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Paul Bradt and David Bradt

Science and Engineering Projects Using

the Arduino and Raspberry Pi
Explore STEM Concepts with Microcomputers
Paul Bradt
Houston, TX, USA

David Bradt
Houston, USA

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​978-1-4842-5810-1. For
more detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​
source-code.

ISBN 978-1-4842-5810-1 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-5811-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5811-8

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© Paul Bradt and David Bradt 2020

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

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absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
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The authors dedicate this book to all of the Science, Technology,
Engineering, Math (STEM) teachers who guide and shape the paths of
many young minds (including ours) to question, learn, and utilize new
technology to solve problems. Without these unsung heroes, the world
would not have powerful cell phones, highly reliable cars, the Internet,
and many other amazing things we routinely take for granted.
Introduction
The authors’ journey developing this book started in 2013 when they
discovered the Arduino microcontroller. It is interesting how something
big really starts with one step as they found the Arduino incredibly
powerful. Users are able to program it with computer code, and then it
executes its instructions for as long as it has power. The authors started
evaluating various applications of the Arduino around the house and in
their hobby endeavors. In 2017, they started experimenting with the
Raspberry Pi minicomputer which enables users to take projects to a
whole new level with a low-cost computer that interfaces with sensors.
Since a Raspberry Pi is very affordable, a real computer can now be
dedicated to operating a system permanently. While requiring some
technical steps to set up, both of these tools can be used to gather data,
automate tasks, and provide a lot of fun. The authors found it very
satisfying to watch a device do several tasks, especially when they set it
up. This book chronicles some science and engineering projects the
authors developed over the past few years and provides helpful hints,
along with a few things to avoid.
There are two primary areas of focus or goals of this book. The first
goal is to help the reader explore the Arduino and Raspberry Pi. The
second goal is exploring science and engineering in interesting and fun
ways.
The projects and concepts in this book are meant to accomplish the
first goal by providing information to get an Arduino or Raspberry Pi
system set up, running, and ready to capture data. The text provides
enough detail for users with average assembly or electrical skills to
complete them. Additionally, the goals of learning are to gain
knowledge and skills. When the reader engages in a project that
requires them to try new things, it reinforces how they learn and gain
confidence and encourages them to try even more complex tools and
techniques.
The second goal is exploring concepts of STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) and working through examples
to demonstrate basic scientific and engineering concepts. Finally, the
authors provide some detail on the mathematics needed to understand
and explain the science demonstrated.
 Science and engineering provide critical skill sets for the modern
world that can be used in everyday life. People use these skills to
develop the technology that the modern world relies on. This book can
establish these skill sets for a fruitful and rewarding career.
The authors hope this book inspires the reader to expand and
explore their own STEM projects by including a wide range from
beginner to advanced. From these examples, the reader can learn many
techniques, tools, and technologies and apply them beyond the ones
listed here; but first, the authors introduce STEM.

What Is STEM?
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) is a program
based on educating students in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics in an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to learning.
School systems today strive to improve education in STEM. This goal
is an area where educators can use outside help developing and
improving students’ knowledge when they actively contribute, design,
and build hands-on projects. In many ways, the young mind is excited
and motivated building projects. They develop an in-depth
understanding of what is required and how it works. The authors
believe this is the best way to learn and remember these concepts,
which results in a solid STEM foundation for students.
A question not often understood is how the scientific method is
different from an engineering approach. Understanding the difference
between science and engineering can be seen in the original Star Trek
series. Mr. Spock was the science officer, and Montgomery Scott (Scotty)
was the chief engineer. Their jobs and how they approached new
scenarios or problems really provide a great explanation about the
differences and similarities between science and engineering. Let’s
examine some examples.
Mr. Spock used the term fascinating when describing a new event or
phenomenon. The role of science is to expand knowledge and
investigate new events. This fascination with new and unique areas is
key for a scientist. Scotty, the engineer, on the other hand always had to
fix the warp engines, the transporter, or some other critical system. The
normal role of an engineer is to develop and implement solutions to
problems. In one of the episodes, Scotty indicated he would rather read
his engineering journals to learn about how others solved problems
than go on shore leave!

Science
Researchers use the scientific method as a tool to understand questions
in their area of interest. Based on the information they have initially,
they develop a hypothesis and then methods to test the validity of the
hypothesis. When sufficient test data are gathered and analyzed, the
researcher either accepts or rejects the hypothesis. In many cases,
positive or negative results point to the next step or direction of
exploration and contribute to the general body of scientific and
engineering knowledge.

Engineering
The primary goal of engineering is to evaluate alternatives and choose
the optimal solution to minimize or eliminate specific problems or
issues. Solutions are not necessarily new, but may be repurposed
concepts applied to different problem areas. Other aspects of
engineering include planning the work, selecting components to meet
requirements, and following through on managing and completing a
project. Often projects or systems fail because the planning, scheduling,
and logistics of activities are not adequately engineered for an optimum
solution. These skills are important and necessary in any job.
Science and engineering use many of the same tools and techniques,
but it is important to understand the distinction between scientific
experimentation and the engineering process of developing optimal
solutions. For one thing, they both use the language of mathematics to
describe percentages, results, probability, and other physical
parameters. However, science’s goal is to expand knowledge which is
different than engineering’s goal of selecting an optimum solution and
proceeding with solving the problem. One other difference is a scientific
test often gains new knowledge, whereas an engineering test often
demonstrates how a system performs a function. In many ways, they
are synergistic as science often provides new tools and ideas for
engineers to use to solve problems.
In the authors’ minds, the roots of some key technological
advancements that exist now can be traced back 50 years to the
original Star Trek TV show. For example, in the show, they used
tricorders to gather data about aliens, equipment failures, medical
problems, and a host of other out of this world challenges. They had
communicators that allowed them to contact crewmembers all over
alien worlds. Finally, they had the replicators that allowed them to
produce any type of food they desired. Today we don’t have tricorders,
but we do have some examples that 50 years ago would have been
amazing. Today there are personal computers, cell phones, 3D printing,
and incredible sensors based on the early transistors of the 1960s. The
Arduino and the Raspberry Pi, two examples of new technology, can be
built into devices similar to the incredibly versatile Star Trek tricorders.
Both Mr. Spock and Scotty realized they needed each other (science
and engineering) to accomplish the goals of exploration and keep the
Enterprise flying safely through space. In today’s complex world,
integrating science and engineering is key to researching problems and
developing solutions.
In the following chapters, the authors will demonstrate all of the
components of STEM needed to research scientific questions, use new
technology (Arduino and Raspberry Pi), employ engineering
techniques, and use mathematics to quantify the scientific data. As Star
Trek boldly went forth to explore new worlds, the authors hope the
students of today do the same!
Acknowledgments
This book would not be possible without the authors’ gaining early
technical insight regarding the Raspberry Pi and Arduino from others.
Jared Brank and Dennis Pate provided a lot of basic information, key
insights, and Arduino hardware early in the process. The authors thank
the following individuals who listened to them on many occasions and
provided help, insight, and inspiration with their own experiences with
the Raspberry Pi and other projects: Jeff Dunehew, Todd Franke, and
Fitz Walker. Additionally, significant assistance with 3D printing was
provided by Mitch Long and David Thoerig.
Producing this book would not have been possible without the
excellent help and guidance regarding scope and early editorial reviews
by Joanna Opaskar and Ed Weisblatt. The authors also utilized many
ideas from Andrew Bradt and Laura Brank’s science fair experience.
Most important was the support and advice from Andrea Bradt.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Key Technology Tools
Arduino Basics
Arduino Setup
Ports and Interfaces
Lessons Learned About the Arduino
Raspberry Pi Basics
Raspberry Pi Setup
Lessons Learned About the Raspberry Pi
Basic Electronics Definitions
Summary
Chapter 2:​Data Logging Basics
Data Logging with the Arduino
Data Logging with the Raspberry Pi
Summary
Chapter 3:​Physics and Mathematics Basics
Temperature
Force
Pressure
Basic Concept of Algebra
Statistical Concepts
Direct Compared to Inferred Measurements
Summary
Chapter 4:​Simple Science and Engineering Projects
Buoyancy of Air
Arduino Buoyancy of Air Version
 Raspberry Pi Buoyancy of Air Version
Buoyancy Recap
Demonstrating Pressure
Pressure/​Force Recap
Capturing Counts
Counts Recap
Summary
Chapter 5:​Advanced Physics and Mathematics for Science and
Engineering
Basics Terms of Calculus
How Heat Transfer Works
Conduction Heat Transfer
Convection Heat Transfer
Radiation Heat Transfer
All Three Heat Transfer Mechanisms Work Together!
Mass
Velocity and Acceleration
Inertia
Momentum
Friction
More Advanced Aspects of Calculus
Summary
Chapter 6:​Time/​Condition-Dependent Projects
Conduction Heat Transfer Through an Aluminum Rod
Ensure Consistency in Temperature Sensor Readings
Aluminum Rod Conduction Heat Transfer Recap
 Conduction Heat Transfer Through a Window
Window Conduction Heat Transfer Recap
Convection Heat Transfer
Convection Heat Transfer Recap
Zero Gravity Demonstration
Zero Gravity Recap
Measuring Frictional Force Projects
Arduino Frictional Force Project
Operational Schematic
Arduino Frictional Force Recap
Raspberry Pi Frictional Force Project
Raspberry Pi Frictional Force Recap
Acceleration Projects
Acceleration Direct to Computer
Acceleration with Computer Recap
Acceleration Measurement Without a Computer
Acceleration Without Computer Recap
Summary
Chapter 7:​Light and Imaging Projects
Radiation Heat Transfer
Analysis of Heat Transfer
Radiation Heat Transfer Recap
Astrophotography​with the Raspberry Pi Camera
Assembling the Meade ETX-60AT and Raspberry Pi
Astrophotography​Meade ETX-60AT Setup Recap
Assembling the 4 1/​2-Inch Reflector Telescope and the
Raspberry Pi
Components Needed to Assemble the Raspberry Pi 3
Mounting System to the 4 1/​2-Inch Telescope
Reflector Telescope Setup Recap
Basic Raspistill Previewing an Image with the Terminal
Command Line
Using Raspistill to Capture an Image
More Advanced Raspistill Input Without a Keyboard
Raspistill Image Capture Recap
Astrophotography​Raspberry Pi Python GUI
Initiating the GUI
PI_​SN003 Raspberry PI GUI Recap
Assembling the Raspberry Pi and Touchscreen in the Case
Raspberry Pi, Touchscreen, and Case
Modification of the Case and Assembly
Components and Assembly of the Raspberry Pi Case Recap
Camera Modifications, Camera Case, and Power Cables
Camera Modifications
Building the Camera Case
Final Assembly of the Camera in the Case
Power Cord Combination
Camera, Camera Case, and Power Cord Assembly Recap
Building the Shelf for the Meade ETX-60AT
Shelf Components and Assembly Recap
Helpful Hints Using the Telescope and Raspberry Pi
Lessons Learned Recap
 Example Images and Enhancing Them Using a Video Capture
GUI
Example Images Taken with the Upgraded Meade ETX-60AT
Astrophotography​System
Recap of Example Images and Enhancement Techniques
Summary
Appendix:​Reference Material
Soldering Safety
General Shop Safety
Manufacturing Techniques
Soldering
Basic Arduino and Raspberry Pi Python Commands
3D Printing
Computer-Aided Design Options
Project Management for Engineering
Decision Analysis for Engineering
Thermal Conductivity Coefficients
Coefficients of Friction
Astronomy Terms
Specifications of the Meade ETX-60AT
Setup, Updates, and Repairs
Helpful Books
Index
About the Authors
Paul Bradt
has a BS in Computer Science from the
University of Houston–Clear Lake. He
currently owns a small business and
writes books, develops code, and does IT
support work. He has experimented with
the Arduino and Raspberry Pi system
and believes them to be excellent tools
for developing an understanding of
electronic components and hardware
interaction in integrated systems. He
believes they are very useful as a
teaching aid in learning computer
programming, science, and engineering.
He likes to perform sophisticated
troubleshooting of computer problems
and has found that online resources can be a great help for novice users
to get their experiments operating quickly and effectively.

David Bradt
has a BS in Mechanical Engineering from New Mexico State University
with many years of experience in the aerospace industry and in the
petrochemical industry. He enjoys building and designing devices to
measure and control systems. He has found the Arduino and Raspberry
Pi to be incredibly powerful little devices that with a little bit of work
can do many different tasks. He is a big fan of Star Trek: The Original
Series and astronomy.
About the Technical Reviewer
Sri Manikanta Palakollu
is an undergraduate student pursuing his bachelor’s degree in
Computer Science and Engineering at SICET under JNTUH. He is a
founder of the OpenStack Developer Community in his college. He
started his journey as a competitive programmer. He always loves to
solve problems that are related to the data science field. His interests
include data science, app development, web development,
cybersecurity, and technical writing. He has published many articles on
data science, machine learning, programming, and cybersecurity in
publications like Hacker Noon, freeCodeCamp, Noteworthy, and DDI
through the Medium platform.
© Paul Bradt and David Bradt 2020
P. Bradt, D. Bradt, Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5811-8_1

1. Key Technology Tools

Paul Bradt1 and David Bradt2
(1) Houston, TX, USA
(2) Houston, USA

This chapter will highlight some of the basics about the Arduino and
the Raspberry Pi. It will help the reader get started if they are
unfamiliar with these powerful devices. It is amazing what these
devices can do and this chapter provides some basic aspects for getting
them set up to run.

Arduino Basics
The Arduino is a powerful microcontroller that is ready to program and
acts as an intermediary device between a personal computer and
various sensors. It is relatively new technology that is a great tool for
gaining insight into physical properties and other scientific parameters.
The Arduino board was first developed in Italy in 2004 as a tool to
help train students in programming. It is an open source tool and as
such has developed a large base of helpful web sites and user groups. It
represents a breakthrough as an easy-to-use, relatively inexpensive,
programmable interface between a computer and various sensors. The
software development package and all of the online resources help
make this an ideal data logging tool for science fair/college projects.
The Arduino, Adafruit, SparkFun, Hacktronics, and other web sites
are great places to start. There are also several introductory books to
help the researcher get started using this device. Getting started with
Arduino by Banzi is a very good beginner’s book on Arduino.
 Other sources of information for the Arduino novice are maker
faires and user group activities.
There are several versions and sizes, but for the projects in this
book, the Arduino Uno and the Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) version 1.89 were utilized. Figure 1-1 shows an example of the
Arduino Uno. The authors recommend for the person unfamiliar with
Arduinos to use an official version and not a clone. The authors have
never experienced a problem with an official Arduino, but there are
many clones, and the authors have experienced problems with one of
them.

Figure 1-1 Arduino Uno

Arduino Setup
Setting up an Arduino is relatively straightforward; the reader should
follow these basic steps to get the device running:
1. The Arduino is connected to a computer via a USB connection to the
input port (see Figure 1-3).

2. Load code using the IDE (see Figure 1-2).

3. Open the serial monitor to get data.

 These steps sound basic, and after the reader completes these steps
a few times, they will see how easy it is to connect and run an Arduino.
In many cases, the challenges occur with the code. If the reader is
copying code from a source, it is important to type it in exactly as it
looks. Even then there could be errors, but that is part of the adventure,
and it’s very rewarding when the code runs.

Figure 1-2 Arduino IDE

Ports and Interfaces

Figure 1-3 shows the main ports of the Arduino Uno.
Figure 1-3 Arduino Ports
There are five primary port groupings that are used to connect to
the Arduino:
Computer port: This is the primary port that is directly connected to
the computer. It is a micro-USB port that powers and enables the
user to upload the sketches or programs to the Arduino.
Battery power port: This port allows an Arduino to be unplugged
from a computer and use battery power to operate. A standard wall
power supply that provides 9–12 V DC can also be used.
Sensor power ports: These plug connections provide 3.3 V and 5 V
DC power. There is also a reset connection and input voltage
connection.
Analog device ports: These connections are for analog inputs.
Digital device ports: These are for digital inputs and outputs.
IDE (Integrated Development Environment): The IDE is the
program that is used to develop the code. It is the programming tool
that runs on a computer and has features to help the developer write
code. The IDE tool must be downloaded from the Arduino web site.
Sketch: The code that runs on an Arduino is called a sketch. Once the
code is developed in the IDE, it is uploaded to the Arduino.
 Libraries: These are code modules that are installed on the Arduino
and called up by the program when needed. Libraries add a lot of
functionality and do not require any additional coding.
There are other components and hardware that can be used with
the Arduino:
Shields/breakout boards: These are add-on boards that are either
inserted into the standard Arduino board ports or connected via
wires.
Sensors: A sensor is a device that senses some type of data. It can be
used to directly measure a physical aspect, or it can be used with
some mathematics to infer a physical measurement.
Effectors: An effector imparts some change in the physical world
when activated. Motors, solenoids, and servos are some examples.
LCDs: Liquid Crystal Display can be used to show data.
LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes or other incandescent lights can also
indicate an event has occurred.

Lessons Learned About the Arduino

The Arduino is relatively easy to use, but the authors found there are a
few key points that will help when using this powerful device:
Each Arduino attaches to a specific com port. The port may have to
be changed or selected in the tools tab under “port” to get the IDE to
recognize the Arduino.
If the code is being pasted into the IDE, do not copy from Microsoft
Word or another word processor. First, put it in a text editor such as
Notepad, Notepad++, or some other C/C++ IDE editor and then copy
it from there. Important note: Notepad and Notepad++ are not
development tools like the IDE. One other very important item of
note is when the code was transcribed into the book format some of
the code text that must be on one line may show up on two lines in
this book. The authors have tried their best to highlight the code that
should be on one line in the IDE by bolding it in the Listing. Please
contact the authors if there are questions at
contact@pdanalytic.com.
It is a good idea to test the devices with a basic program to be sure
they work, before moving to a more complex program.
If the final code is complex, get each piece of code working before
adding more modules. This way, it is easier to find the module where
the problem is located.
The authors recommend for long timing events or complex programs
to not use the “delay command,” because it locks the Arduino and
prevents it from doing anything else. Instead, use the “milli
command” that tracks time intervals between events and still allows
other actions to occur. The milli code might be a little more complex,
but it allows the Arduino to perform other functions simultaneously.
Using the delay command for short events or simple programs like
the ones in this book, such as a switch debounce, is recommended.
A feature built into the Arduino IDE is the “auto-format command.” It
can be found under the tools tab or using “Alt+T.” This command
helps identify missing items and also helps organize the code for
improved readability.
One more key aspect of Arduino coding is the “loop command.” There
are a few different types, but common ones such as “void loop” and
the “for command” perform several operations and then repeat them.
Check the wiring twice before applying power. It can be difficult to
see which port a wire is plugged into when there are several wires.
It is hard to know what code is on an Arduino. One easy way that
helps determine what is loaded on an Arduino is saving code with a
descriptive name, date, and even time information. This helps
programmers who may need to go back to a previous code version.
One other very helpful trick is to put the descriptive name of the code
on a piece of tape and stick it on top of the computer port. This helps
when working on, or programing, several different Arduinos.
One of the advantages of the Arduino is that once it is programmed, it
remembers the code. When a power source is plugged into the
battery power port, it will operate the Arduino. According to the
Arduino web site, any power source that can supply 9–12 V DC, 250
mA, or more will work. The plug must be 2.1 mm with the center pin
providing positive voltage and the exterior of the plug the negative
terminal. Some power supplies do not deliver enough current or do
not provide stable power. If an Arduino is behaving strangely, try a
different power supply.
 Some programs need special ways to use and communicate with the
Arduino. To do this, the reader should understand these special
connection ports on the Arduino Uno: analog A5 is the SCL (Clock
port) and A4 is the SDA (Data port).

Raspberry Pi Basics
The Raspberry Pi 3 is a powerful minicomputer. This piece of
technology comes with a lot of features like any other modern
computer. It is an experimental/hobbyist device developed around
2011 in the United Kingdom to teach programming. For its low cost, it
has many capabilities and allows the user to configure it in many ways.
There are several models on the market. For this book, the authors
choose the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B V1.2 (Figures 1-4 and 1-5). There is
a new Raspberry Pi 4 that was recently released that has more features.
The authors researched the setup and use of the Raspberry Pi 4, and it
appears to be the same as the Raspberry Pi 3. We believe these projects
will work the same if you have a Raspberry Pi 4.

Figure 1-4 Raspberry Pi

Figure 1-5 Raspberry Pi Ports
Once the Raspberry Pi 3 is up and running, it is just like a normal
personal computer. It has a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to any
computer that enables you to open programs or files with the click of a
mouse. It uses a version of the Linux program for the operating system
(OS) called Debian , so it is a bit of a hobbyist machine and occasionally
may have an issue. There are a lot of online resources to find help.
The Raspberry Pi 3 has a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad-core CPU, 1 GB RAM,
an integrated wireless connection, four USB ports, an Ethernet port,
and an HDMI connection. It is a truly powerful device for only ≈ $25.
The Raspberry Pi 4 has a 1.4 GHz 64-bit quad core CPU, options of 2, 4,
8 GB RAM and costs from $35 to 75. The Raspberry Pi 4 will run hotter
than the Pi 3 and it is recommended to have a cooling fan but it is faster.

Raspberry Pi Setup
These are the general steps to set up the Pi:
1. Insert the SD card.

2. Plug in the monitor.

3. Plug in the keyboard.

4. Plug in the mouse.

5. Start the system.

The authors recommend that the reader do all their programming

in versions of Python 3.X or later. The exception to this
recommendation is if the reader has legacy code that runs on an earlier
version like Python 2.7.X.
Some projects in this book require additional modules to run. The
“pip” command is typed into the terminal area to install code modules.
The reader should be aware that the pip command installs a module in
the base Python area, which may be specific to Python 2.7.3. If the
reader has upgraded to or is using a newer version of Python, they will
need to use pip3 or Python 3.
Operating the Raspberry Pi is much like a personal computer. It has
a GUI along with several programs such as a spreadsheet, word
processor, and other built-in items. Figure 1-6 provides an example of
the interface.
Figure 1-6 Raspberry Pi GUI with Spreadsheet
For the purposes of this book, the authors will focus primarily on
how to connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi and get data out of them.
There are many other uses for the Raspberry Pi that will not be covered
in this text.
Figure 1-7 shows the General-Purpose Input/Output or GPIO pins,
although it may not be easy to determine the pin number on the
Raspberry Pi. A ribbon cable is also shown that connects to a nice
interface board made by MCM. This interface board has pin numbers
and makes it a lot easier to connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi. More
about this in the next chapter.
Figure 1-7 GPIO Pins on the Raspberry Pi
The GPIO pins include several 5 V, 3.3 V, ground, and input/output
ports.
There are several special ports on the GPIO pins. These are very
important for the Raspberry Pi to communicate via Serial Peripheral
Interface (SPI) protocol with other devices like an analog to digital
converter (ADC). For the Raspberry Pi 3, pin 23 is the GPIO SPI clock
connection; this is also called GPIO11. The next two special connections
are pin numbers 19 and 21. Pin 19 is the data in connection termed
Master Out Slave In (MOSI), also called GPIO10. Pin 21 is the data out
connection termed Master In Slave Out (MISO), also called GPIO9. The
final connection is pin 24 and it is the chip enable (CE0) connection.
There are a lot of confusing descriptions and diagrams on the Internet
regarding these connections, but once the authors understood what
these four connections were used for, it started making sense.
Many resources are available online, and the following books were
helpful in explaining the Raspberry Pi and its features. Beginner’s Guide
to Raspberry Pi published by BDM Publications, Raspberry Pi: The
Complete Manual published by Image Publishing, Learn Raspberry Pi
Programming with Python published by Apress, and The Python Coding
Manual published by BDM Publications are good resources.
The following are some Raspberry Pi terms and definitions:
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 We must await further developments before we can regard the
supposed subatomic origin of this radiation as other than speculative; we
mention it here only as a possible opening for progress. It will be of great
interest if we can reach by this means a more direct acquaintance with the
processes which we assume to be the source of stellar energy; and the
messages borne to us by the cosmic rays which purport to relate to these
processes deserve the closest attention. Our views of stellar energy are
likely to be affected on one crucial point. Hitherto we have usually
supposed that the very high temperature in the interior of a star is one of
the essential conditions for liberation of subatomic energy, and that a
reasonably high density is also important. Theoretically it would seem
almost incredible that the building up of higher elements or the annihilation
of protons and electrons could proceed with any degree of vigour in
regions where encounters are rare and there is no high temperature or
intense radiation to wake the atoms from apathy; but the more we face the
difficulties of all theories of the release of subatomic energy the less
inclined we are to condemn any evidence as incredible. The presence of
sodium and calcium in the cosmical cloud, of helium and nebulium in the
diffuse nebulae, of titanium and zirconium in large quantities in the
atmospheres of the youngest stars, bears witness that the evolution of the
elements is already far advanced during the diffuse prestellar stage—
unless indeed our universe is built from the debris of a former creation.
From this point of view it is fitting that we should discern symptoms of
subatomic activity in open space. But the physicist may well shake his
head over the problem. How are four protons and two electrons to gather
together to form a helium nucleus in a medium so rare that the free path
lasts for days? The only comfort is that the mode of this occurrence is
(according to present knowledge) so inconceivable under any conditions of
density and temperature that we may postulate it in the nebulae—on the
principle that we may as well be hung for a sheep as for a lamb.
 Evolution of the Stars
Twenty years ago stellar evolution seemed to be very simple. The stars
begin by being very hot and gradually cool down until they go out.
On this view the temperature of a star indicated the stage of evolution
that it had reached. The outline of the sequence was sufficiently indicated
by the crude observation of colour—white-hot, yellow-hot, red-hot; a more
detailed order of temperature was ascertained by examining the light with a
spectroscope. The red stars naturally came last in the sequence; they were
the oldest stars on the verge of extinction. Sir Norman Lockyer strongly
opposed this scheme and to a considerable extent anticipated the more
modern view; but most astronomers pinned their faith to it up to about
1913.
Ten years ago more knowledge had been gained of the densities of
stars. It seemed likely that density would be a more direct criterion of
evolutionary development than temperature. Granted that a star
condenses out of nebulous material, it must in the youngest stage be very
diffuse; from that stage it will contract and steadily increase in density.
But this necessitates an entire rearrangement of the scheme of
evolution, because the order according to density is by no means the same
as the order according to surface temperature. On the former view all the
cool red stars were old and dying. But a large number of them are now
found to be extremely diffuse—stars like Betelgeuse, for instance. These
must be set down as the very youngest of the stars; after all it is not
unnatural that a star just beginning to condense out of nebulous material
should start at the lowest stage of temperature. Not all the red stars are
diffuse; there are many like Krueger 60 which have high density, and these
we leave undisturbed as representing the last stage of evolution. Both the
first and last periods of a star’s life are characterized by low temperature; in
between whiles the temperature must have risen to a maximum and fallen
again.
The ‘giant and dwarf theory’ proposed by Hertzsprung and Russell
brought these conclusions into excellent order. It recognized a series of
giant stars, comparatively diffuse stars with temperature rising, and a
series of dwarf or dense stars with temperature falling. The two series
merged at the highest temperatures. An individual star during its lifetime
went up the giant series to its highest temperature and then down the
dwarf series. The brightness remained fairly steady throughout the giant
stage because the continually increasing temperature counterbalanced the
reduction of the surface area of the star; in the dwarf stage the decreasing
temperature and the contraction of the surface caused a rapid decrease of
brightness as the star progressed down the series. This was in accordance
with observation. The theory has dominated most recent astrophysical
research and has been instrumental in bringing to light many important
facts. One example must suffice. Although we may have a giant and a
dwarf star with the same surface temperature, and therefore showing very
similar spectra, nevertheless a close examination of the spectrum reveals
tell-tale differences; and it is now quite easy to ascertain from the spectrum
whether the star is a diffuse giant or a dense dwarf.
The attractive feature of the giant and dwarf theory was the simple
explanation given for the up-and-down progress of the temperature. The
passing over from the giant to the dwarf series was supposed to occur
when the density had reached such a value (about one-quarter the density
of water) that the deviation of the material from a perfect gas began to be
serious. It was shown by Lane fifty years ago that a globe of perfect gas
must rise in temperature as it contracts, his method of finding the internal
temperature being that considered on p. 12; thus the rising temperature in
the giant stage is predicted. But the rise depends essentially on the easy
compressibility of the gas; and when the compressibility is lost at high
density the rising temperature may be expected to give place to falling
temperature so that the star cools as a solid or liquid would do. That was
believed to account for the dwarf stage.
I have been trying to recall ideas of twenty and ten years ago, and you
must not suppose that from the standpoint of present-day knowledge I can
endorse everything here stated. I have intentionally been vague as to
whether by the hotness of a star I mean the internal or the surface
temperature since ideas were formerly very loose on this point; I have
made no reference to white dwarfs, which are now thought to be the
densest and presumably the oldest stars of all. But it is the last paragraph
especially which conflicts with our latest conclusions, for we no longer
admit that stellar material will cease to behave as a perfect gas at one-
quarter the density of water. Our result that the material in the dense dwarf
stars is still perfect gas (p. 38) strikes a fatal blow at this part of the giant
and dwarf theory.
 It would be difficult to say what is the accepted theory of stellar
evolution to-day. The theory is in the melting-pot and we are still waiting for
something satisfactory to emerge. The whole subject is in doubt and we
are prepared to reconsider almost anything. Provisionally, however, I shall
assume that the former theory was right in assuming that the sequence of
evolution is from the most diffuse to the densest stars. Although I make this
assumption I do not feel sure that it is allowable. The former theory had
strong reasons for making it which no longer apply. So long as contraction
was supposed to be the source of a star’s heat, contraction and increasing
density were essential throughout its whole career; with the acceptance of
subatomic energy contraction ceases to play this fundamental role.
I propose to confine attention to the dwarf stars[35] because it is among
them that the upset has occurred. They form a well-defined series
stretching from high surface-temperature to low surface-temperature, high
luminosity to low luminosity, and the density increases steadily along the
series. We now call this the Main Series. It comprises the great majority of
the stars. To fix ideas let us take three typical stars along the series—Algol
near the top, the Sun near the middle, and Krueger 60 near the bottom.
The relevant information about them is summarized below:
Mean Central
Mass Surface
density temperature Luminosity
Star. (Sun temperature Colour.
(Water (million (Sun = 1).
= 1). (deg.).
=1) deg.).
Algol 4·3 0·15 40 12,000 white 150
Sun 1 1·4 40 6,000 yellow 1
Krueger 0·27 9·1 35 3,000 red 0·01
60
The idea of evolution is that these represent the stages passed through
in the life-history of an individual star.[36] The increasing density in the third
column should be noticed; according to our accepted criterion it indicates
that the order of development is Algol→Sun→Krueger 60. A confusion
between internal temperature and surface temperature is responsible for
some of the mistakes of the older theories. To outward view the star cools
from 12,000° to 3,000° in passing down the series, but there is no such
change in its internal heat. The central temperature remains surprisingly
steady. (No special reliance can be placed on the slight falling off
apparently shown by Krueger 60.) It is very remarkable that all stars of the
main series have a central temperature of about 40 million degrees as
nearly as we can calculate. It is difficult to resist the impression that there is
some unusual property associated with this temperature, although all our
physical instincts warn us that the idea is absurd.
But the vital point is the decrease of mass shown in the second column.
If an individual star is to progress any part of the way down the main series
it must lose mass. We can put the same inference in a more general way.
Now that it has been found that luminosity depends mainly on mass, there
can be no important evolution of faint stars from bright stars unless the
stars lose a considerable part of their mass.
It is this result which has caused the hypothesis of annihilation of matter
to be seriously discussed. All progress in the theory of stellar evolution is
held up pending a decision on this hypothesis. If it is accepted it provides
an easy key to these changes. The star may (after passing through the
giant stage) reach the stage of Algol, and then by the gradual annihilation
of the matter in it pass down the main series until when only one-sixteenth
of the original mass remains it will be a faint red star like Krueger 60. But if
there is no annihilation of matter, the star when once it has reached the
dwarf stage seems to be immovable; it has to stay at the point of the series
corresponding to its constant mass.
Let it be clearly understood what is the point at issue. The stars lose
mass by their radiation; there is no question about that. The sun is losing
120 billion tons annually whether its radiation comes from annihilation of
matter or any other internal source. The question is, How long can this loss
continue? Unless there is annihilation of matter, all the mass that can
escape as radiation will have escaped in a comparatively short time; the
sun will then be extinct and there is an end to the loss and to the evolution.
But if there is annihilation of matter the life of the sun and the loss of mass
continue far longer, and an extended track of evolution lies open before the
sun; when it has got rid of three-quarters of its present mass it will have
become a faint star like Krueger 60.
Our choice between the possible theories of subatomic energy only
affects stellar evolution in one point—but it is the vital point. Unless we
choose annihilation of matter, we cut the life of a star so short that there is
no time for any significant evolution at all.
I feel the same objection that every one must feel to building
extensively on a hypothetical process without any direct evidence that the
laws of Nature permit of its occurrence. But the alternative is to leave the
stars in sleepy uniformity with no prospect of development or change until
their lives come to an end. Something is needed to galvanize the scene
into that activity, whether of progress or decay, in which we have so long
believed. Rather desperately we seize on the one visible chance. The
petrified system wakes. The ultimate particles one by one yield up their
energy and pass out of existence. Their sacrifice is the life-force of the
stars which now progress on their high adventure:

Atoms or systems into ruin hurl’d,

And now a bubble burst, and now a world.
 Radiation of Mass
Our first evidence of the extent of the time-scale of stellar evolution was
afforded by the steadiness of condition of δ Cephei. This was
supplemented by evidence of the great extension of geological time on the
earth. We could not do more than set an upper limit to the rate of progress
of evolution and a lower limit to the age of the stars. But this limit was
sufficient to rule out the contraction hypothesis and drive us to consider the
store of subatomic energy.
We now make a new attack, which depends on the belief that the rate
of evolution is determined by the rate at which a star can get rid of its
mass. We are here considering only the evolution of faint stars from bright
stars, and there will remain scope for a certain amount of development in
the giant stage to which our arguments will not directly apply. But to
abandon all lines of evolution between bright stars and faint stars would
mean admitting that one star differs from another star in brightness
because it was different originally. This may be true; but we ought not to
surrender the main field of stellar evolution without making a fight for it.
By the new line of attack we reach a definite determination of the time-
scale and not merely a lower limit. We know the rate at which stars in each
stage are losing mass by radiation; therefore we can find the time taken to
lose a given mass and thereby pass on to a stage of smaller mass.
Evolution from Algol to the Sun requires five billion years; evolution from
the Sun to Krueger 60 requires 500 billion years. It is interesting to note
that stars in the stage between the Sun and Krueger 60 are much more
abundant than those between Algol and the Sun—a fact somewhat
confirmatory of the calculated duration of the two stages. The abundance
of faint stars does not, however, increase so rapidly as the calculated
duration; perhaps the stellar universe has not existed long enough for the
old stars to be fully represented.
A star of greater mass than Algol squanders its mass very rapidly, so
that we do not increase the age of the Sun appreciably by supposing it to
have started with greater mass than Algol. The upper limit to the present
age of the Sun is 5·2 billion years however great its initial mass.
 But, it may be asked, cannot a star accelerate its progress by getting rid
of matter in some other way than by radiation? Cannot atoms escape from
its surface? If so the loss of mass and consequent evolution will be
speeded up, and the time required may perhaps even be brought within
range of the alternative theory of transmutation of the elements. But it is
fairly certain that the mass escaping in the form of material atoms is
negligible compared with that which imperceptibly glides away in the form
of radiation. You will perhaps be in doubt as to whether the 120 billion tons
per annum lost by the sun in radiation is (astronomically regarded) a large
quantity or a small quantity. From certain aspects it is a large quantity. It is
more than 100,000 times the mass of the calcium chromosphere. The sun
would have to blow off its chromosphere and form an entirely fresh one
every five minutes in order to get rid of as much mass in this way as it
loses by radiation. It is obvious from solar observation that there is no such
outrush of material. To put it another way—in order to halve the time-scale
of evolution stated above it would be necessary that a billion atoms should
escape each second through each square centimetre of the sun’s surface.
I think we may conclude that there is no short cut to smaller mass and that
radiation is responsible for practically the whole loss.
We noticed earlier (p. 25) that Nature builds stars which are much alike
in mass, but allows herself some deviation from her pattern amounting
sometimes to a mistake of one 0. I think we may have done her an
injustice, and that she is more careful over her work than we supposed. We
ought to have examined coins fresh from her mint; it was not fair to take
coins promiscuously, including many that had been in circulation for some
hundreds of billions of years and had worn rather thin. Taking the newly
formed stars, i. e. the diffuse stars, we find that 90 per cent. of them are
between 2½ and 5½ times the mass of the sun—showing that initially the
stars are made nearly as closely to pattern as human beings are. In this
range radiation pressure increases from 17 to 35 per cent, of the whole
pressure; I think this would be expected to be the crucial stage in its rise to
importance. Our idea is that the stellar masses initially have this rather
close uniformity (which does not exclude a small proportion of exceptional
stars outside the above limits); the smaller masses are evolved from these
in course of time by the radiation of mass.
For the time being the sun is comfortably settled in its present state, the
amount of energy radiated being just balanced by the subatomic energy
liberated inside it. Ultimately, however, it must move on. The moving on, or
evolution, is continuous, but for convenience of explanation we shall speak
of it as though it occurred in steps. Two possible motives for change can be
imagined, (1) the supply of subatomic energy might fall off by exhaustion
and no longer balance the radiation, and (2) the sun is slowly becoming a
star of smaller mass. In former theories the first motive has generally been
assumed, and we may still regard it as effective during the giant stage of
the stars; but it is clear that the motive to move down the main series must
be loss of mass.[37] Apparently the distinction between giant and dwarf
stars, replacing the old distinction of perfect and imperfect gas, is that the
prolific and soon exhausted supplies of subatomic energy in the giant
stage disappear and leave a much steadier supply in the dwarf stage.
When the sun has become a star of smaller mass it will need to resettle
its internal conditions. Suppose that at first it tries to retain its present
density. As explained on p. 12, we can calculate the internal temperature,
and we find that the reduced mass coupled with constant density involves
lower temperature. This will slightly turn off the tap of subatomic energy,
because there can be little doubt that the release of subatomic energy is
more rapid at higher temperature. The reduced supply will no longer be
sufficient to balance the radiation; accordingly the star will contract just as it
was supposed to do on the old contraction hypothesis which corresponds
to the tap of subatomic energy being turned off altogether. The motive is
loss of mass; the first consequence is an increase of density which is
another characteristic of progress down the main series.
Tracing the consequences a little farther, the increasing density causes
a rising temperature which in turn reopens the tap of subatomic energy. As
soon as the tap is opened enough to balance the rate of radiation of the
star, the contraction stops and the star remains settled in equilibrium at the
smaller mass and higher density.
You will see that the laws of release of subatomic energy must be
invoked if we are to explain quantitatively why a particular density
corresponds to a particular mass in the progress down the main series.
The contraction has to proceed so far as to bring the internal conditions to
a state in which the release of energy is at the exact rate required to
balance the radiation.
I am afraid this all sounds very complicated, but my purpose is to show
that the adjustment of the star after an alteration of mass is automatic.
After a change of mass the star has to re-solve the problem of the internal
conditions necessary for its equilibrium. So far as mechanical conditions
are concerned (supporting the weight of the upper layers) it can choose
any one of a series of states of different density provided it has the internal
temperature appropriate to that density. But such equilibrium is only
temporary, and the star will not really settle down until the tap of subatomic
energy is opened to the right extent to balance the rate of radiation which,
as we have already seen, is practically fixed by the mass. The star fiddles
about with the tap until it secures this balance.
One important conclusion has been pointed out by Professor Russell.
When the star is adjusting the tap it does not do so intelligently; one trial
must automatically lead to the next trial, and it is all-important that the next
trial should automatically be nearer to and not farther from the right rate.
The condition that it shall be nearer to the right rate is that the liberation of
subatomic energy shall increase with temperature or density.[38] If it
decreases, or even if it is unaltered, the trials will be successively farther
and farther from the required rate, so that although a steady balance is
possible the star will never be able to find it. It is therefore essential to
admit as one of the laws of liberation of subatomic energy that the rate
increases with temperature or with density or with both; otherwise
subatomic energy will not fulfil the purpose for which it was introduced, viz.
to keep the star steady for a very long time.
The strange thing is that the condition of balance is reached when the
central temperature is near 40 million degrees—the same whether the star
is at the top, middle, or bottom of the main series. Stars at the top release
from each gramme of material 700 ergs of energy per second; the sun
releases 1 ergs per second; Krueger 60 releases 0·08 ergs per second. It
seems extraordinary that stars requiring such different supplies should all
have to ascend to the same temperature to procure them. It looks as
though at temperatures below this standard not even 0·08 ergs per second
is available, but on reaching the standard the supply is practically
unlimited. We can scarcely believe that there is a kind of boiling-point
(independent of pressure) at which matter boils off into energy. The whole
phenomenon is most perplexing.
I may add that the giant stars have temperatures considerably below 40
million degrees. It would appear that they are tapping special supplies of
subatomic energy released at lower temperatures. After using up these
supplies the star passes on to the main series, and proceeds to tap the
main supply. It seems necessary to suppose further that the main supply
does not last indefinitely, so that ultimately the star (or what is left of it)
leaves the main series and passes on to the white dwarf stage.
 We are now in a position to deal with a question which you may have
wished to ask earlier. Why does δ Cephei pulsate? One possible answer is
that the oscillation was started off by some accident. So far as we can
calculate an oscillation, if once started, would continue for something like
10,000 years before becoming damped down. But 10,000 years is now
deemed to be an insignificant period in the life of a star, and, having regard
to the abundance of Cepheids, the explanation seems inadequate even if
we could envisage the kind of accident supposed. It is much more likely
that the pulsation arises spontaneously. Enormous supplies of heat energy
are being released in the star—far more than enough to start and maintain
the pulsation—and there are at least two alternative ways in which this
heat can be supposed to operate a mechanism of pulsation.
Here is one alternative. Suppose first that there is a very small
pulsation. When compressed the star has higher temperature and density
than usual and the tap of subatomic energy is opened more fully. The star
gains heat, and the expansive force of the extra heat assists the rebound
from compression. At greatest expansion the tap is turned off a little and
the loss of heat diminishes the resistance to the ensuing compression.
Thus the successive expansions and compressions become more and
more vigorous and a large pulsation grows out of an infinitesimal
beginning. It will be seen that the star works the tap of subatomic energy
just as an engine works the valve admitting heat into its cylinder; so that
the pulsations of a star are started up like the pulsations of an engine.
The only objection that I can find to this explanation is that it is too
successful. It shows why a star may be expected to pulsate; but the trouble
is that stars in general do not pulsate—it is only the rare exceptions that
behave in this way. It is now so easy to account for the Cepheids that we
have to turn back and face the more difficult problem of accounting for the
normal steady stars. Whether the pulsation will start up or not depends on
whether the engine of pulsation is sufficiently powerful to overcome the
forces tending to damp out and dissipate pulsations. We cannot predict the
occurrence or non-occurrence from any settled theory; we have rather to
seek to frame the laws of release of subatomic energy so as to conform to
our knowledge that the majority of the stars remain steady, but certain
conditions of mass and density give the pulsatory forces the upper hand.
Cepheid pulsation is a kind of distemper which happens to stars at a
certain youthful period; after passing through it they burn steadily. There
may be another attack of disease later in life when the star is subject to
those catastrophic outbursts which occasion the appearance of ‘new stars’
or novae. But very little is known as to the conditions for this, and it is not
certain whether the outbreak is spontaneous or provoked from outside.
So long as we stick to generalities the theory of subatomic energy and
especially the theory of annihilation of matter makes a fairly promising
opening. It is when we come to technical details that doubts and
perplexities arise. Difficulties appear in the simultaneous presence of giant
and dwarf stars in coeval clusters, notwithstanding their widely different
rates of evolution. There are difficulties in devising laws of release of
subatomic energy which will safeguard the stability of the stars without
setting every star into pulsation. Difficulties arise from the fact that as a rule
in the giant stage the lower the temperature and density the more rapid the
release of energy; and although we account for this in a general way by
considering the exhaustibility of the more prolific sources of energy, the
facts are not all straightened out by such a scheme. Finally grave
difficulties arise in reconciling the laws of release inferred from
astronomical observation with any theoretical picture we can form of the
process of annihilation of matter by the interplay of atoms, electrons, and
radiation.
The subject is highly important, but we cannot very well pursue it further
in this lecture. When the guidance of theory is clear interest centres round
the broad principles; when the theory is rudimentary, interest centres round
technical details which are anxiously scrutinized as they appear to favour
now one view now another. I have dealt mainly with two salient points—the
problem of the source of a star’s energy and the change of mass which
must occur if there is any evolution of faint stars from bright stars. I have
shown how these appear to meet in the hypothesis of annihilation of
matter. I do not hold this as a secure conclusion. I hesitate even to
advocate it as probable, because there are many details which seem to me
to throw considerable doubt on it, and I have formed a strong impression
that there must be some essential point which has not yet been grasped. I
simply tell it you as the clue which at the moment we are trying to follow up
—not knowing whether it is false scent or true.
I should have liked to have closed these lectures by leading up to some
great climax. But perhaps it is more in accordance with the true conditions
of scientific progress that they should fizzle out with a glimpse of the
obscurity which marks the frontiers of present knowledge. I do not
apologize for the lameness of the conclusion, for it is not a conclusion. I
wish I could feel confident that it is even a beginning.
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] Fig. 1 is from a photograph taken by Mr. Evershed at Kodaikanal
Observatory, Madras. Fig. 2 is from the Mount Wilson Observatory,
California.
[2] I am indebted to Professor C. T. R. Wilson for Figs. Fig. 3-Fig. 6.
[3] Primarily it is the electric charge and not the high speed of particles
which determines their appearance in these photographs. But a high-
speed particle leaves behind it a trail of electrically charged particles—
the victims of its furious driving—so that it is shown indirectly by its line
of victims.
[4] Other substitutions for silver do not as a rule cause greater change,
and the differences are likely to be toned down by mixture of many
elements. Excluding hydrogen, the most extreme change is from 48
particles for silver to 81 particles for an equal mass of helium. But for
hydrogen the change is from 48 to 216, so that hydrogen gives widely
different results from other elements.
[5] The mean density of Capella is nearly the same as the density of the
air.
[6] Unless otherwise indicated ‘gaseous’ is intended to mean
‘composed of perfect gas’.
[7] For this prediction it is unnecessary to know the chemical
composition of the stars, provided that extreme cases (e. g. an
excessive proportion of hydrogen) are excluded. For example, consider
the hypotheses that Capella is made respectively of (a) iron, (b) gold.
According to theory the opacity of a star made of the heavier element
would be 2½ times the opacity of a star made of iron. This by itself
would make the golden star a magnitude (= 2½ times) fainter. But the
temperature is raised by the substitution; and although, as explained on
p. 23, the change is not very great, it increases the outflow of heat
approximately 2½ times. The resultant effect on the brightness is
practically no change. Whilst this independence of chemical constitution
is satisfactory in regard to definiteness of the results, it makes the
discrepant factor 10 particularly difficult to explain.
[8] Observation shows that the sun is about 4 magnitudes fainter than
the average diffuse star of the same spectral class, and Krueger 60 is
10 magnitudes fainter than diffuse stars of its class. The whole drop
was generally assumed to be due to deviation from a perfect gas; but
this made no allowance for a possible difference of mass. The
comparison with the curve enables the dense star to be compared with
a gaseous star of its own mass, and we see that the difference then
disappears. So that (if there has been no mistake) the dense star is a
gaseous star, and the differences above mentioned were due wholly to
differences of mass.
[9] Rougher estimates were made much earlier.
[10] The observed period of Algol is the period of revolution, not of
rotation. But the two components are very close together, and there can
be no doubt that owing to the large tidal forces they keep the same
faces turned towards each other; that is to say, the periods of rotation
and of revolution are equal.
[11] It may be of interest to add that although the proper light of Algol B
is inappreciable, we can observe a reflection (or re-radiation) of the light
of Algol A by it. This reflected light changes like moonlight according as
Algol B is ‘new’ or ‘full’.
[11] The mass-luminosity relation was not suspected at the time of
which I am speaking.
[13] My references to ‘perfect gas of the density of platinum’ and
‘material 2,000 times denser than platinum’ have often been run
together by reporters into ‘perfect gas 2,000 times denser than
platinum’. It is scarcely possible to calculate what is the condition of the
material in the Companion of Sirius, but I do not expect it to be a perfect
gas.
[14] Photographed by Dr. W. H. Wright at the Lick Observatory,
California.
[15] Nos. 43, 61, 75 are recent discoveries and may require
confirmation. There now remain only two gaps (85 and 87) apart from
possible elements beyond uranium.
[16] It does not give both temperature and pressure, but it gives one if
the other is known. This is valuable information which may be pieced
together with other knowledge of the conditions at the surface of the
stars.
[17] Hydrogen (being element No. 1) has only one planet electron.
[18] Fig. 9 is a photograph of the ‘flash spectrum’ of the sun’s
chromosphere taken by Mr. Davidson in Sumatra at the eclipse of 14
January 1926.
[19] The helium line in the Ring Nebula on which we have already
commented is not a member of the Pickering Series, but it has had the
same history. It was first supposed to be due to hydrogen, later (in
1912) reproduced by Fowler terrestrially in a mixture of helium and
hydrogen, and finally discovered by Bohr to belong to helium.
[20] This, of course, is found from the other lines of the spectrum which
genuinely belong to the star and shift to and fro as it describes its orbit.
[21] As the word temperature is sometimes used with new-fangled
meanings, I may add that 15,000° is the temperature corresponding to
the individual speeds of the atoms and electrons—the old-fashioned
gas-temperature.
[22] Photograph taken by E. T. Cottingham and the author in Principe at
the total eclipse of 29 May 1919.
[23] We refer to calcium as it occurs in the chromosphere, i. e. with one
electron missing.
[24] There is an awkwardness in applying the term ‘apparent’ to
something too small to be seen; but, remembering that we have armed
ourselves with an imaginary telescope capable of showing the disk, the
meaning will be clear.
[25] Densities below that of air have been found for some of the Algol
variables by an entirely different kind of investigation, and also for some
of the Cepheid variables by still another method. There are also many
other examples of stars of bulk comparable with that of Betelgeuse.
[26] From a photograph taken at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good
Hope.
[27] For comparison, the nearest fixed star is distant 4 light years. Apart
from clusters we rarely deal with distances above 2,000 light years.
[28] One cannot always be sure that what is true of the cluster stars will
be true of stars in general; and our knowledge of the nearer stars,
though lagging behind that of the stars in clusters, does not entirely
agree with this association of colour and brightness.
[29] The term nebula covers a variety of objects, and it is only the
nebulae classed as spirals that are likely to be outside our stellar
system.
[30] This can be checked because uranium lead has a different atomic
weight from lead not so derived. Ordinary lead is a mixture of several
kinds of atoms (isotopes).
[31] You may wonder why, having said that the sun contains 2,000
quadrillion tons of energy at the most, I now assume that it contains just
this amount. It is really only a verbal point depending on the scientific
definition of energy. All mass is mass of something, and we now call
that something ‘energy’ whether it is one of the familiar forms of energy
or not. You will see in the next sentence that we do not assume that the
energy is convertible into known forms, so that it is a terminology which
commits us to nothing.
[32] Aston in his latest researches has been able to detect that the
oxygen atom is just appreciably lighter than the four helium atoms.
[33] A measurement of the heat observed to flow from a continuous
fountain of heat is a measurement of the output of the fountain, unless
there is a storing of energy between the output and the outflow. The
breakdown of the Kelvin time-scale indicates that the storing in the stars
(positive or negative) and consequent expansion or contraction is
negligible compared to the output or outflow.
[34] The stars all put together cover an area of the sky much less than
the apparent disk of the sun, so that unless their surface-layers are
generating this radiation very much more abundantly than the sun does,
they cannot be responsible for it.
[35] The term ‘dwarf stars’ is not meant to include white dwarfs.
[36] We can scarcely suppose that all stars after reaching the main
series pass through precisely the same stages. For example, Algol,
when it has become reduced to the mass of the Sun, may have slightly
different density and temperature. But the observational evidence
indicates that these individual differences are small. The main series is
nearly a linear sequence; it must have some ‘breadth’ as well as
‘length’, but at present the scatter of the individual stars away from the
central line of the sequence seems to be due chiefly to the probable
errors of the observational data and the true breadth has not been
determined.
[37] Exhaustion of supply without change of mass would cause the star
to contract to higher density; it would thus have a combination of
density and mass which (according to observation) is not found in any
actual stars.
[38] This increase was assumed in our detailed description of the
automatic adjustment of the star, and it will be seen that it was essential
to assume it.
APPENDIX
Further Remarks on the Companion of
Sirius
I HAVE preferred not to complicate the Story of the Companion of
Sirius with details of a technical kind; some further information may,
therefore, be welcome to those readers who are curious to learn as
much as possible about this remarkable star. I am also able to add a
further instalment of the ‘detective story’ which has just come to
hand, the sleuth this time being Mr. R. H. Fowler.
The star is between the eighth and ninth magnitude, so that it is
not an excessively faint object. The difficulty in detecting it arises
entirely from the overpowering light of its neighbour. At favourable
epochs it has been seen easily with an 8-inch telescope. The period
of revolution is 49 years.
The Companion is separated from Sirius by a distance nearly
equal to the distance of Uranus from the Sun—or twenty times the
earth’s distance from the sun. It has been suggested that the light
might be reflected light from Sirius. This would account for its
whiteness, but would not directly account for its spectrum, which
differs appreciably from that of Sirius. To reflect ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀th of the light
of Sirius (its actual brightness) the Companion would have to be 74
million miles in diameter. The apparent diameter of its disk would be
0"·3, which, one would think, could scarcely escape notice in spite of
unfavourable conditions of observation. But the strongest objection
to this hypothesis of reflected light is that it applies only to this one
star. The other two recognized white dwarfs have no brilliant star in
their neighbourhood, so that they cannot be shining by reflected
light. It is scarcely worth while to invent an elaborate explanation for
one of these strange objects which does not cover the other two.
The Einstein effect, which is appealed to for confirmation of the
high density, is a lengthening of the wave-length and corresponding
decrease of the frequency of the light due to the intense gravitational
field through which the rays have to pass. Consequently the dark
lines in the spectrum appear at longer wave-lengths, i.e. displaced
towards the red as compared with the corresponding terrestrial lines.
The effect can be deduced either from the relativity theory of
gravitation or from the quantum theory; for those who have some
acquaintance with the quantum theory the following reasoning is
probably the simplest. The stellar atom emits the same quantum of
energy hν as a terrestrial atom, but this quantum has to use up some
of its energy in order to escape from the attraction of the star; the
energy of escape is equal to the mass hν/c2 multiplied by the
gravitational potential Φ at the surface of the star. Accordingly the
reduced energy after escape is hν(1 - Φ/c2); and since this must still
form a quantum hν', the frequency has to change to a value ν' = ν(1 -
Φ/c2). Thus the displacement ν' - ν is proportional to Φ, i.e. to the
mass divided by the radius of the star.
The effect on the spectrum resembles the Doppler effect of a
velocity of recession, and can therefore only be discriminated if we
know already the line-of-sight velocity. In the case of a double star
the velocity is known from observation of the other component of the
system, so that the part of the displacement attributable to Doppler
effect is known. Owing to orbital motion there is a difference of
velocity between Sirius and its Companion amounting at present to
43 km. per sec. and this has been duly taken into account; the
observed difference in position of the spectral lines of Sirius and its
Companion corresponds to a velocity of 23 km. per sec. of which 4
km. per sec. is attributable to orbital motion, and the remaining 19
km. per sec. must be interpreted as Einstein effect. The result rests
mainly on measurements of one spectral line Hβ. The other
favourable lines are in the bluer part of the spectrum, and since
atmospheric scattering increases with blueness, the scattered light of
Sirius interferes. However, they afford some useful confirmatory
evidence.
Of the other white dwarfs ο2 Eridani is a double star, its
companion being a red dwarf fainter than itself. The red shift of the
spectrum will be smaller than in the Companion of Sirius and it will
not be so easy to separate it from various possible sources of error.
Nevertheless the prospect is not hopeless. The other recognized
white dwarf is an unnamed star discovered by Van Maanen; it is a
solitary star, and consequently there is no means of distinguishing
between Einstein shift and Doppler shift. Various other stars have
been suspected of being in this condition, including the Companions
of Procyon, 85 Pegasi, and Mira Ceti.
If the Companion of Sirius were a perfect gas its central
temperature would be about 1,000,000,000°, and the central part of
the star would be a million times as dense as water. It is, however,
unlikely that the condition of a perfect gas continues to hold. It
should be understood that in any case the density will fall off towards
the outside of the star, and the regions which we observe are entirely
normal. The dense material is tucked away under high pressure in
the interior.
Perhaps the most puzzling feature that remains is the
extraordinary difference of development between Sirius and its
Companion, which must both have originated at the same time.
Owing to the radiation of mass the age of Sirius must be less than a
billion years; an initial mass, however large, would radiate itself down
to less than the present mass of Sirius within a billion years. But
such a period is insignificant in the evolution of a small star which
radiates more slowly, and it is difficult to see why the Companion
should have already left the main series and gone on to this
(presumably) later stage. This is akin to other difficulties in the
problem of stellar evolution, and I feel convinced that there is
something of fundamental importance that remains undiscovered.
Until recently I have felt that there was a serious (or, if you like, a
comic) difficulty about the ultimate fate of the white dwarfs. Their
high density is only possible because of the smashing of the atoms,
which in turn depends on the high temperature. It does not seem
permissible to suppose that the matter can remain in this
compressed state if the temperature falls. We may look forward to a
time when the supply of subatomic energy fails and there is nothing
to maintain the high temperature; then on cooling down, the material
will return to the normal density of terrestrial solids. The star must,
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