odor of both zenoleum and kerosene.
Soapsuds, especially whale oil and nicotine, are suggested and hand
picking of worms is not without its value. Spraying with hot water
140° is effectual and safe and cleanses and stimulates the plants.
Cut worms are very destructive to cabbage when first set out;
their depredations may be guarded against by enclosing the stem of
the plant in a band of stiff paper when planting; this should go into
the ground an inch and extend up the stem two or three inches.
Strewing poisoned bait along the intended rows for a night or two is
suggested but this is a dangerous practice where there is poultry at
liberty; baiting after the plants are set is often successful, too, but
the best safeguard is to have a good supply of surplus plants in the
hotbed. The rows should be looked over the first thing in the
morning after planting to discover what plants have been cut and
wherever a plant is missing the worm should be looked for, and
when found killed; this is really the most satisfactory way of
eradicating the pest. The worm never goes more than two or three
inches from the plant and will be found somewhere just below the
surface of the ground, usually under some bit of roughage that
makes a little hollow. If there is a piece of sod or clover-land near
the garden the cut worms will usually begin their work from that
side and if a planting of cabbage is made a few days in advance of
other plants this will serve as a trap for the worms and hunting and
killing them for a few days will make the planting safe for the
tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers.
A little nitrate of soda sprinkled around the plants is a great
incentive to growth.
For winter cabbage sow seed in the open ground in May and
transplant into permanent rows as soon as large enough, giving the
plants more room than early cabbage. Late Flat Dutch, Wakefield,
Danish Roundhead and Dutch Winter or Hollander are all good sorts
which will prove good keepers and sellers.
If in setting out plants of winter cabbage it is found that there
are more plants than are needed, they may be allowed to remain
where they are and given a little protection, such as boards,
cornstalks or evergreens, and can be used for setting out the
following spring.

CAULIFLOWER
Require the same general treatment as cabbage. They are set
somewhat closer in the rows and cultivated the same as cabbage;
however, for the best results it is desirable to transplant the
cauliflower from the hotbed into cold frames as soon as they have
their second pair of leaves, setting three inches apart each way and
as soon as they resume growth giving a light application of nitrate of
soda, then transplant when the weather is favorable. Cauliflower are
quite hardy and not injured by early fall frosts, making steady
growth until severe cold weather and many heads that have failed to
fill during the fall will fill out finely in November.
As soon as the curd, or head, forms and has made a little size
the leaves must be drawn over it and tied to exclude rain and light;
this must be done when the plants are perfectly dry and the weather
clear, a sunny day about noon is the best time for the work. If tied
up when wet or damp the heads will rot. If not tied up growth will
start in the heads, they will turn purple and green and be unfit for
food. It is upon the successful tying up of the cauliflower that its
successful culture depends; like the cabbage it requires a rich, well
fertilized soil and applications of nitrate of soda once a week during
the growing season will hasten the development of the head; wood
ashes, too, are beneficial.
The insect enemies of the cauliflower are those of the cabbage,
but they molest it in a somewhat lesser degree. The remedies to be
employed are the same.
There are two important varieties of cauliflower—the Snowball
and the Dry Weather. The former is a poor cropper in dry seasons
unless artificial irrigation can be supplied. The Dry Weather
Cauliflower, on the other hand, seems to be at its best in a dry
season and will give fine heads when the other fails. As one can not
forecast what the rainfall of any given season will be it is well to be
provided against any contingency by planting both varieties of
cauliflower; by this forethought one will be assured of a crop
whatever the weather and the snowballs that failed to head during
August and September may come on in October and November and
give a late crop for pickling.
In the majority of gardens cauliflowers are grown exclusively for
pickling; this is a mistake for there is no vegetable more delicate and
toothsome than this; it outclasses cabbage and when fried in batter
or breaded with egg and cracker crumbs, it affords a most excellent
substitute for meat, indeed, it is really more acceptable when no
meat dish accompanies it; for this reason—its desirability as a table
vegetable—special pains should be taken to produce early heads, by
starting in hotbeds, transplanting into cold frames, fertilizing with
nitrate and giving special attention to thorough cultivation
throughout its growing period. If water can be supplied, a thorough
drenching of the roots once or twice a week, followed by a
cultivation the following morning to restore the dust-mulch, will be
of much benefit.
The green cabbage worm is sometimes very troublesome on the
heads and leaves of cauliflowers and one should watch for the
presence of the white cabbage butterfly as this will indicate whether
one may expect an attack of caterpillars. If once the worms have
become established spraying with hot water of from 130° to 140°
will exterminate all with which it comes in contact, as worms are far
more sensitive to hot water than are the plants which they infect.

CORN
 Is one of the most profitable of the garden's offerings; there is,
practically, no loss connected with it; a delicious vegetable for the
table in its green state, fresh from the stalk; it is equally welcome
when it appears sweet and toothsome from the can in winter or,
conserved in a dried state, is soaked and cooked the same as fresh
corn. There is no waste in the unused corn that remains ungathered
on the stalks for it may be saved for seed another year or fed to the
poultry, while the stalks, cut and cured, make excellent feed for cow,
horse or rabbits. Cut while green and made into ensilage it is the
best substitute for green feed in winter for any animal that eats
green food. Much green feed for stock may be secured from the
corn patch in summer by removing all the side shoots that do not
bear ears and feeding them to the pigs or rabbits. This is of benefit
to the corn as it allows all the strength of the plant to go into the
ears instead of being wasted in growing useless foliage.
Corn is a gross feeder and requires a deep, mellow, fertile soil,
well enriched with barnyard manure. Clover sod well manured and
ploughed will give the maximum amount of corn, but any good soil if
fertilized will produce good corn.
Corn is somewhat tender and should not be planted until the
ground is warm, but in the small home garden where a small
amount of seed is required a little risk may be run by planting early
in May and replanting if an early frost catches the crop. It is not, as
a general thing, the spring frost that does the most damage,
especially with field corn, it is the late frost that catches the corn still
in the milk that does the damage, so that anything that pushes the
crop along to maturity before danger of fall frost is of moment. This
is one reason why heavy fertilizing is so important,—it speeds up the
maturing of the corn and gets it beyond the danger line in time.
Sweet corn may be planted in drills or in hills, but I prefer the
hill method. Even in a small patch that can be worked but one way
with a horse or cultivator—there is always a hoe to take care of the
space between the hills.
 The rows should be three feet apart and the corn in hills three
feet apart, or if planted in rows make the rows four feet apart and
the corn twelve inches apart. Drop several kernels in each hill and
thin to three plants to a hill when the corn is up and danger of frost
is passed. One pound of seed will plant a hundred hills or from one
hundred and fifty to two hundred feet of row. If hard frost threatens
just as the corn is coming through the ground, throwing earth over it
with a hoe will often afford sufficient protection to save it.
In a small garden patch it is not much work to stick a mark of
some kind in the center of each hill and if this is done cultivation can
commence at once and a hard crust be prevented from forming; this
will hasten the germination of the seed and insure the elimination of
weeds at the start.
There are many varieties of sweet corn advertised, each
seedsman having his own favorite specialty, but there are really but
two that one need take into consideration—the old, reliable Stowell's
Evergreen and the new Bantam Evergreen—a cross between that
exceptionally sweet corn, the Golden Bantam, and Stowell's
Evergreen, and combining the great qualities of both parents, the
delicious sweetness and tenderness and earliness of Bantam with
the more generous size and more tender skin of the Evergreen.
Plant these two varieties and have the best to be obtained in sweet
corn. One planting of Evergreen will give big generous ears of late
corn, while for succession the Bantam may be planted every two
weeks up to July.
When the corn is a couple of feet high it will be well to go
through the patch and remove all suckers or barren stalks so as to
conserve all the food and moisture for the production of ears.
In addition to barnyard manure, wood ashes is an important
fertilizer for corn, supplying the potash so essential to its growth;
this may be put in the hill at the time the corn is planted or may be
scattered about the plants after they are up and hoed into the soil; it
should not be applied in connection with manure as it has a
tendency to release the ammonia content of the manure, but should
be applied independently. Droppings from the poultry house may be
used in the growing of the corn crop, placing about a teacupful in a
hill, but not in contact with the seed. Several barrels of dry
droppings should be saved during the winter for just this extra
fertilizing in the kitchen garden.3
Corn is very easily transplanted so that where there is a failure
of the corn to germinate in some hills and an over supply in others,
the extra plants may be lifted carefully with the spade or trowel and
slipped into holes prepared for them where wanted. Last season I
had an interesting experience transplanting an entire row of corn,
over a foot high. A row of okra had been planted across the garden
but failed to appear on schedule time and was finally given up and
corn planted in its place; the corn came up and had made several
inches of top when to my surprise the okra appeared. It was evident
that the two robust plants could not occupy successfully the same
ground and I did not wish to sacrifice either, so an equal number of
hills were prepared in another part of the garden, fertilized with
poultry droppings and ashes and the hills of corn, then over a foot
high, lifted, one hill at a time, on a spade and carried and slipped
into their holes, and not a plant seemed aware that anything had
happened to it; certainly there was no check to the growth, but, by
lifting on the spade with plenty of soil adhering, the roots were not
disturbed in the least.
Corn has so few enemies that it is scarcely worth while to
consider them, the principal one being earworm—a small worm that
eats out the tip of the ear; they can be poisoned by dropping Paris
green in the axils of the leaves when the plants are young.

CUCUMBERS
For slicing for the table should be planted as soon as the ground
is warm or a few seed may be planted on pieces of inverted sod, or
in pots or paper bands in the hotbed and transplanted into the open
ground about corn-planting time or when the danger of frost is past;
this will give several weeks' start on outdoor planting and will also
make the plants practically immune from attacks of the striped
beetle. Beetles will of course appear, but by the time of their arrival
the plants will have attained sufficient size to withstand their attacks,
particularly will this be the case if protected with dry earth, sifted
over the leaves to roughen them or the application of tobacco tea or
tobacco stems or leaves about the plants.
Pieces of sod, about four inches square, should be cut and
placed earth-side up close together in the warmest part of the
hotbed and several seeds planted on each piece and the whole
covered with a fourth of an inch of earth. When ready to transplant
lift the pieces on to a flat board or carrier and slip into a hole
prepared for them with as little disturbance as possible and press
the soil firmly about them so that the air will not get underneath and
dry the roots.
There is not too much room for vine vegetables of any sort in
the small kitchen garden and if desired the early cucumbers for table
use may be grown on netting. The Japanese cucumber is a climbing
sort especially addicted to this manner of growth, bears fine, large
fruit of most excellent quality and the position on the wire, away
from the soil and damp ground, produces a most attractive fruit, free
from the yellow blanching that is present on the cucumbers grown
on the ground. Last year among a number of these Japanese plants
there occurred one or two plants of a snow white cucumber that I
found very superior in crispness and flavor to the green fruit. Owing
to early frost I was not able to secure seed of this interloper. Mr.
Burbank's cucumber seed did not produce a single white seed. This
is not, however, a climbing sort, but all vines which have tendrils can
be grown on netting. Squash even will grow, bear and seem to enjoy
the experience.
Cucumbers when grown for the table should be gathered as
soon as of slicing size, whether wanted or not, as allowing the fruit
to ripen on the vine stops production; this is especially imperative in
the case of pickles which must be removed as soon as of sufficient
size to use. The small pickles of an inch and a quarter or less should
be gathered first and larger pickles left until the latter part of the
season as gathering the cucumbers while very small increases the
vine's productiveness and there will always be enough overlooked to
supply the larger sort of pickles.
Cucumbers for pickling should not be sown before June and may
be planted at any time after that up to mid-July. Plant in hills from
four to six feet apart spading in a spadeful of manure in each hill;
thin out to three or four plants in a hill when danger of bugs is past;
spray with Bordeaux Arsenate of Lead three ounces to a gallon of
water, when in danger of beetles or blight; the combination of lead
and Bordeaux mixture covers both emergencies.
Keep the ground well cultivated as long as the vines will allow;
pinch off the ends of all the vines when about a foot long to induce
branching; when the plants begin to bloom notice the presence or
absence of bees. Some years the curcubita family fails signally in
setting fruit and this is usually caused by lack of pollenization by the
bees. On a small patch one may substitute cross-pollenization by
carrying pollen from one blossom to another with a camel's hair
brush or by shaking the blossoms against each other, but a
preventative measure would be to raise a colony or two of bees.
Sometimes the presence of some plant especially attractive to bees
will lure them away from the melons, cucumbers and like plants.
Two years ago the presence of a patch of vetch proved so attractive
to the bees that it was not until late in the season that the flowers of
a nearby patch of winter squash and citron received sufficient
attention to set any fruit. The air was resonant with the hum of
bees, but not one was to be seen on the vines.
There are any number of good cucumbers to choose from for
general crop. Early Fortune has proved a favorite in my garden. It is
a good bearer and quality and appearance are all that could be
asked. The Davis Perfect, Arlington White Spine, and Westerfield's
Chicago Pickle are all satisfactory sorts to grow.
 EGGPLANTS
Are very tender when small, so they should be started in the
warmest part of the hotbed, or in a warm, sunny window in flats.
When they have grown their first pair of true leaves they should be
transplanted—if at all crowded, into other flats or other rows in the
hotbed, setting them two inches apart each way and grown on,
given sufficient water and occasional cultivation, but not sufficient to
disturb the roots, until time to plant out in the open ground; this
should not be done until the nights and soil are warm as a check at
this time will mean a late setting of fruit.
Eggplants are considered one of the difficult things to grow;
personally I have seldom lost a plant except at the hands, or mouth
rather, of cutworms, but I have frequently gotten an unsatisfactory
setting of fruit. However, one must have certain standards to adhere
to in their culture, the first of which is heat in all the early stages of
their growth, the second, rich soil, with occasional supplementary
dressings of nitrate of soda, and thorough cultivation.
The plants require considerable room when mature and should
not be set closer than three feet each way.
The principal enemy of the eggplant is the potato beetle which is
quite as partial to egg plants as to potatoes. Spraying with Paris
green or arsenate of lead is effectual before the fruit has formed but
hand picking is more satisfactory and where only a few plants are
grown for family use, quite as practical. It is not the mature beetle
that eats the leaves but the young beetles that hatch from the mass
of yellow eggs laid on the under side of the leaves, so at the first
appearance of the old bugs search should be made for the mass of
eggs and these as well as the parent beetle destroyed; by this
means no beetles can get a start. It is always good practice to avoid,
as far as possible, the use of poisonous insecticides in the kitchen
garden; while their use may do no harm on vegetables that have not
set their fruit, there is always a tendency to grow careless in their
use and to continue it after the safety zone has been passed.
 New York eggplant is the standard variety for all but the
northern states; it is of the highest type, spineless and of a rich,
purple color, large and borne in abundance; it is not as early as Black
Beauty, long a favorably known sort, which is about twelve days
earlier; Very Early Dwarf Purple is still earlier and Black Pekin is
another good sort. In the northern states the earliest variety should
be planted, but the eggplant has one remarkable characteristic—for
a plant so tender in its early stages it seems, when fully grown,
almost immune to cold and early frost, and I have often gathered
unharmed fruit after severe frost had cut most everything else in the
garden. Throwing some loose stuff—clover hay, corn fodder or
weeds—over the plants on a cold night will usually save them and a
spell of warm weather that usually follows the first hard frosts may
bring on immature fruit to a usable size. It requires about five
months from the sowing of the seed to produce usable fruit so it will
readily be seen that it is important to start the seed in the hotbed,
greenhouse or in the house and to take every precaution to grow
them on rapidly without any check.

OKRA
So well and favorably known in the southern states, is practically
unknown in the north, except as its acquaintance is made in the
chicken gumbo of the commercial soups and a few other vegetable
and meat preparations. It should, however, form a staple vegetable
of the kitchen garden and, once its merits are known, would,
doubtless, become as popular north as it is south. Though its use is
chiefly associated with the preparation of soup it has other, equally
acceptable, uses. It is an excellent addition to hash, adding both
richness and flavor; added to tomatoes it imparts a fuller, richer
flavor and used alone, fried, is excellent. A small amount of meat,
with the addition of potatoes, okra and onion, the last two fried
tender before adding the meat and potatoes, makes a most
satisfying one-dish meal.
 It is one of the easiest vegetables to grow, requiring the same
culture as corn; making the rows three feet apart, and planting the
seed in drills and thinning to ten inches apart in the row. Perkin's
Long Pod is the best general variety and the pods should be
gathered when half grown, whether needed or not, to prevent
checking the production.

PEPPERS
Like the eggplant require much heat in starting and should be
given the warmest position in the hotbed—about the central sash,
towards the front—so that they may not be overtopped by other,
taller growing plants, for the pepper grows but slowly for the first
few weeks of its existence.
The seed germinates slowly, taking from two to three weeks to
appear; it may be sown thinly in drills, or broadcasted, covering
sufficiently to conceal the seed and placing paper over the plot to
prevent drying out. If started in flats in the house the plants may be
transplanted into other flats when they have made one pair of true
leaves; if not crowded in the hotbed they may be allowed to remain
where they are or be transplanted into fresh rows, setting them a
couple of inches apart each way.
They should not be planted out in the open ground until the soil
and nights are warm as a check at this time will mean late fruiting
and failure to ripen. Make the rows from twenty-four to thirty inches
apart and set the plants eighteen inches apart in the row. Before
planting spade a forkful of old manure or henhouse droppings into
each hill for the pepper is a heavy feeder and requires good soil.
Protect the plants on cold nights if frost threatens and keep the
ground well cultivated.
If the peppers are to be grown in the north such varieties as
mature their fruits early should be selected. Crimson Giant is about
the earliest; the plants are large and bear abundantly. The Upright
New Sweet Pepper is also early, a good bearer and its habit of
fruiting—holding the fruit erect instead of drooping—makes it very
easy to gather; it is a medium-size pepper, just right for stuffing for
mangoes and a desirable size to pickle for winter use in salads; if the
top and bottom are removed it leaves a broad ring which is very
lovely when filled with salad and garnished with parsley and well-
blanched endive; the parts removed may be used as pickles or
added to mixed or chopped pickles.
Magnum Dulce is an excellent sort for baking when stuffed with
meat or force-meat or fried. Pimento is a new salad pepper very
attractive in shape and form but does not do so well in the north as
some of the older sorts; however, some seasons it can be
successfully grown and a few plants set out will be well worth taking
pains with. In the warmer sections and in favorable seasons at the
north one can grow the fiery Tabasco Pepper from which the
Tabasco sauce of commerce is made and so prepare one's supply of
this expensive relish; it requires early planting and great attention to
heat and sunshine to succeed.
The little Celestial Peppers are so very attractive when grown in
pots that florists offer them along with other greenhouse stuff; they
can just as well be grown in one's own hotbed or house and make
welcome gifts to the young housekeeper or the city dweller who
does not have the advantage of a country garden to furnish
condiments and relishes. The little plants can be grown in pots from
the start or small plants in the garden can be taken up and potted
and will hold their tiny scarlet fruit all winter, producing more as the
first is removed. For the sunny kitchen or dining room window
nothing is prettier or more ornamental than a window box filled with
these little red peppers, parsley and endive.
Cayenne peppers can be grown for the making of pepper
vinegar; the seeds are used for this, being separated from the husk
when dry and put into quart bottles filled with white wine vinegar; in
a few weeks the vinegar will be ready for use. The hulls may be
saved and put in cans of mixed pickles, a few hulls adding a piquant
hotness; they may also be added to pickled onions and to
cauliflower.
As peppers are extremely sensitive to frost every effort should
be made to bring them along rapidly so that they may mature their
fruit in season; light application of nitrate will assist and the use of
poultry droppings in preparing the bed will be of use; in dry weather
a wetting with water from the laundry will do much good. If it is
possible to pipe or carry water with hose to the garden a shallow
trench may be made along the pepper rows and water turned in as
required. Protecting with papers or other covering on frosty nights
may save a crop but the covering should not rest on the plants as
the frost will likely strike through; hay or corn fodder would be likely
to give better protection.

TOMATOES
Are one of the most important vegetables of the home garden
not alone as a summer vegetable, but also as an important part of
the winter cuisine, more tomatoes being canned for winter use than
all other vegetables.
Tomatoes require no expert care to grow; they are one of the
easiest managed of vegetables, but they do require heat for starting
if they are to be got to bearing in season to give a bountiful crop
before frost. It takes about four months from the time the seed is
sown to produce a crop of the main crop tomato. Some of the very
early sorts will come into bearing early in July; unfortunately,
however, these very early varieties lack the full, delicious flavor of
the later fruit. The tomatoes should not be set in the open ground
until all danger of frost is over; they should be given rich soil and a
spadeful of manure added to the hill in which they are planted. If
the plants are allowed to lie on the ground make the hills four feet
apart each way, but if they are to be staked or trained on a trellis
three feet will give sufficient room; both methods of culture have
advantages; the latter keeps the fruit up off the ground, makes
pickling easy and perhaps produces more perfect fruit; less room is
required for growing the same number of plants than would be
required for the former method. The first method has this
advantage,—the plants suffer least in a dry season as the vines
shade the ground, and prevent the excessive evaporation of
moisture and require, accordingly, less cultivation; then the branches
will root wherever they touch the soil and so draw moisture and
nourishment from it; a much larger amount of fruit is produced from
plants allowed to rest on the ground, and if straw is laid under the
plants it will keep them from getting soiled and rotting if the season
is wet.
Where the plants are to be staked a six foot stake should be set
at each hill at the time the plant is set and the plant tied to it at
intervals as it grows. Pinch off the top as soon as it reaches the top
of the stake and remove all but a few of the side branches, pinching
in those that remain to make a shapely plant. I think the rack
system of training is preferable to the stake.
A long trellis or rack, about eighteen inches or two feet high and
two feet wide, is constructed of narrow strips of wood and placed
over the tomato rows, the plants growing up through the center of
the frame and spreading out on top of it. This gives more bearing
surface and the vines do not need to be tied to the wood; such a
trellis can be used for several years in succession if stored away in a
dry place when not in use. The wire tomato supports on the market
are good but costly and quite as satisfactory ones can be made at
home from the wire or wooden hoops from barrels, stapled to stout
stakes sharpened at one end. About three hoops should be used and
three stakes. These, too, can be stored away for future use so that
the first outlay is the last for a number of years.
In setting out the plants from the hotbed select those with the
stoutest stalks; it is not material whether they have grown tall or
keeled over in the hotbed or not if the plant appears vigorous with a
robust stem. If one has a good supply of plants to draw from one
can discard all but the best.
 The reward of your hours of pleasant labor

Prepare the hills in advance by forking in a forkful of old manure;

if the plants are long, make a trench two-thirds the length of the
stem with a deeper hole at one end; place the root in the hole and
bend the top carefully into the trench, turning the tip up straight so
that it stands four or five inches above the ground, draw in a part of
the earth and fill the trench with water, fill in the remainder of the
soil, pressing snugly, make a fine dry mulch about the plant and the
work is done. The long stem buried in the trench will send out roots
all its length and will have a much greater root system than a plant
set with just a few inches of stem in the ground; such a plant set in
such a way, invariably lives and makes a strong plant, but to plant it
with only the root part under the ground would only invite the loss
of the plant.
The plot should be looked over the following morning to see if
cut worms have cut off any of the plants during the night and to
restore, if necessary, the dust-mulch.
Plants grown on stakes or trellises are more susceptible to frost
than those grown on the ground as the soil holds the heat and it is
an easy matter to cover a considerable number of plants at one time
with tarpaulin or even newspapers and this should be done when
there is even a slight prospect of frost. The thermometer should be
watched in the late fall and if it is going down towards nightfall
those plants which one wishes to save should be protected.
After the first three hard frosts there are usually two or three
weeks of fine weather and it is at this time that tomatoes and other
perishable garden stuff command the highest price and those who
are fortunate enough to have a surplus to sell can realize a neat little
sum that will more than pay for the trifling trouble involved.
I am often asked which is the best tomato for the home garden
and have no hesitation in saying that, all things considered, there is
no better tomato raised, for an all season crop, than the Dwarf,
Improved Stone. There are earlier tomatoes and larger tomatoes.
The Early Detroit is earlier, but not very much so, and it does not
compare in size and quality with the Stone. Ponderosa is a much
larger tomato but the quality is not up to the Stone nor is its
freedom from cracking and irregularity to be compared to the Stone.
Then the Stone is such a satisfactory plant in the way of foliage and
stem, so heavy and rugged, the thick, crumply leaves are very
distinctive and the plants always command attention even when not
in fruit. The fruit is quite as large as best requirements demand and
it slices beautifully for the table and canned is entirely free from that
peculiar taste that characterizes the commercial tomato.
Earliana is the earliest and the most popular sort of the extra
early tomato and a few plants for early use will be worth while.
There is also a new ball-shaped tomato, New Globe, that is good for
slicing as it gives a number of fine slices just alike instead of the
three usually obtained from a flat tomato, only one—the middle—
being perfect. So if one wants a variety in the garden one may plant
with entire confidence the Dwarf Stone and Vaughan's Improved
New Stone and add for variety the Earliana and the New Globe.

SQUASH
ENGLISH MARROW
 In sections where the eggplant does not do well, or where one
lacks the skill to succeed with it a very satisfactory substitute will be
found in the English marrow; this is a bush form of the vegetable
marrows and occupies about as much ground as an eggplant. The
vine sorts are such rampant growers that they require a garden to
themselves or at least a walled enclosure, but they are very
profitable to grow as they produce enormously and the fruit is
excellent fried like eggplant; few, if any, persons would be able to
distinguish between them and the difference, if any, would be in
favor of the marrow.
Rich warm soil is required for all the squash family and the bush
varieties are no exceptions. Give in addition to the usual manuring of
the garden a good forkful of manure in each hill. Space the hills four
feet apart each way and plant several seeds in each hill to provide
for the appetite of the squash bugs which make no exception in
favor of bush varieties; when danger of bugs is past the plants
should be thinned to three or four plants in a hill.
To repel the squash vine borer scatter a handful of tobacco dust
about the plants and at the first appearance of wilt in the leaves
examine the stems carefully for the point where the worm found
entrance and either slit the stalk sufficiently to uncover the worm or
run a wire up the stalk until he is encountered and killed; then if
possible, bury the wound in soil so that the branch may be saved; if,
however, there is too much injury done or the wound is too high up
it will be best to remove that part of the branch; at the same time
the rest of the plants should be carefully examined for other signs of
injury, and the ground inspected for larvæ. For yellow striped beetle
and blight spray early and repeatedly with Bordeaux arsenate of lead
mixture.
The marrows are finer eating when only two-thirds grown. They
should be peeled, sliced and covered with salt for an hour, then
rinsed and drained and breaded and fried the same as eggplant, or,
if preferred, may be cooked and mashed like summer squash. They
are good either way.
 TURNIPS
Have an important place in the garden as they may be used as a
catch crop almost any time during summer. Wherever vacancies
occur in rows of early vegetables and it is inconvenient owing to lack
of seed or other reasons to replant with the same vegetable, then
one may have recourse to the ever useful turnip and fill in the hiatus
with that. Turnips are at their best when young and tender, about
three inches in diameter, and a constant succession can be assured
by planting in this way or where the first crop of vegetables has
been removed. For fall and winter use sowings may be made in July
and August. Success frequently results from sowing among the
sweet corn just before the last cultivation; with favorable weather a
crop will mature before severe freezing weather and turnips are the
better for a touch of frost.
Open a shallow drill with the hand plough or by dragging the
corner of the hoe along the row and scatter the seed very thinly. If
the planting is in full rows make them a foot or fifteen inches apart.
As soon as the plants are large enough, thin to stand three or four
inches apart; this is important as fine, smooth roots cannot be
produced if crowded.
The turnip maggot is the greatest enemy the turnip has and it
sometimes appears in gardens that have been entirely free from it
and I think is brought in the seed. It is the same little worm that
works its tortuous way through and around the radish and, although
I have never grown a wormy radish, still last season an entire
planting of turnips were ruined by this pest, so as I was quite sure it
was not previously present in the soil I am forced to the conviction
that I bought and planted it together with the seed. Moral—Buy seed
of reliable dealers and examine carefully for worm holes before
planting.
The Purple-top White Globe is a most popular market sort.
Snowball is a white variety of fine appearance and early maturity
and if used young is very tender and sweet. Early White Egg is
another good early sort and for those who like a yellow turnip the
Yellow Globe is a satisfactory sort. It makes a larger root than the
others and is excellent both for table use and for feeding stock. It is
a dependable root for feeding Belgian or other hares as it keeps
well, buried in earth in a frost-proof cellar, and when gathered for
winter use the tops can be piled in a cool place and fed to the
bunnies. Of course this applies to all turnips which are grown for
winter use.
The planting of turnips, radishes and cabbage should be
watched closely for signs of the root maggot. The presence of a
little, dark-colored fly about the plant is always cause for suspicion
and when seen it will be well to take precautionary measures. As
tobacco in any form is obnoxious to most insect life, the strewing of
tobacco dust on the ground will usually drive these flies away and
prevent the laying of eggs, but the trouble is that they may have
already laid eggs before being discovered. Hot water poured around
the plant in sufficient quantity to soak the soil an inch or so will
often destroy the eggs and larvæ too. Soaking the ground with Paris
green solution—a teaspoonful of the poison to a large watering pot
of water is sufficient and the solution must be kept stirred to prevent
its settling—will destroy the maggot, but it may also poison the
turnip so is not to be recommended; also, if the worm has attacked
the radish or turnip and rendered it unsightly and unfit for the table,
tobacco and hot water then are the two safest and most reliable
applications and the hot water over the tobacco is especially
effective.
Disks made from heavy tar paper are sold for the protection of
cabbage and cauliflower plants and may be cheaply made at home
and though a little more trouble to apply about turnips and radishes
still are practical and better than losing the crop. The disks may be
either round or square and should be about three inches in diameter
with a hole the size of the stem in the center and a slit extending
out from the hole on one side to the edge; this allows the disk to be
slipped around the stem of the plant. A leather punch which will cut
a quarter of an inch hole may be used and the slit made to the
center of the disk and the hole then cut. The disk lies flat on the
ground and prevents the entrance of the fly to deposit the egg and
the tar paper repels.

3 Corn should not be planted in single rows for

this reason:—when the corn blooms the pollen is
carried from ear to ear, and from plant to plant.
If a single row is planted broadside to the
prevailing wind, the pollen is dissipated and the
corn remains unfertilized and produces no ears.
Three or more rows insures against this loss of
pollenization. If only a limited number of hills are
to be planted it will be better to plant them in
blocks rather than in one or two long rows. Corn
that matures at different seasons should not be
planted in parallel single rows as the result would
be the same as one single row—the corn not
blooming at the same time. Again, corn of two
different sorts should not be in adjoining, parallel
rows, rather should each kind be planted in
blocks to avoid hybridizing. Where it is necessary
to give a long strip of land to the sweet corn it
may be divided into blocks, especially if the strip
extends from north to south, as the prevailing
winds are quite uniformly from east or west and
there is little trouble with cross pollenizing from
south to north.
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