CSS Chemistry Notes – Detailed
Topic 1: Atomic Structure & Quantum Chemistry
1. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy exhibiting wave-like behavior as it travels
through space.
Regions of EM spectrum: Gamma rays < X-rays < UV < Visible < IR < Microwaves < Radio
waves.
Speed of light (c): 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s
Relationship: c=λνc = \lambda \nu and E=hν=hcλE = h \nu = \frac{hc}{\lambda}
Energy increases with frequency and decreases with wavelength.
Visible region: 400–700 nm (Violet to Red)
2. Photoelectric Effect
Observed by Heinrich Hertz, explained by Einstein.
Light incident on a metal surface causes ejection of electrons.
Equation: Ek=hν−ϕE_k = h\nu - \phi
o hh is Planck’s constant, ϕ\phi is work function.
Demonstrates particle nature of light.
3. Bohr's Atomic Model
Electrons revolve in fixed orbits with quantized energies.
Allowed energy levels: En=−13.6Z2n2E_n = -13.6 \frac{Z^2}{n^2} eV (for hydrogen-like
atoms)
Angular momentum: mvr=nh2πmvr = \frac{nh}{2\pi}
Explained hydrogen spectrum but failed for multi-electron atoms.
4. Wave-Particle Duality (de Broglie Hypothesis)
Matter (like electrons) exhibits both wave and particle properties.
de Broglie wavelength: λ=hmv\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}
5. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
It's impossible to simultaneously determine the exact position and momentum of a
particle.
Equation: Δx⋅Δp≥h4π\Delta x \cdot \Delta p \geq \frac{h}{4\pi}
6. Schrödinger Wave Equation
Describes behavior of quantum particles.
Time-independent form: H^Ψ=EΨ\hat{H} \Psi = E \Psi
o H^\hat{H}: Hamiltonian operator
o Ψ\Psi: wave function
o EE: energy (eigenvalue)
Interpretation: Ψ2\Psi^2 gives the probability density.
7. Particle in a Box (1D and 3D)
Electron is confined to a region with zero potential energy inside and infinite potential at
boundaries.
1D Box energy levels: En=n2h28mL2E_n = \frac{n^2h^2}{8mL^2}
Wave functions: Ψn(x)=2Lsin(nπxL)\Psi_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{L}} \sin \left( \frac{n\pi x}
{L} \right)
Quantization of energy levels.
8. Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
Solutions to Schrödinger equation are wave functions (Ψ\Psi) called eigenfunctions.
Corresponding energies are eigenvalues (E).
Operators acting on Ψ\Psi return the same function multiplied by eigenvalue.
Topic 2: Electrochemistry
1. Ions in Solution
Electrolytes dissociate into ions in solution.
Strong electrolytes: complete dissociation (e.g., NaCl)
Weak electrolytes: partial dissociation (e.g., CH3COOH)
2. Conductance and Molar Conductivity
Conductance (G) = 1 / Resistance (R)
Molar conductivity (Λm\Lambda_m) = κ×1000C\kappa \times \frac{1000}{C}
o κ\kappa: specific conductivity
o CC: concentration in mol/m³
3. Kohlrausch’s Law
At infinite dilution, each ion contributes independently to conductivity.
Λm0=λ+0+λ−0\Lambda^0_m = \lambda^0_+ + \lambda^0_-
4. Transport Number (t)
Fraction of total current carried by a particular ion.
t++t−=1t_+ + t_- = 1
Depends on ionic mobility (u): t+=u+u++u−t_+ = \frac{u_+}{u_+ + u_-}
5. Conductometric Titrations
Measure conductance during titration.
Curve differs for:
o Strong acid vs strong base → V shape
o Weak acid vs strong base → gradual rise then sharp fall
6. Debye-Hückel Theory
Explains deviation from ideality at low concentrations.
Ion–ion interactions lower activity of ions.
Activity (a) = concentration × activity coefficient (γ)
7. Redox Reactions
Oxidation: loss of electrons
Reduction: gain of electrons
Redox: simultaneous oxidation and reduction
8. Electrochemical Cells
Galvanic/Voltaic cells convert chemical → electrical energy.
Example: Zn | Zn²⁺ || Cu²⁺ | Cu
EMF of cell: Ecell=Ecathode0−Eanode0E_{cell} = E^0_{cathode} - E^0_{anode}
9. Nernst Equation
E=E0−0.0591nlogQE = E^0 - \frac{0.0591}{n} \log Q
o For non-standard conditions
10. Liquid Junction Potential
Voltage at junction of two different electrolyte solutions.
Minimized by using salt bridges.
11. Electrodes
Reference: Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE), Calomel electrode
Indicator: glass electrode for pH, metal electrodes
12. pH Measurement
pH = –log[H⁺]
Measured using pH meter with glass electrode
13. Electrolytic Cells
Use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions
Example: electrolysis of water
14. Fuel Cells
Convert chemical energy of fuel (e.g., H₂, CH₃OH) directly to electricity
H₂-O₂ fuel cell: water is the only product
15. Corrosion
Oxidation of metals in presence of moisture
Preventive methods:
o Coating/painting
o Galvanization
o Cathodic protection
Next Topics Coming: Thermodynamics & Chemical Kinetics
