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Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network
IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854
Edited by
Qingqing Wu
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
China
Trung Q. Duong
Memorial University of Newfoundland
Canada
Queen’s University Belfast
United Kingdom
Robert Schober
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
Germany
Rui Zhang
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Copyright © 2024 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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Contents
Index 335
xiii
Robert Schober is an Alexander von Humboldt Professor and the Chair for
Digital Communication at FAU. His research interests fall into the broad areas of
communication theory, wireless and molecular communications, and statistical
signal processing. Currently, he serves as Senior Editor of the Proceedings of the
IEEE and as ComSoc President-Elect.
xiv About the Editors
Dr. Rui Zhang (Fellow of IEEE, Fellow of the Academy of Engineering Singa-
pore) received the PhD degree from Stanford University in Electrical Engineering
in 2007. He is now a Principal’s Diligence Chair Professor in School of Science
and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen. His current
research interests include wireless information and power transfer, UAV/satellite
communications, IRS, and reconfigurable MIMO.
xv
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgement
Part I
Fundamentals of IRS
3
1.1 Background
In the forthcoming era of Internet of Everything (IoE), worldwide mobile data
traffic is expected to grow at an annual rate of roughly 55% between 2020
and 2030, eventually reaching 5016 exabytes by 2030 (Andrews et al. 2014).
According to a recent report, by 2025, the number of connected devices will
increase to more than 30 billion globally. Also, considering the rapid emergence
of new wireless applications such as smart cities, intelligent transportation,
and augmented/virtual reality (Nikitas et al. 2020), it is foreseen that the fifth
generation (5G) may encounter capacity and performance limitations in sup-
porting the accommodating these low-latency, high-capacity, ultra-reliable, and
massive-connectivity wireless communication services. In addition to supporting
these high-quality wireless communications, next-generation wireless networks
are required to provide several other heterogeneous services, e.g., extremely high-
accuracy sensing (Meng et al. 2023) and low-latency computing capabilities.
Specifically, the representative key performance indicators advocated by the sixth
generation (6G) are summarized as follows (Letaief et al. 2019; Tataria et al. 2021;
Jiang et al. 2021):
● The peak data rates under ideal wireless propagation conditions are higher
than terabits per second for both indoor and outdoor connections, which is
100–1000 times that of the state-of-the-art 5G;
● The energy efficiency of 6G is 10–100 times that of 5G to achieve green com-
munications;
● Five times more the spectral efficiency of 5G is pursued by utilizing the limited
frequency spectrum more efficiently;
● Connection density could be 10 times that of 5G, about 107 devices/km2 to
satisfy the high demand for massive connectivity in IoE and enhanced mMTC;
● Reliability is larger than 99.99999% to support more enhanced ultra-reliable
and low-latency communication (URLLC) compared to 5G;
● Shorter than 100 μs latency is required to support numerous enhanced URLLC;
● Centimeter (cm)-level positioning accuracy in three-dimensional (3D) space
is required to fulfill the harsh demands of various vertical and industrial
applications, instead of requiring meter (m)-level positioning accuracy in
two-dimensional space (2D) space as in 5G;
However, even with the existing technologies such as massive multiple-input-
multiple-output (M-MIMO) and millimeter wave (mmWave)/terahertz (THz),
the abovementioned performance requirements for IoE services may not be fully
realized due to the following reasons:
● First, dense deployment of active nodes such as access points (APs), base stations
(BSs), and relays can shorten the communication distance, thereby enhancing
network coverage and capacity, which, however, incurs higher energy consump-
tion and backhaul/deployment/maintenance costs.
● Second, installing substantially more antennas at APs/BSs/relays to take advan-
tage of the huge M-MIMO gains inevitably results in increased hardware/energy
costs and signal processing complexity, as well as exacerbates more severe and
complicated network interference issues (Lu et al. 2014).
● Third, migrating to higher frequency bands, such as mmWave and THz frequen-
cies, is able to harness their larger available unlicensed bandwidth (Niu et al.
2015). Yet, it requires the deployment of more active nodes and more antennas
to compensate for the associated severer propagation attenuation over distance.
● Fourth, the diffraction and scattering effects of high-frequency radio are weak-
ened, such that propagating electromagnetic waves can be easily blocked by
obstacles such as urban buildings. As a result, the effective coverage radius of
APs/BSs decreases while the potential number of blind spots increase. Thus,
it will be difficult to ensure universal coverage and wireless services exploiting
traditional cellular technologies.
1.2 Concept of Intelligent Surfaces 5
Taking into account the above limitations and issues, it is highly imperative to
develop disruptively new and innovative technologies to realize spectrum- and
energy-efficient and cost-effective capacity growth of future wireless networks.
Copper backplane
Equivalent circuit
On
Smart controller
Off
Figure 1.1 Architecture of intelligent surfaces. Source: Adapted from (Wu et al. 2021).
surfaces can also modulate its information during reflection, but which are
primarily designed to facilitate existing communication links.
to active nodes (e.g., APs, BSs, and relays) since the intelligent surfaces can be
battery-less and wirelessly powered by RF-based energy harvesting. Moreover,
it can be easily attached to and removed from the facades of buildings, indoor
walls, ceilings, and even mobile vehicles/trains.
Smart office
Passive beam
1 Note that such surfaces can actually be fabricated as mirrors or lenses for signal reflection and
refraction, respectively, depending on the application scenario where the wireless transmitter
and receiver are located on the same or opposite sides of the surface.
10 1 Introduction to Intelligent Surfaces
the “RIS Research Project” in CCSA TC 5-WG 6 (Liu et al. 2022). In September
2021, the IMT-2030 (6G) Promotion Group officially released the industry’s first
research report on smart metasurface technology at the 6G seminar (Wang et al.
2022).
Aiming at the main applications of intelligent surfaces in future wireless
networks, several typical scenarios are shown in Fig. 1.3. For example, for a
user located in a service shadow zone in Fig. 1.3(a), intelligent surfaces can be
deployed in a proper location to create a virtual LoS link between the user and its
serving BS. This is especially useful for coverage extension of mmWave and THz
communications that are highly susceptible to obstruction. In addition, deploying
intelligent surfaces at the cell edge not only helps increase the expected signal
power of users at the cell edge but also helps suppress co-channel interference
from adjacent cells to users, as shown in Fig. 1.3(b). Similarly, intelligent surfaces
play an important role in secure communications by controlling the potential
signal leakage energy at the eavesdropper’s location, c.f. Fig. 1.3(c). More specif-
ically, when the link distance from the BS to the eavesdropper is smaller than
that to the legitimate user, or the eavesdropper lies in the same direction as
the legitimate user, the achievable secrecy communication rates are highly
limited (even by employing transmit beamforming at the BS in the latter case).
However, if an intelligent surface is deployed in the vicinity of the eavesdropper,
the reflected signal from the intelligent surface can be adapted to cancel the
signal from the BS at the eavesdropper, thus effectively reducing the information
leakage. Besides improving communication performance, multi-antenna radar
can also utilize intelligent surfaces to increase the signal power reflected from
the target in Fig. 1.3(d). In particular, intelligent surfaces can also help to obtain
the target information by establishing artificial virtual LoS links from the radar
to the targets. Furthermore, to improve the efficiency of simultaneous wireless
information and power transfer (SWIPT) from BSs/APs to wireless devices (Wu
and Zhang 2020), the large aperture of the intelligent surface can be exploited to
compensate for significant power loss at long distances by reflection/refraction to
its nearby counterparts, as shown in Fig. 1.3(e).
In addition to the basic applications mentioned above, several new trends in
intelligent surface applications are being investigated, including the transition
from single surfaces to network-level surfaces, from passive surfaces to active and
hybrid surfaces, and from reflective/refractive surfaces to omni-surfaces, from
ground surfaces to integrated air-ground surfaces, from fixed surfaces to mobile
surfaces, from simple connection surface to beyond diagonal surfaces, and so on.
The rest of this book is organized as follows. Part I includes another three
chapters to illustrate several key aspects of the system design of intelligent sur-
faces in detail, such as the intelligent surface architecture and hardware design in
Chapter 2, the channel modeling methods for intelligent surfaces in Chapter 3, as
well as the associated main challenges and solutions in Chapter 4. Furthermore,
Part II focuses on several promising designs for intelligent surface empowered
6G wireless systems. First, Chapter 5 provides an overview of intelligent surfaces
for 6G and industry advance, followed by typical combing with conventional
techniques, such as IRS for massive MIMO/OFDM in Chapter 6; IRS design for
URLLC and sensing/localization in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively; besides these
conventional techniques, IRS-aided mmWave/THz communications, IRS-aided
NOMA, interference nulling assisted by IRS are investigated in Chapters 9, 10,
and 12, respectively; except for communication, intelligent surfaces can also
be designed for assisting edge computing and machine learning, which are
studied in Chapters 11 and 13, respectively. Moreover, in Part III, we discuss
other relevant topics on intelligent surfaces for broadening their scopes, e.g.,
12 1 Introduction to Intelligent Surfaces
Chapter 14 discusses the key problem of IRS-aided wireless power transfer and
energy harvesting; Chapter 15 presents the advantages of IRS for physical layer
security design; finally, the potential for wireless optical communication are also
investigated.
1.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, a comprehensive introduction to the new intelligent surface tech-
nology is provided. A detailed concept of intelligent surfaces and the correspond-
ing promising applications are presented to overview existing related works and
inspire future direction. Finally, the organizational structure of the book is briefly
explained.
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15
Absorptivity
Absorption
Ferrite 0.6
0.6
2.6 kOe
0.4 0.4 2.8 kOe
3.0 kOe
0.2 0.2 3.2 kOe
3.4 kOe
0.0 0
5 7 9 11 13 15
Ebias Ebias = 0 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25
Frequency (GHz)
Frequency (THz)
(a) (b)
1.0 ly
Cu Ly P
THz probe beam
Ly ly f1 f2
Normalized transmission
(c) (d)
Figure 2.1 Programmable metasurfaces made of different stimuli-sensitive metamaterials. (a) Electric-sensitive liquid crystal-based
metasurface. (b) Magnetic sensitive ferrite-based metasurface. (c) Light-sensitive semiconductor-based metasurface. (d) Thermal-sensitive
VO2 -based metasurface. Source: Fu Liu et al. 2018/Reproduced from IEEE.
18 2 IRS Architecture and Hardware Design
Source Transmitted
Reflective IRS beam Transmissive IRS
Reflected
beam
Source
Near-field
Active IRS
transmissive IRS
Reflected Beam
beam
PIN diode 0
– 0.2
|Γ| (dB)
y px – 0.4
– 0.6 ON
py – 0.8 OFF
x
–1
11.75 12 12.25 12.5 12.75 13 13.25
Biasing point Frequency (GHz)
(a) 135
PIN diode
∠Γ (°)
1: Patch 45
ON
2: Taconic TLX-8 – 45 OFF
z 3: GND
4: FR-4 –135
x 5: Biasing line 11.75 12 12.25 12.5 12.75 13 13.25
Frequency (GHz)
(b) (c)
Figure 2.3 1-bit IRS element. (a) Perspective view. (b) Side view. (c) Simulated reflection
magnitude and phase.
signal sources. At this time, there will be no physical entities in the feed system,
but still an important part of the overall system.
The control system is usually integrated on the field programmable gate array
(FPGA) or other programmable platforms to control the electromagnetic property
of the surface. Control signal on low frequency is generated on it based on control
decision of higher-level system, adapting the voltage on the nonlinear devices on
the electromagnetic surface, so that the property of the surface can be controlled
in real time (Fig. 2.3).
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