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Quantum Computing
 IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed

Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Quantum Computing

A New Era of Computing

Kuldeep Singh Kaswan

Galgotias University
Uttar Pradesh, India

Jagjit Singh Dhatterwal

KL Deemed to be University
Andhra Pradesh, India

Anupam Baliyan
Chandigarh University
Punjab, India

Shalli Rani
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering
India
Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Names: Kaswan, Kuldeep Singh, author. | Dhatterwal, Jagjit Singh, author. |

Baliyan, Anupam, 1976- author. | Rani, Shalli, author.
Title: Quantum computing : a new era of computing / Kuldeep Singh Kaswan,
Galgotias University, Uttar Pradesh, India, Jagjit Singh Dhatterwal, PDM
University, Haryana, India, Anupam Baliyan, Chandigarh University,
Punjab, India, Shalli Rani, Chitkara University Institute of
Engineering, India.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc,
[2023] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023002835 (print) | LCCN 2023002836 (ebook) | ISBN
9781394157815 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394157822 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781394157839 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Quantum computing.
Classification: LCC QA76.889 .K37 2023 (print) | LCC QA76.889 (ebook) |
DDC 006.3/843–dc23/eng/20230201
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023002835
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023002836

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © AniGraphics/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

 v

Contents

Preface xiii
Author Biography xv

1 Introduction of Quantum Computing 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What Is the Exact Meaning of Quantum Computing? 2
1.2.1 What Is Quantum Computing in Simple Terms? 2
1.3 Origin of Quantum Computing 3
1.4 History of Quantum Computing 5
1.5 Quantum Communication 19
1.6 Build Quantum Computer Structure 19
1.7 Principle Working of Quantum Computers 21
1.7.1 Kinds of Quantum Computing 21
1.8 Quantum Computing Use in Industry 23
1.9 Investors Invest Money in Quantum Technology 24
1.10 Applications of Quantum Computing 26
1.11 Quantum Computing as a Solution Technology 29
1.11.1 Quantum Artificial Intelligence 29
1.11.2 How Close Are We to Quantum Supremacy? 30
1.12 Conclusion 30
References 31

2 Pros and Cons of Quantum Computing 33

2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Quantum as a Numerical Process 33
2.3 Quantum Complexity 34
2.4 The Pros and Cons of the Quantum Computational Framework 36
2.5 Further Benefits of Quantum Computing 37
2.6 Further Drawbacks to Quantum Computing 38
vi Contents

2.7 Integrating Quantum and Classical Techniques 38

2.8 Framework of QRAM 39
2.9 Computing Algorithms in the Quantum World 40
2.9.1 Programming Quantum Processes 42
2.10 Modification of Quantum Building Blocks 42
References 43

3 Methods and Instrumentation for Quantum Computing 45

3.1 Basic Information of Quantum Computing 45
3.2 Signal Information in Quantum Computing 47
3.3 Quantum Data Entropy 47
3.4 Basics of Probability in Quantum Computing 50
3.5 Quantum Theorem of No-Cloning 52
3.6 Measuring Distance 53
3.7 Fidelity in Quantum Theory 58
3.8 Quantum Entanglement 62
3.9 Information Content and Entropy 66
References 71

4 Foundations of Quantum Computing 73

4.1 Single-Qubit 73
4.1.1 Photon Polarization in Quantum Computing 73
4.2 Multi-qubit 76
4.2.1 Blocks of Quantum States 76
4.2.2 Submission of Vector Space in Quantum Computing 77
4.2.3 Vector Spacing in Quantum Blocks 77
4.2.4 States of n-Qubit Technology 79
4.2.5 States of Entangled 81
4.2.6 Classical Measuring of Multi-Qubit 84
4.3 Measuring of Multi-Qubit 87
4.3.1 Mathematical Functions in Quantum Operations 87
Example 88
4.3.2 Operator Measuring Qubits Projection 89
4.3.3 The Measurement Postulate 94
4.3.4 EPR Paradox and Bell’s Theorem 99
4.3.5 Layout of Bell’s Theorem 101
4.3.6 Statistical Predicates of Quantum Mechanics 101
4.3.7 Predictions of Bell’s Theorem 102
4.3.8 Bell’s Inequality 103
4.4 States of Quantum Metamorphosis 105
4.4.1 Solitary Steps Metamorphosis 106
 Contents vii

4.4.2 Irrational Metamorphosis: The No-Cloning Principle 107

4.4.3 The Pauli Transformations 109
4.4.4 The Hadamard Metamorphosis 109
4.4.5 Multi-Qubit Metamorphosis from Single-Qubit 109
4.4.6 The Controlled-NOT and Other Singly Controlled Gates 110
4.4.7 Opaque Coding 113
4.4.8 Basic Bits in Opaque Coding 114
4.4.9 Quantum Message Teleportation 114
4.4.10 Designing and Constructing Quantum Circuits 116
4.4.11 Single Qubit Manipulating Quantum State 116
4.4.12 Controlling Single-Qubit Metamorphosis 117
4.4.13 Controlling Multi Single-Qubit Metamorphosis 117
4.4.14 Simple Metamorphosis 119
4.4.15 Unique Setup Gates 121
4.4.16 The Standard Circuit Model 122
References 123

5 Computational Algorithm Design in Quantum Systems 125

5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Quantum Algorithm 125
5.3 Rule 1 Superposition 126
5.4 Rule 2 Quantum Entanglement 130
5.5 Rule 3 Quantum Metrology 132
5.6 Rule 4 Quantum Gates 133
5.7 Rule 5 Fault-Tolerant Quantum Gates 134
5.8 Quantum Concurrency 138
5.9 Rule 7 Quantum Interference 139
5.10 Rule 8 Quantum Parallelism 141
5.11 Summary 143
References 144

6 Optimization of an Amplification Algorithm 145

6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 The Effect of Availability Bias 146
6.2.1 Optimization of an Amplification Algorithm 147
6.2.2 Specifications of the Mathematical Amplification Algorithm 149
6.3 Quantum Amplitude Estimation and Quantum Counting 149
6.4 An Algorithm for Quantitatively Determining Amplitude 150
6.4.1 Mathematical Description of Amplitude Estimation Algorithm 151
6.5 Counting Quantum Particles: An Algorithm 151
6.5.1 Mathematical Description of Quantum Counting Algorithm 152
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viii Contents

6.5.2 Related Algorithms and Techniques 152

References 153

7 Error-Correction Code in Quantum Noise 155

7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 Basic Forms of Error-Correcting Code in Quantum
Technologies 156
7.2.1 Single Bit-Flip Errors in Quantum Computing 156
7.2.2 Single-Qubit Coding in Quantum Computing 161
7.2.3 Error-Correcting Code in Quantum Technology 162
7.3 Framework for Quantum Error-Correcting Codes 163
7.3.1 Traditional Based on Error-Correcting Codes 164
7.3.2 Quantum Error Decode Mechanisms 166
7.3.3 Correction Sets in Quantum Coding Error 167
7.3.4 Quantum Errors Detection 168
7.3.5 Basic Knowledge Representation of Error-Correcting Code 170
7.3.6 Quantum Codes as a Tool for Error Detection and Correction 173
7.3.7 Quantum Error Correction Across Multiple Blocks 176
7.3.8 Computing on Encoded Quantum States 177
7.3.9 Using Linear Transformation of Correctable Codes 177
7.3.10 Model of Classical Independent Error 178
7.3.11 Independent Quantum Inaccuracies Models 179
7.4 Coding Standards for CSS 182
7.4.1 Multiple Classical Identifiers 182
7.4.2 Traditional CSS Codes Satisfying a Duality Consequence 183
7.4.3 Code of Steane 186
7.5 Codes for Stabilizers 187
7.5.1 The Use of Binary Indicators in Quantum Correction of Errors 188
7.5.2 Using Pauli Indicators to Fix Errors in Quantum Techniques 188
7.5.3 Using Error-Correcting Stabilizer Algorithms 189
7.5.4 Stabilizer State Encoding Computation 191
7.6 A Stabilizer Role for CSS Codes 195
References 196

8 Tolerance for Inaccurate Information in Quantum

Computing 197
8.1 Introduction 197
8.2 Initiating Stable Quantum Computing 198
8.3 Computational Error Tolerance Using Steane’s Code 200
8.3.1 The Complexity of Syndrome-Based Computation 201
8.3.2 Error Removal and Correction in Fault-Tolerant Systems 202
 Contents ix

8.3.3 Steane’s Code Fault-Tolerant Gates 204

8.3.4 Measurement with Fault Tolerance 206
8.3.5 Readying the State for Fault Tolerance 207
8.4 The Strength of Quantum Computation 208
8.4.1 Combinatorial Coding 208
8.4.2 A Threshold Theorem 210
References 211

9 Cryptography in Quantum Computing 213

9.1 Introduction of RSA Encryption 213
9.2 Concept of RSA Encryption 214
9.3 Quantum Cipher Fundamentals 216
9.4 The Controlled-Not Invasion as an Illustration 219
9.5 Cryptography B92 Protocol 220
9.6 The E91 Protocol (Ekert) 221
References 221

10 Constructing Clusters for Quantum Computing 223

10.1 Introduction 223
10.1.1 State of Clusters 223
10.2 The Preparation of Cluster States 224
10.3 Nearest Neighbor Matrix 227
10.4 Stabilizer States 228
10.4.1 Aside: Entanglement Witness 230
10.5 Processing in Clusters 231
References 233

11 Advance Quantum Computing 235

11.1 Introduction 235
11.2 Computing with Superpositions 236
11.2.1 The Walsh–Hadamard Transformation 236
11.2.2 Quantum Parallelism 237
11.3 Notions of Complexity 239
11.3.1 Query Complexity 240
11.3.2 Communication Complexity 241
11.4 A Simple Quantum Algorithm 242
11.4.1 Deutsch’s Problem 242
11.5 Quantum Subroutines 243
11.5.1 The Importance of Unentangling Temporary Qubits in Quantum
Subroutines 243
11.5.2 Phase Change for a Subset of Basis Vectors 244
x Contents

11.5.3 State-Dependent Phase Shifts 246

11.5.4 State-Dependent Single-Qubit Amplitude Shifts 247
11.6 A Few Simple Quantum Algorithms 248
11.6.1 Deutsch–Jozsa Problem 248
11.6.2 Bernstein–Vazirani Problem 249
11.6.3 Simon’s Problem 252
11.6.4 Distributed Computation 253
11.7 Comments on Quantum Parallelism 254
11.8 Machine Models and Complexity Classes 255
11.8.1 Complexity Classes 257
11.8.2 Complexity: Known Results 258
11.9 Quantum Fourier Transformations 260
11.9.1 The Classical Fourier Transform 261
11.9.2 The Quantum Fourier Transform 263
11.9.3 A Quantum Circuit for Fast Fourier Transform 263
11.10 Shor’s Algorithm 265
11.10.1 Core Quantum Phenomena 266
11.10.2 Periodic Value Measurement and Classical Extraction 267
11.10.3 Shor’s Algorithm and Its Effectiveness 268
11.10.4 The Efficiency of Shor’s Algorithm 269
11.11 Omitting the Internal Measurement 270
11.12 Generalizations 271
11.12.1 The Problem of Discrete Logarithms 272
11.12.2 Hidden Subgroup Issues 272
11.13 The Application of Grover’s Algorithm It’s Time to Solve Some
Difficulties 274
11.13.1 Explanation of the Superposition Technique 275
11.13.2 The Black Box’s Initial Configuration 275
11.13.3 The Iteration Step 276
11.13.4 Various of Iterations 277
11.14 Effective State Operations 279
11.14.1 2D Geometry 281
11.15 Grover’s Algorithm and Its Optimality 283
11.15.1 Reduction to Three Inequalities 284
11.16 Amplitude Amplification using Discrete Event Randomization of
Grover’s Algorithm 286
11.16.1 Altering Each Procedure 286
11.16.2 Last Stage Variation 287
11.16.3 Solutions: Possibly Infinite 288
11.16.4 Varying the Number of Iterations 289
11.16.5 Quantum Counting 290
 Contents xi

11.17 Implementing Grover’s Algorithm with Gain Boosting 291

References 292

12 Applications of Quantum Computing 295

12.1 Introduction 295
12.2 Teleportation 295
12.3 The Peres Partial Transposition Condition 298
12.4 Expansion of Transportation 303
12.5 Entanglement Swapping 304
12.6 Superdense Coding 305
References 307

Index 309
 xiii

Preface

In the twenty-first century, it is reasonable to expect that some of the most impor-
tant developments in science and engineering will come about through interdisci-
plinary research. Already in the making is surely one of the most interesting and
exciting development we are sure to see for a long time, quantum computation. A
merger of computer science and physics, quantum computation came into being
from two lines of thought. The first was the recognition that information is phys-
ical, which is an observation that simply states the obvious fact that information
can’t exist or be processed without a physical medium. At the present time, quan-
tum computers are mostly theoretical constructs. However, it has been proved that
in at least some cases, quantum computation is much faster in principle than any
done by classical computer. The most famous algorithm developed is Shor’s factor-
ing algorithm, which shows that a quantum computer, if one could be constructed,
could quickly crack the codes currently used to secure the world’s data. Quantum
information processing systems can also do remarkable things not possible oth-
erwise, such as teleporting the state of a particle from one place to another and
providing unbreakable cryptography systems.
Our treatment is not rigorous nor is it complete for the following reason: this
book is aimed primarily at two audiences, the first group being undergraduate
physics, math, and computer science majors. In most cases these undergraduate
students will find the standard presentations on quantum computation and infor-
mation science a little hard to digest. This book aims to fill in the gap by providing
undergraduate students with an easy-to-follow format that will help them grasp
many of the fundamental concepts of quantum information science. This book
is also aimed at readers who are technically trained in other fields. This includes
students and professionals who may be engineers, chemists, or biologists. These
readers may not have the background in quantum physics or math that most peo-
ple in the field of quantum computation have. This book aims to fill the gap here as
well by offering a more “hand-holding” approach to the topic so that readers can
learn the basics and a little bit on how to do calculations in quantum computation.
xiv Preface

Finally, the book will be useful for graduate students in physics and computer
science taking a quantum computation course who are looking for a calculational
oriented supplement to their main textbook and lecture notes.
The goal of this book is to open up and introduce quantum computation to these
nonstandard audiences. As a result, the level of the book is a bit lower than that
found in the standard quantum computation books currently available. The pre-
sentation is informal, with the goal of introducing the concepts used in the field
and then showing through explicit examples how to work with them. Some top-
ics are left out entirely and many are not covered at the deep level that would be
expected in a graduate level quantum computation textbook. An in-depth treat-
ment of adiabatic quantum computation or cluster state computation is beyond
this scope of this book. However, it will give readers who are new to the field a sub-
stantial foundation that can be built upon to master quantum computation. While
an attempt was made to provide a broad overview of the field, the presentation is
weighted more in the physics direction.

Dr. Kuldeep Singh Kaswan

 xv

Author Biography

Dr. Kuldeep Singh Kaswan is presently working in School

of Computing Science & Engineering, Galgotias University,
Uttar Pradesh, India. His contributions focus on BCI,
Cyborg and Data Sciences. His Academic degrees and thir-
teen years of experience working with global Universities
like, Amity University, Noida, Gautam Buddha University,
Greater Noida and PDM University, Bahadurgarh, has made
him more receptive and prominent in his domain. He
received Doctorate in Computer Science from Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan.
He Received Doctor of Engineering (D. Eng.) from Dana Brain Health Insti-
tute, Iran. He has obtained Master Degree in Computer Science and Engineer-
ing from Choudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa (Haryana). He has supervised
many UG and PG projects of engineering students. He has supervised 2 PhD
graduates and presently is supervising 4 PhD. He is also Member of Computer
Science Teacher Association (CSTA), New York, USA, International Association of
Engineers (IAENG), Hong Kong, IACSIT (International Association of Computer
Science and Information Technology, USA, professional member Association of
Computing Machinery, USA, and IEEE. He has number of publications in Inter-
national/National Journal and Conferences. He is an editor/author, and review
editor of Journals and Books with IEEE, Wiley, Springer, IGI, River etc.

Dr. Jagjit Singh Dhatterwal is presently working as an

Associate Professor, Department of Artificial Intelligence
& Data Science Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Founda-
tion, Vaddeswaram, AP, India. He completed Doctorate
in Computer Science from Mewar University, Rajasthan,
India. He received Master of Computer Application from
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak (Haryana). He has
also worked with Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak,
xvi Author Biography

Haryana. He is also Member of Computer Science Teacher Association (CSTA),

New York, USA, International Association of Engineers (IAENG), Hong Kong,
IACSIT, USA, professional member Association of Computing Machinery, USA,
IEEE. His area of interests includes Artificial Intelligence, BCI and Multi-Agents
Technology. He has numbers of publications in International/National Journals
and Conferences.

Dr. Anupam Baliyan is working as an Additional Direc-

tor (Computer Science & Engineering) in Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, Chandigarh Univer-
sity, Ghraun, Mohali, Punjab(India). He has more than
22 Years of Experience in Academic. He is MCA from
Gurukul kangari University, MTech(CSE) and Phd(CSE)
from Banasthali University. He published more than 30
Research papers in various International Journal indexed at
Scopus and ESI. He is Life time member of CSI and ISTE. He
has been chaired many sessions in International Conferences across the India. He
also published some edited books and chapters. He is also the Asst. Editor of some
Journals those are Scopus indexed. His Research Area is Algorithms, Machine
learning, Wireless networks and AI.

Dr. Shalli Rani is pursuing postdoctoral from Manchester

Metropolitan University from July, 2021. She is Asso-
ciate Professor in CSE with Chitkara University (Rajpura
(Punjab)), India. She has 18+ years teaching experience.
She is pursuing postdoctoral fellowship from Manchester
Metropolitan University, UK. She received MCA degree
from Maharishi Dyanand University, Rohtak in 2004 and
the MTech degree in Computer Science from Janardan
Rai Nagar Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur in 2007 and PhD degree in Computer
Applications from Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar in 2017. Her main
area of interest and research are Wireless Sensor Networks, Underwater Sensor
networks and Internet of Things. She has published/accepted/presented more
than 70+ papers in international journals /conferences (SCI+Scopus) and
edited/authored five books with international publishers. She is serving as the
associate editor of IEEE Future Directions Letters. She is serving as a guest editor
in IEEE Transaction on Industrial Informatics and Elsevier IoT Journals. She has
also served as reviewer in many repudiated journals of IEEE, Springer, Elsevier,
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 Author Biography xvii

IET, Hindawi and Wiley. She has worked on Big Data, Underwater Acoustic
Sensors and IoT to show the importance of WSN in IoT applications. She received
a young scientist award in February 2014 from Punjab Science Congress, Lifetime
Achievement Award and Supervisor of the year award from Global Innovation
and Excellence, 2021.
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Il ne lui déplaisait pas d’ailleurs — étant donné son secret désir
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d’apprendre que l’un de ses officiers les plus dévoués et les plus
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Le colonel Pierre-Gérard-Michel de Chanteraine obtint donc sans
difficulté aucune que son identité fût établie. Il put ainsi prendre
possession du nom de ses ancêtres — en attendant que l’Empire lui
en rendît aussi le titre — et du château de Chanteraine, qui fut très
généreusement racheté aux braves villageois du domaine, grâce au
trésor du prévoyant aïeul.
Peu de temps après, à l’extrême joie de mademoiselle Charlotte
qui s’était prise à adorer son neveu et croyait sincèrement avoir été
la première à deviner un Chanteraine où les autres ne voyaient
qu’un « Fargeot quelconque », les fiancés furent unis par un prêtre et
selon les rites de l’Église, dans la chapelle du château. Tous les
habitants de Mons-en-Bray assistèrent à leurs noces et, au milieu
d’une grande fête d’allégresse, de magnifiques présents furent
distribués, en témoignage de reconnaissance, aux humbles et
fidèles amis qui avaient espéré contre toute espérance, le salut et le
retour des châtelains.
Quant à la tante Manon, elle eut, avant de quitter ce monde, la
joie de connaître la femme adorable et adorée de son grand Pierre
et l’inénarrable bonheur d’embrasser un délicieux petit Pierre qui
ressemblait à s’y méprendre à l’enfant d’autrefois et qui, pour être le
fils du général duc de Chanteraine, n’en savait pas moins dire, d’une
voix câline, ces deux mots chers, échappés du passé : Tante
Manon.

Et pendant bien des années, tous les voyageurs qui eurent

l’occasion de s’arrêter à l’auberge des « Armes de la Nation » purent
apprendre, de la bouche même du citoyen Pouponnel, l’histoire
merveilleuse de ce colonel Pierre Fargeot qui, par grand hasard,
s’était trouvé être un duc de Chanteraine.
— … Il avait passé par ici, deux ou trois heures auparavant ! Si
bien que c’est moi, messieurs, moi-même qui, lui indiquant le chemin
de Mons-en-Bray, en suis venu à lui parler du château et de la
famille de Chanteraine qu’il ignorait absolument et à lui faire part de
sa propre mort… qu’il ignorait également, inutile de vous le dire !
» Ah ! concluait invariablement maître Pouponnel, j’ai vu, au
cours de ma longue vie, des choses bien surprenantes, mais cette
histoire-là !!! cette histoire-là surpasse en invraisemblance les plus
absurdes fictions des romanciers à la mode !… C’est à tel point,
messieurs, que, si je n’y avais pas joué moi-même un rôle aussi
important — et que quelqu’un me la contât, — je refuserais d’y
croire !

FIN
 TABLE

PROLOGUE 1

PREMIÈRE PARTIE
I. — Les bavardages du citoyen Pouponnel 19
II. — Le chemin de Mons-en-Bray 31
III. — Le délire du maître d’école 39
IV. — Le château endormi 52
V. — La belle au bois dormant 64
VI. — Le secret de Chanteraine 77
VII. — Mademoiselle Charlotte de Chanteraine 90
VIII. — Le salon de l’épinette 101
IX. — Les portraits 112
X. — Les ruines en fleurs 121

DEUXIÈME PARTIE

I. — Les bagues ciselées 133

II. — La légende de la Chanteraine 146
III. — Les deux devises 158
IV. — La clé d’or 173
V. — Tante Manon 187
VI. — Le nom 198

TROISIÈME PARTIE

I. — Le rêve de Claude 209

II. — La vengeance d’Antonin Fargeot 222
III. — La clé d’argent 237
IV. — Le duc de Chanteraine 250

ÉPILOGUE 259

E. GREVIN — IMPRIMERIE DE LAGNY — 5163-10-15.

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