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 Introduction to Probability and
Statistics for Engineers and Scientists
Introduction to Probability
and Statistics for
Engineers and Scientists
Sixth Edition

Sheldon M. Ross
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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 Contents

PREFACE ...........................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to statistics............................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................... 1
1.2 Data collection and descriptive statistics........................ 1
1.3 Inferential statistics and probability models................... 2
1.4 Populations and samples ................................................. 3
1.5 A brief history of statistics................................................ 4
Problems ........................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2 Descriptive statistics................................................................ 11
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 11
2.2 Describing data sets ....................................................... 12
2.2.1 Frequency tables and graphs ............................. 12
2.2.2 Relative frequency tables and graphs................ 14
2.2.3 Grouped data, histograms, ogives, and
stem and leaf plots.............................................. 16
2.3 Summarizing data sets................................................... 19
2.3.1 Sample mean, sample median, and sample
mode..................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Sample variance and sample standard
deviation ............................................................... 24
2.3.3 Sample percentiles and box plots ...................... 26
2.4 Chebyshev’s inequality ................................................... 29
2.5 Normal data sets ............................................................ 33
2.6 Paired data sets and the sample
correlation coefficient..................................................... 36
2.7 The Lorenz curve and Gini index.................................... 43
2.8 Using R ............................................................................ 48
Problems ......................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 3 Elements of probability............................................................ 63
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 63
3.2 Sample space and events............................................... 64 vii
viii Contents

3.3 Venn diagrams and the algebra of events..................... 66

3.4 Axioms of probability ...................................................... 67
3.5 Sample spaces having equally likely outcomes............ 70
3.6 Conditional probability.................................................... 75
3.7 Bayes’ formula ................................................................ 79
3.8 Independent events ........................................................ 86
Problems ......................................................................... 89
CHAPTER 4 Random variables and expectation......................................... 99
4.1 Random variables ........................................................... 99
4.2 Types of random variables ........................................... 102
4.3 Jointly distributed random variables........................... 105
4.3.1 Independent random variables......................... 111
4.3.2 Conditional distributions................................... 114
4.4 Expectation.................................................................... 117
4.5 Properties of the expected value ................................. 121
4.5.1 Expected value of sums of random variables.. 124
4.6 Variance ......................................................................... 128
4.7 Covariance and variance of sums of
random variables .......................................................... 132
4.8 Moment generating functions...................................... 138
4.9 Chebyshev’s inequality and the weak law of large
numbers ........................................................................ 139
Problems ....................................................................... 142
CHAPTER 5 Special random variables ...................................................... 151
5.1 The Bernoulli and binomial random variables ........... 151
5.1.1 Using R to calculate binomial probabilities..... 157
5.2 The Poisson random variable....................................... 158
5.2.1 Using R to calculate Poisson probabilities ...... 166
5.3 The hypergeometric random variable ......................... 167
5.4 The uniform random variable ...................................... 171
5.5 Normal random variables ............................................ 179
5.6 Exponential random variables ..................................... 190
5.6.1 The Poisson process ......................................... 193
5.6.2 The Pareto distribution ..................................... 196
5.7 The gamma distribution ............................................... 199
5.8 Distributions arising from the normal ........................ 201
5.8.1 The chi-square distribution .............................. 201
5.8.2 The t -distribution .............................................. 206
5.8.3 The F -distribution ............................................. 208
5.9 The logistics distribution .............................................. 209
5.10 Distributions in R .......................................................... 210
Problems ....................................................................... 212
 Contents ix

CHAPTER 6 Distributions of sampling statistics ...................................... 221

6.1 Introduction ................................................................... 221
6.2 The sample mean ......................................................... 222
6.3 The central limit theorem ............................................ 224
6.3.1 Approximate distribution of the sample mean 227
6.3.2 How large a sample is needed?........................ 230
6.4 The sample variance..................................................... 230
6.5 Sampling distributions from a normal population ..... 231
6.5.1 Distribution of the sample mean...................... 232
6.5.2 Joint distribution of X and S 2 ........................... 232
6.6 Sampling from a finite population ............................... 234
Problems ....................................................................... 238
CHAPTER 7 Parameter estimation............................................................ 245
7.1 Introduction ................................................................... 245
7.2 Maximum likelihood estimators .................................. 246
7.2.1 Estimating life distributions ............................. 255
7.3 Interval estimates ......................................................... 257
7.3.1 Confidence interval for a normal mean when
the variance is unknown ................................... 262
7.3.2 Prediction intervals ........................................... 268
7.3.3 Confidence intervals for the variance of a
normal distribution ........................................... 269
7.4 Estimating the difference in means of two normal
populations.................................................................... 270
7.5 Approximate confidence interval for the mean of a
Bernoulli random variable ........................................... 275
7.6 Confidence interval of the mean of the exponential
distribution ................................................................... 280
7.7 Evaluating a point estimator ........................................ 281
7.8 The Bayes estimator..................................................... 287
Problems ....................................................................... 292
CHAPTER 8 Hypothesis testing ................................................................. 305
8.1 Introduction ................................................................... 305
8.2 Significance levels ........................................................ 306
8.3 Tests concerning the mean of a normal population... 307
8.3.1 Case of known variance .................................... 307
8.3.2 Case of unknown variance: the t -test.............. 319
8.4 Testing the equality of means of two normal
populations.................................................................... 326
8.4.1 Case of known variances .................................. 326
8.4.2 Case of unknown variances .............................. 328
8.4.3 Case of unknown and unequal variances ........ 333
8.4.4 The paired t -test................................................ 333
8.5 Hypothesis tests concerning the variance of a
normal population ........................................................ 336
x Contents

8.5.1 Testing for the equality of variances of two

normal populations ........................................... 337
8.6 Hypothesis tests in Bernoulli populations .................. 339
8.6.1 Testing the equality of parameters in two
Bernoulli populations........................................ 342
8.7 Tests concerning the mean of a Poisson distribution 345
8.7.1 Testing the relationship between two
Poisson parameters .......................................... 346
Problems ....................................................................... 348
CHAPTER 9 Regression.............................................................................. 365
9.1 Introduction ................................................................... 365
9.2 Least squares estimators of the
regression parameters................................................. 367
9.3 Distribution of the estimators ...................................... 371
9.4 Statistical inferences about the
regression parameters................................................. 377
9.4.1 Inferences concerning β ................................... 377
9.4.2 Inferences concerning α ................................... 386
9.4.3 Inferences concerning the mean response
α + βx0 ............................................................... 386
9.4.4 Prediction interval of a future response .......... 389
9.4.5 Summary of distributional results ................... 392
9.5 The coefficient of determination and the sample
correlation coefficient................................................... 392
9.6 Analysis of residuals: assessing the model ................ 395
9.7 Transforming to linearity.............................................. 396
9.8 Weighted least squares ................................................ 400
9.9 Polynomial regression.................................................. 406
9.10 Multiple linear regression ............................................ 410
9.10.1 Predicting future responses ............................. 420
9.10.2 Dummy variables for categorical data ............. 424
9.11 Logistic regression models for binary output data..... 425
Problems ....................................................................... 429
CHAPTER 10 Analysis of variance ............................................................... 453
10.1 Introduction ................................................................... 453
10.2 An overview ................................................................... 454
10.3 One-way analysis of variance....................................... 456
10.3.1 Using R to do the computations ....................... 463
10.3.2 Multiple comparisons of sample means.......... 466
10.3.3 One-way analysis of variance with unequal
sample sizes ...................................................... 468
10.4 Two-factor analysis of variance: introduction and
parameter estimation................................................... 470
10.5 Two-factor analysis of variance: testing hypotheses.. 474
 Contents xi

10.6 Two-way analysis of variance with interaction ........... 479

Problems ....................................................................... 487
CHAPTER 11 Goodness of fit tests and categorical data analysis............. 499
11.1 Introduction ................................................................... 499
11.2 Goodness of fit tests when all parameters are
specified ........................................................................ 500
11.2.1 Determining the critical region by simulation. 506
11.3 Goodness of fit tests when some parameters are
unspecified .................................................................... 508
11.4 Tests of independence in contingency tables.............. 510
11.5 Tests of independence in contingency tables having
fixed marginal totals..................................................... 514
11.6 The Kolmogorov–Smirnov goodness of fit test for
continuous data............................................................. 517
Problems ....................................................................... 522
CHAPTER 12 Nonparametric hypothesis tests........................................... 529
12.1 Introduction ................................................................... 529
12.2 The sign test.................................................................. 529
12.3 The signed rank test ..................................................... 533
12.4 The two-sample problem ............................................. 538
12.4.1 Testing the equality of multiple probability
distributions....................................................... 541
12.5 The runs test for randomness ..................................... 544
Problems ....................................................................... 547
CHAPTER 13 Quality control ........................................................................ 555
13.1 Introduction ................................................................... 555
13.2 Control charts for average values: the x control
chart............................................................................... 556
13.2.1 Case of unknown μ and σ ................................. 559
13.3 S-control charts ............................................................ 564
13.4 Control charts for the fraction defective ..................... 567
13.5 Control charts for number of defects.......................... 569
13.6 Other control charts for detecting changes in the
population mean ........................................................... 573
13.6.1 Moving-average control charts ........................ 573
13.6.2 Exponentially weighted moving-average
control charts .................................................... 576
13.6.3 Cumulative sum control charts ........................ 581
Problems ....................................................................... 583
CHAPTER 14 Life testing∗ ............................................................................ 591
14.1 Introduction ................................................................... 591
14.2 Hazard rate functions ................................................... 591

∗ Optional chapter.
xii Contents

14.3 The exponential distribution in life testing.................. 594

14.3.1 Simultaneous testing — stopping at the rth
failure ................................................................. 594
14.3.2 Sequential testing ............................................. 599
14.3.3 Simultaneous testing — stopping by a fixed
time .................................................................... 603
14.3.4 The Bayesian approach ..................................... 606
14.4 A two-sample problem ................................................. 607
14.5 The Weibull distribution in life testing......................... 609
14.5.1 Parameter estimation by least squares........... 611
Problems ....................................................................... 613
CHAPTER 15 Simulation, bootstrap statistical methods, and
permutation tests................................................................... 619
15.1 Introduction ................................................................... 619
15.2 Random numbers ......................................................... 619
15.2.1 The Monte Carlo simulation approach............. 622
15.3 The bootstrap method .................................................. 623
15.4 Permutation tests ......................................................... 631
15.4.1 Normal approximations in permutation tests . 634
15.4.2 Two-sample permutation tests ........................ 637
15.5 Generating discrete random variables........................ 639
15.6 Generating continuous random variables................... 641
15.6.1 Generating a normal random variable............. 643
15.7 Determining the number of simulation runs
in a Monte Carlo study.................................................. 644
Problems ....................................................................... 645
CHAPTER 16 Machine learning and big data.............................................. 649
16.1 Introduction ................................................................... 649
16.2 Late flight probabilities ................................................ 650
16.3 The naive Bayes approach............................................ 651
16.3.1 A variation of naive Bayes approach ................ 654
16.4 Distance-based estimators. The k-nearest
neighbors rule............................................................... 657
16.4.1 A distance-weighted method............................ 658
16.4.2 Component-weighted distances....................... 659
16.5 Assessing the approaches............................................ 660
16.6 When characterizing vectors are quantitative ............ 662
16.6.1 Nearest neighbor rules ..................................... 662
16.6.2 Logistics regression .......................................... 663
16.7 Choosing the best probability: a bandit problem........ 664
Problems ....................................................................... 666
APPENDIX OF TABLES ................................................................................... 669
INDEX .............................................................................................................. 673
Preface

The sixth edition of this book continues to demonstrate how to apply probabil-
ity theory to gain insight into real, everyday statistical problems and situations.
As in the previous editions, carefully developed coverage of probability mo-
tivates probabilistic models of real phenomena and the statistical procedures
that follow. This approach ultimately results in an intuitive understanding of
statistical procedures and strategies most often used by practicing engineers
and scientists.
This book has been written for an introductory course in statistics or in proba-
bility and statistics for students in engineering, computer science, mathematics,
statistics, and the natural sciences. As such it assumes knowledge of elementary
calculus.

Organization and coverage

Chapter 1 presents a brief introduction to statistics, presenting its two branches
of descriptive and inferential statistics, and a short history of the subject and
some of the people whose early work provided a foundation for work done
today.
The subject matter of descriptive statistics is then considered in Chapter 2.
Graphs and tables that describe a data set are presented in this chapter, as are
quantities that are used to summarize certain of the key properties of the data
set.
To be able to draw conclusions from data, it is necessary to have an under-
standing of the data’s origination. For instance, it is often assumed that the
data constitute a “random sample” from some population. To understand ex-
actly what this means and what its consequences are for relating properties of
the sample data to properties of the entire population, it is necessary to have
some understanding of probability, and that is the subject of Chapter 3. This
chapter introduces the idea of a probability experiment, explains the concept
of the probability of an event, and presents the axioms of probability. xiii
xiv Preface

Our study of probability is continued in Chapter 4, which deals with the

important concepts of random variables and expectation, and in Chapter 5,
which considers some special types of random variables that often occur in ap-
plications. Such random variables as the binomial, Poisson, hypergeometric,
normal, uniform, gamma, chi-square, t, and F are presented.
In Chapter 6, we study the probability distribution of such sampling statistics
as the sample mean and the sample variance. We show how to use a remark-
able theoretical result of probability, known as the central limit theorem, to
approximate the probability distribution of the sample mean. In addition, we
present the joint probability distribution of the sample mean and the sample
variance in the important special case in which the underlying data come from
a normally distributed population.
Chapter 7 shows how to use data to estimate parameters of interest. For in-
stance, a scientist might be interested in determining the proportion of Mid-
western lakes that are afflicted by acid rain. Two types of estimators are studied.
The first of these estimates the quantity of interest with a single number (for
instance, it might estimate that 47 percent of Midwestern lakes suffer from acid
rain), whereas the second provides an estimate in the form of an interval of
values (for instance, it might estimate that between 45 and 49 percent of lakes
suffer from acid rain). These latter estimators also tell us the “level of con-
fidence” we can have in their validity. Thus, for instance, whereas we can be
pretty certain that the exact percentage of afflicted lakes is not 47, it might very
well be that we can be, say, 95 percent confident that the actual percentage is
between 45 and 49.
Chapter 8 introduces the important topic of statistical hypothesis testing,
which is concerned with using data to test the plausibility of a specified hy-
pothesis. For instance, such a test might reject the hypothesis that fewer than
44 percent of Midwestern lakes are afflicted by acid rain. The concept of the
p-value, which measures the degree of plausibility of the hypothesis after the
data have been observed, is introduced. A variety of hypothesis tests concerning
the parameters of both one and two normal populations are considered. Hy-
pothesis tests concerning Bernoulli and Poisson parameters are also presented.
Chapter 9 deals with the important topic of regression. Both simple linear
regression — including such subtopics as regression to the mean, residual anal-
ysis, and weighted least squares — and multiple linear regression are consid-
ered.
Chapter 10 introduces the analysis of variance. Both one-way and two-way
(with and without the possibility of interaction) problems are considered.
Chapter 11 is concerned with goodness of fit tests, which can be used to test
whether a proposed model is consistent with data. In it we present the classical
chi-square goodness of fit test and apply it to test for independence in con-
tingency tables. The final section of this chapter introduces the Kolmogorov–
 Preface xv

Smirnov procedure for testing whether data come from a specified continuous
probability distribution.
Chapter 12 deals with nonparametric hypothesis tests, which can be used
when one is unable to suppose that the underlying distribution has some spec-
ified parametric form (such as normal).
Chapter 13 considers the subject matter of quality control, a key statistical tech-
nique in manufacturing and production processes. A variety of control charts,
including not only the Shewhart control charts but also more sophisticated
ones based on moving averages and cumulative sums, are considered.
Chapter 14 deals with problems related to life testing. In this chapter, the ex-
ponential, rather than the normal, distribution plays the key role.
In Chapter 15, we consider the statistical inference techniques of bootstrap sta-
tistical methods and permutation tests. We first show how probabilities can be
obtained by simulation and then how to utilize simulation in these statistical
inference approaches.
Chapter 16, new to this edition, introduces machine learning and big data
techniques. These are methods that are applicable in situations where one has
a large amount of data that can be used to estimate probabilities without as-
suming any particular probability model. For instance, we consider situations
where one wants to estimate the probability that an experiment, characterized
by a vector (x1 , . . . , xn ), will be a success. When the characterizing vectors are
qualitative in nature, such techniques as the naive Bayes approach, and nearest
neighbor rules are studied. In cases where the components of the characteristic
vector are quantitative, we also study logistic regression models.
Aside from the newly added Chapter 16, the most important change in this
edition is the use of the statistical software R. No previous experience with R is
necessary, and we incorporate its use throught the text. Aside from additional
subsections devoted to R. we also have the newly added Section 2.7, dealing
with Lorenz curves and the Gini index. There are also many new examples and
problems in this edition. In addition, the sixth edition contains a multitude of
small changes designed to even further increase the clarity of the text’s presen-
tations and arguments.

Supplemental materials

Solutions manual for instructors is available at: https://textbooks.elsevier.com/

web/Manuals.aspx?isbn=9780128243466.
xvi Preface

Acknowledgments
We thank the following people for their helpful comments on material of the
sixth edition:

■ Gideon Weiss, University of Haifa

■ N. Balakrishnan, McMaster University
■ Mark Brown, Columbia University
■ Rohitha Goonatilake, Texas A and M University
■ Steve From, University of Nebraska at Omaha
■ Subhash Kochar, Portland State University
■ Sumona Mondal, Mathematics, Clarkson University
■ Kamel Belbahri, Mathematics and Statistics, Université de Montréal
■ Anil Aswani, Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, University
of California, Berkeley

as well as all those reviewers who asked to remain anonymous.

 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to statistics

1.1 Introduction
It has become accepted in today’s world that in order to learn about something,
you must first collect data. Statistics is the art of learning from data. It is con-
cerned with the collection of data, its subsequent description, and its analysis,
which often leads to the drawing of conclusions.

1.2 Data collection and descriptive statistics

Sometimes a statistical analysis begins with a given set of data: For instance, the
government regularly collects and publicizes data concerning yearly precipita-
tion totals, earthquake occurrences, the unemployment rate, the gross domestic
product, and the rate of inflation. Statistics can be used to describe, summarize,
and analyze these data.
In other situations, data are not yet available; in such cases statistical theory can
be used to design an appropriate experiment to generate data. The experiment
chosen should depend on the use that one wants to make of the data. For
instance, suppose that an instructor is interested in determining which of two
different methods for teaching computer programming to beginners is most
effective. To study this question, the instructor might divide the students into
two groups, and use a different teaching method for each group. At the end
of the class the students can be tested and the scores of the members of the
different groups compared. If the data, consisting of the test scores of members
of each group, are significantly higher in one of the groups, then it might seem
reasonable to suppose that the teaching method used for that group is superior.
It is important to note, however, that in order to be able to draw a valid con-
clusion from the data, it is essential that the students were divided into groups
in such a manner that neither group was more likely to have the students with
greater natural aptitude for programming. For instance, the instructor should
not have let the male class members be one group and the females the other.
For if so, then even if the women scored significantly higher than the men, it
would not be clear whether this was due to the method used to teach them,
or to the fact that women may be inherently better than men at learning pro- 1

Introduction to Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824346-6.00010-7

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAP TER 1: Introduction to statistics

gramming skills. The accepted way of avoiding this pitfall is to divide the class
members into the two groups “at random.” This term means that the division
is done in such a manner that all possible choices of the members of a group
are equally likely.
At the end of the experiment, the data should be described. For instance, the
scores of the two groups should be presented. In addition, summary mea-
sures such as the average score of members of each of the groups should be
presented. This part of statistics, concerned with the description and summa-
rization of data, is called descriptive statistics.

1.3 Inferential statistics and probability models

After the preceding experiment is completed and the data are described and
summarized, we hope to be able to draw a conclusion about which teaching
method is superior. This part of statistics, concerned with the drawing of con-
clusions, is called inferential statistics.
To be able to draw a conclusion from the data, we must take into account the
possibility of chance. For instance, suppose that the average score of members
of the first group is quite a bit higher than that of the second. Can we conclude
that this increase is due to the teaching method used? Or is it possible that the
teaching method was not responsible for the increased scores but rather that
the higher scores of the first group were just a chance occurrence? For instance,
the fact that a coin comes up heads 7 times in 10 flips does not necessarily
mean that the coin is more likely to come up heads than tails in future flips.
Indeed, it could be a perfectly ordinary coin that, by chance, just happened to
land heads 7 times out of the total of 10 flips. (On the other hand, if the coin
had landed heads 47 times out of 50 flips, then we would be quite certain that
it was not an ordinary coin.)
To be able to draw logical conclusions from data, we usually make some as-
sumptions about the chances (or probabilities) of obtaining the different data
values. The totality of these assumptions is referred to as a probability model for
the data.
Sometimes the nature of the data suggests the form of the probability model
that is assumed. For instance, suppose that an engineer wants to find out what
proportion of computer chips, produced by a new method, will be defective.
The engineer might select a group of these chips, with the resulting data being
the number of defective chips in this group. Provided that the chips selected
were “randomly” chosen, it is reasonable to suppose that each one of them is
defective with probability p, where p is the unknown proportion of all the chips
produced by the new method that will be defective. The resulting data can then
be used to make inferences about p.
 1.4 Populations and samples 3

In other situations, the appropriate probability model for a given data set will
not be readily apparent. However, careful description and presentation of the
data sometimes enable us to infer a reasonable model, which we can then try
to verify with the use of additional data.
Because the basis of statistical inference is the formulation of a probability
model to describe the data, an understanding of statistical inference requires
some knowledge of the theory of probability. In other words, statistical infer-
ence starts with the assumption that important aspects of the phenomenon
under study can be described in terms of probabilities; it then draws conclu-
sions by using data to make inferences about these probabilities.

1.4 Populations and samples

In statistics, we are interested in obtaining information about a total collection
of elements, which we will refer to as the population. The population is often too
large for us to examine each of its members. For instance, we might have all the
residents of a given state, or all the television sets produced in the last year by
a particular manufacturer, or all the households in a given community. In such
cases, we try to learn about the population by choosing and then examining a
subgroup of its elements. This subgroup of a population is called a sample.
If the sample is to be informative about the total population, it must be, in
some sense, representative of that population. For instance, suppose that we are
interested in learning about the age distribution of people residing in a given
city, and we obtain the ages of the first 100 people to enter the town library. If
the average age of these 100 people is 46.2 years, are we justified in concluding
that this is approximately the average age of the entire population? Probably
not, for we could certainly argue that the sample chosen in this case is probably
not representative of the total population because usually more young students
and senior citizens use the library than do working-age citizens.
In certain situations, such as the library illustration, we are presented with a
sample and must then decide whether this sample is reasonably representative
of the entire population. In practice, a given sample generally cannot be as-
sumed to be representative of a population unless that sample has been chosen
in a random manner. This is because any specific nonrandom rule for selecting
a sample often results in one that is inherently biased toward some data values
as opposed to others.
Thus, although it may seem paradoxical, we are most likely to obtain a repre-
sentative sample by choosing its members in a totally random fashion without
any prior considerations of the elements that will be chosen. In other words, we
need not attempt to deliberately choose the sample so that it contains, for in-
stance, the same gender percentage and the same percentage of people in each
profession as found in the general population. Rather, we should just leave it
4 CHAP TE R 1: Introduction to statistics

up to “chance” to obtain roughly the correct percentages. Once a random sam-

ple is chosen, we can use statistical inference to draw conclusions about the
entire population by studying the elements of the sample.

1.5 A brief history of statistics

A systematic collection of data on the population and the economy was begun
in the Italian city-states of Venice and Florence during the Renaissance. The
term statistics, derived from the word state, was used to refer to a collection of
facts of interest to the state. The idea of collecting data spread from Italy to the
other countries of Western Europe. Indeed, by the first half of the 16th cen-
tury it was common for European governments to require parishes to register
births, marriages, and deaths. Because of poor public health conditions this
last statistic was of particular interest.
The high mortality rate in Europe before the 19th century was due mainly to
epidemic diseases, wars, and famines. Among epidemics, the worst were the
plagues. Starting with the Black Plague in 1348, plagues recurred frequently
for nearly 400 years. In 1562, as a way to alert the King’s court to consider
moving to the countryside, the City of London began to publish weekly bills of
mortality. Initially these mortality bills listed the places of death and whether
a death had resulted from plague. Beginning in 1625 the bills were expanded
to include all causes of death.
In 1662 the English tradesman John Graunt published a book entitled Natural
and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality. Table 1.1, which notes
the total number of deaths in England and the number due to the plague for
five different plague years, is taken from this book.

Table 1.1 Total Deaths in England.

Year Burials Plague Deaths
1592 25,886 11,503
1593 17,844 10,662
1603 37,294 30,561
1625 51,758 35,417
1636 23,359 10,400
Source: John Graunt, Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortal-
ity. 3rd ed. London: John Martyn and James Allestry (1st ed. 1662).

Graunt used London bills of mortality to estimate the city’s population. For in-
stance, to estimate the population of London in 1660, Graunt surveyed house-
holds in certain London parishes (or neighborhoods) and discovered that, on
average, there were approximately 3 deaths for every 88 people. Dividing by 3
shows that, on average, there was roughly 1 death for every 88/3 people. Be-
cause the London bills cited 13,200 deaths in London for that year, Graunt
 1.5 A brief history of statistics 5

Table 1.2 John Graunt’s Mortality Table.

Age at Death Number of Deaths per
100 Births
0–6 36
6–16 24
16–26 15
26–36 9
36–46 6
46–56 4
56–66 3
66–76 2
76 and greater 1
Note: The categories go up to but do not include the right-hand
value. For instance, 0–6 means all ages from 0 up through 5.

estimated the London population to be about

13,200 × 88/3 = 387,200

Graunt used this estimate to project a figure for all England. In his book he
noted that these figures would be of interest to the rulers of the country, as
indicators of both the number of men who could be drafted into an army and
the number who could be taxed.
Graunt also used the London bills of mortality — and some intelligent guess-
work as to what diseases killed whom and at what age — to infer ages at death.
(Recall that the bills of mortality listed only causes and places at death, not the
ages of those dying.) Graunt then used this information to compute tables giv-
ing the proportion of the population that dies at various ages. Table 1.2 is one
of Graunt’s mortality tables. It states, for instance, that of 100 births, 36 people
will die before reaching age 6, 24 will die between the age of 6 and 15, and so
on.
Graunt’s estimates of the ages at which people were dying were of great interest
to those in the business of selling annuities. Annuities are the opposite of life
insurance in that one pays in a lump sum as an investment and then receives
regular payments for as long as one lives.
Graunt’s work on mortality tables inspired further work by Edmund Halley
in 1693. Halley, the discoverer of the comet bearing his name (and also the
man who was most responsible, by both his encouragement and his financial
support, for the publication of Isaac Newton’s famous Principia Mathematica),
used tables of mortality to compute the odds that a person of any age would
live to any other particular age. Halley was influential in convincing the insurers
of the time that an annual life insurance premium should depend on the age
of the person being insured.
6 CHAP TE R 1: Introduction to statistics

Following Graunt and Halley, the collection of data steadily increased through-
out the remainder of the 17th and on into the 18th century. For instance, the
city of Paris began collecting bills of mortality in 1667, and by 1730 it had
become common practice throughout Europe to record ages at death.
The term statistics, which was used until the 18th century as a shorthand for the
descriptive science of states, became in the 19th century increasingly identified
with numbers. By the 1830s the term was almost universally regarded in Britain
and France as being synonymous with the “numerical science” of society. This
change in meaning was caused by the large availability of census records and
other tabulations that began to be systematically collected and published by
the governments of Western Europe and the United States beginning around
1800.
Throughout the 19th century, although probability theory had been developed
by such mathematicians as Jacob Bernoulli, Karl Friedrich Gauss, and Pierre-
Simon Laplace, its use in studying statistical findings was almost nonexistent,
because most social statisticians at the time were content to let the data speak
for themselves. In particular, statisticians of that time were not interested in
drawing inferences about individuals, but rather were concerned with the soci-
ety as a whole. Thus, they were not concerned with sampling but rather tried
to obtain censuses of the entire population. As a result, probabilistic infer-
ence from samples to a population was almost unknown in 19th century social
statistics.
It was not until the late 1800s that statistics became concerned with inferring
conclusions from numerical data. The movement began with Francis Galton’s
work on analyzing hereditary genius through the uses of what we would now
call regression and correlation analysis (see Chapter 9), and obtained much
of its impetus from the work of Karl Pearson. Pearson, who developed the
chi-square goodness of fit tests (see Chapter 11), was the first director of the
Galton Laboratory, endowed by Francis Galton in 1904. There Pearson origi-
nated a research program aimed at developing new methods of using statistics
in inference. His laboratory invited advanced students from science and in-
dustry to learn statistical methods that could then be applied in their fields.
One of his earliest visiting researchers was W.S. Gosset, a chemist by training,
who showed his devotion to Pearson by publishing his own works under the
name “Student.” (A famous story has it that Gosset was afraid to publish un-
der his own name for fear that his employers, the Guinness brewery, would be
unhappy to discover that one of its chemists was doing research in statistics.)
Gosset is famous for his development of the t-test (see Chapter 8).
Two of the most important areas of applied statistics in the early 20th century
were population biology and agriculture. This was due to the interest of Pear-
son and others at his laboratory and also to the remarkable accomplishments
of the English scientist Ronald A. Fisher. The theory of inference developed by
these pioneers, including among others Karl Pearson’s son Egon and the Pol-
 Problems 7

Table 1.3 The Changing Definition of Statistics.

Statistics has then for its object that of presenting a faithful representation of a state at a
determined epoch. (Quetelet, 1849)
Statistics are the only tools by which an opening can be cut through the formidable thicket
of difficulties that bars the path of those who pursue the Science of man. (Galton, 1889)
Statistics may be regarded (i) as the study of populations, (ii) as the study of variation, and
(iii) as the study of methods of the reduction of data. (Fisher, 1925)
Statistics is a scientific discipline concerned with collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data obtained from observation or experiment. The subject has a coherent structure based
on the theory of Probability and includes many different procedures which contribute to
research and development throughout the whole of Science and Technology. (E. Pearson,
1936)
Statistics is the name for that science and art which deals with uncertain inferences —
which uses numbers to find out something about nature and experience. (Weaver, 1952)
Statistics has become known in the 20th century as the mathematical tool for analyzing
experimental and observational data. (Porter, 1986)
Statistics is the art of learning from data. (this book, 2020)

ish born mathematical statistician Jerzy Neyman, was general enough to deal
with a wide range of quantitative and practical problems. As a result, after the
early years of the 20th century a rapidly increasing number of people in sci-
ence, business, and government began to regard statistics as a tool that was
able to provide quantitative solutions to scientific and practical problems (see
Table 1.3).
Nowadays the ideas of statistics are everywhere. Descriptive statistics are fea-
tured in every newspaper and magazine. Statistical inference has become indis-
pensable to public health and medical research, to engineering and scientific
studies, to marketing and quality control, to education, to accounting, to eco-
nomics, to meteorological forecasting, to polling and surveys, to sports, to
insurance, to gambling, and to all research that makes any claim to being sci-
entific. Statistics has indeed become ingrained in our intellectual heritage.

Problems
1. An election will be held next week and, by polling a sample of the voting
population, we are trying to predict whether the Republican or Demo-
cratic candidate will prevail. Which of the following methods of selection
is likely to yield a representative sample?
a. Poll all people of voting age attending a college basketball game.
b. Poll all people of voting age leaving a fancy midtown restaurant.
c. Obtain a copy of the voter registration list, randomly choose 100
names, and question them.
8 CHAP TER 1: Introduction to statistics

d. Use the results of a television call-in poll, in which the station asked
its listeners to call in and name their choice.
e. Choose names from the telephone directory and call these people.
2. The approach used in Problem 1(e) led to a disastrous prediction in the
1936 presidential election, in which Franklin Roosevelt defeated Alfred
Landon by a landslide. A Landon victory had been predicted by the Lit-
erary Digest. The magazine based its prediction on the preferences of a
sample of voters chosen from lists of automobile and telephone owners.
a. Why do you think the Literary Digest’s prediction was so far off?
b. Has anything changed between 1936 and now that would make you
believe that the approach used by the Literary Digest would work
better today?
3. A researcher is trying to discover the average age at death for people in the
United States today. To obtain data, the obituary columns of the New York
Times are read for 30 days, and the ages at death of people in the United
States are noted. Do you think this approach will lead to a representative
sample?
4. To determine the proportion of people in your town who are smokers, it
has been decided to poll people at one of the following local spots:
a. the pool hall;
b. the bowling alley;
c. the shopping mall;
d. the library.
Which of these potential polling places would most likely result in a rea-
sonable approximation to the desired proportion? Why?
5. A university plans on conducting a survey of its recent graduates to deter-
mine information on their yearly salaries. It randomly selected 200 recent
graduates and sent them questionnaires dealing with their present jobs.
Of these 200, however, only 86 were returned. Suppose that the average
of the yearly salaries reported was $75,000.
a. Would the university be correct in thinking that $75,000 was a good
approximation to the average salary level of all of its graduates? Ex-
plain the reasoning behind your answer.
b. If your answer to part (a) is no, can you think of any set of conditions
relating to the group that returned questionnaires for which it would
be a good approximation?
6. An article reported that a survey of clothing worn by pedestrians killed
at night in traffic accidents revealed that about 80 percent of the victims
were wearing dark-colored clothing and 20 percent were wearing light-
colored clothing. The conclusion drawn in the article was that it is safer
to wear light-colored clothing at night.
a. Is this conclusion justified? Explain.
b. If your answer to part (a) is no, what other information would be
needed before a final conclusion could be drawn?
 Problems 9

7. Critique Graunt’s method for estimating the population of London.

What implicit assumption is he making?
8. The London bills of mortality listed 12,246 deaths in 1658. Supposing
that a survey of London parishes showed that roughly 2 percent of the
population died that year, use Graunt’s method to estimate London’s
population in 1658.
9. Suppose you were a seller of annuities in 1662 when Graunt’s book was
published. Explain how you would make use of his data on the ages at
which people were dying.
10. Based on Graunt’s mortality table:
a. What proportion of people survived to age 6?
b. What proportion survived to age 46?
c. What proportion died between the ages of 6 and 36?
 CHAPTER 2

Descriptive statistics

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter we introduce the subject matter of descriptive statistics, and in

doing so learn ways to describe and summarize a set of data. Section 2.2 deals
with ways of describing a data set. Subsections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 indicate how
data that take on only a relatively few distinct values can be described by using
frequency tables or graphs, whereas Subsection 2.2.3 deals with data whose set
of values is grouped into different intervals. Section 2.3 discusses ways of sum-
marizing data sets by use of statistics, which are numerical quantities whose
values are determined by the data. Subsection 2.3.1 considers three statistics
that are used to indicate the “center” of the data set: the sample mean, the
sample median, and the sample mode. Subsection 2.3.2 introduces the sam-
ple variance and its square root, called the sample standard deviation. These
statistics are used to indicate the spread of the values in the data set. Subsection
2.3.3 deals with sample percentiles, which are statistics that tell us, for instance,
which data value is greater than 95 percent of all the data. In Section 2.4 we
present Chebyshev’s inequality for sample data. This famous inequality gives
an upper bound to the proportion of the data that can differ from the sample
mean by more than k times the sample standard deviation. Whereas Cheby-
shev’s inequality holds for all data sets, we can in certain situations, which are
discussed in Section 2.5, obtain more precise estimates of the proportion of
the data that is within k sample standard deviations of the sample mean. In
Section 2.5 we note that when a graph of the data follows a bell-shaped form
the data set is said to be approximately normal, and more precise estimates are
given by the so-called empirical rule. Section 2.6 is concerned with situations
in which the data consist of paired values. A graphical technique, called the
scatter diagram, for presenting such data is introduced, as is the sample corre-
lation coefficient, a statistic that indicates the degree to which a large value of
the first member of the pair tends to go along with a large value of the second.
Section 2.7 is concerned with the income distribution of a population. It intro-
duces the Lorenz curve L(p), which gives the proportion of the total income of
a population that is earned by the lower 100p percent of wage earners. Also in-
troduced is the Gini index, which is a measure of the inequality of the income
distribution. Section 2.8 shows how to use R to analyze data sets. 11

Introduction to Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824346-6.00011-9

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
12 CHAPTER 2: Descriptive statistics

2.2 Describing data sets

The numerical findings of a study should be presented clearly, concisely, and in
such a manner that an observer can quickly obtain a feel for the essential char-
acteristics of the data. Over the years it has been found that tables and graphs
are particularly useful ways of presenting data, often revealing important fea-
tures such as the range, the degree of concentration, and the symmetry of the
data. In this section we present some common graphical and tabular ways for
presenting data.

2.2.1 Frequency tables and graphs

A data set having a relatively small number of distinct values can be conve-
niently presented in a frequency table. For instance, Table 2.1 is a frequency table
for a data set consisting of the starting yearly salaries (to the nearest thousand
dollars) of 42 recently graduated students with B.S. degrees in electrical engi-
neering. Table 2.1 tells us, among other things, that the lowest starting salary
of $57,000 was received by four of the graduates, whereas the highest salary
of $70,000 was received by a single student. The most common starting salary
was $62,000, and was received by 10 of the students.

Table 2.1 Starting Yearly Salaries.

Starting Salary Frequency
57 4
58 1
59 3
60 5
61 8
62 10
63 0
64 5
66 2
67 3
70 1

Data from a frequency table can be graphically represented by a line graph that
plots the distinct data values on the horizontal axis and indicates their fre-
quencies by the heights of vertical lines. A line graph of the data presented in
Table 2.1 is shown in Figure 2.1.
When the lines in a line graph are given added thickness, the graph is called a
bar graph. Figure 2.2 presents a bar graph.
Another type of graph used to represent a frequency table is the frequency poly-
gon, which plots the frequencies of the different data values on the vertical axis,
 2.2 Describing data sets 13

FIGURE 2.1
Starting salary data.

FIGURE 2.2
Bar graph for starting salary data.
14 CHAPTER 2: Descriptive statistics

FIGURE 2.3
Frequency polygon for starting salary data.

and then connects the plotted points with straight lines. Figure 2.3 presents a
frequency polygon for the data of Table 2.1.

2.2.2 Relative frequency tables and graphs

Consider a data set consisting of n values. If f is the frequency of a particular
value, then the ratio f/n is called its relative frequency. That is, the relative fre-
quency of a data value is the proportion of the data that have that value. The
relative frequencies can be represented graphically by a relative frequency line
or bar graph or by a relative frequency polygon. Indeed, these relative frequency
graphs will look like the corresponding graphs of the absolute frequencies ex-
cept that the labels on the vertical axis are now the old labels (that gave the
frequencies) divided by the total number of data points.
Example 2.2.a. Table 2.2 is a relative frequency table for the data of Table 2.1.
The relative frequencies are obtained by dividing the corresponding frequencies
of Table 2.1 by 42, the size of the data set. 

A pie chart is often used to indicate relative frequencies when the data are not
numerical in nature. A circle is constructed and then sliced into different sec-
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
vida de una cortesana andaluza en Roma, con todas
las obscenidades tomadas del natural, sin recato ni
ideal alguno; no siendo novela ni comedia, sino
narración, pero hablada, dialogada y viva, "en lengua
española muy claríssima". Conocía La Celestina, el
Asno de oro, de Apuleyo; pero no á Pedro Aretino,
como se ha dicho, pues sus obras son posteriores á
1528; antes, ya ha dicho Arturo Graf que, si imitación
hubo, lo fué del Aretino y no al revés, y cierto, el
parecido es grandísimo, aunque M. Pelayo y Farinelli
nieguen tal imitación. Menos tiene La Lozana del
Diálogo de las hetairas, de Luciano, del cual tomó lo
más indecente el Aretino. La Lozana no salió de los
libros, sino de la vida real de Roma, vivida por su
autor. Encierra muchos elementos folklóricos y
frases españolas; pero no menor mezcla de
italianismos, propios de la lengua franca que en
Roma usaban los españoles de baja estofa, de la
cual echó mano igualmente Torres Naharro, sin
dejar, con todo eso, de tener trozos y frases en
castizo y familiar lenguaje, con su propio color y brío.
58. El Ragionamento della Nanna e della Antonia, del Aretino, es de
1533; el Diálogo della Nanna é della Pippa sua figliuola, de 1536; el
Ragionamento del Zoppino fatto frate... dove contiensi la vita e
genealogia de tutte le cortegiane di Roma, no se publicó hasta 1539.
Acaban de ser elegantemente impresos Los Diálogos del divino
Pedro Aretino, por Joaquín López Barbadillo, Madrid, 1914, 2 vols.,
las dos primeras jornadas. Véase Graf, Giornale Storico della
letteratura italiana, Turín, 1880, t. XIII, pág. 317. A. Farinelli, en
Ressegna Bibliographica della letteratura Italiana, t. VII, pág. 281,
Pisa, 1900. M. Pelayo, Oríg. nov., t. III, pág. cxcvi. "Y si quisieren
reprender que por qué no van munchas palabras en perfeta lengua
castellana, digo que siendo andaluz y no letrado y escribiendo para
darme solacio y pasar mi fortuna, que en este tiempo el Señor me
había dado, conformaba mi hablar al sonido de mis orejas, que es la
lengua materna y el común hablar entre mugeres, y si dicen por qué
puse algunas palabras en italiano, púdelo hacer escribiendo en
Italia..., si me dicen que por qué no fuí más elegante, digo que soy
iñorante" (pág. 333).

Un solo ejemplar se conoce de La Lozana, en la Bibl. imperial de

Viena; reimprimióse en la Colecc. de libros raros y curiosos, Madrid,
1871; en París, 1888, con traducción francesa, y en Madrid, en la
Colecc. de libros picarescos, 1899. Las tres proceden de la copia
que Gayangos sacó de Viena, y está en la Bibl. Nacional. En 1531 y
1534 editó La Celestina, Venecia; en 1534 corrigió y publicó el
Primaleón, Venecia, en la introducción de cuyo tercer libro declaró
"Como lo fuí yo quando compuse la Loçana en el común hablar de
la polida Andalucía". Al fin del tomo se dice que los tres libros de
Primaleón "fueron corregidos y emendados de las letras que
trastrocadas eran por el vicario del valle de Cabezuela Francisco
Delicado, natural de la Peña de Marros". Cuando padecía de las
bubas compuso De consolatione infirmorum (pág. 334), y curado,
con el cocimiento del guayaco ó palo santo, introducido en España
en 1508 y en Italia en 1517, compuso un cierto electuario (pág. 280),
escribiendo sobre el modo de curar con él, en italiano, Il mal
franceso, Venecia, 1529, opúsculo del cual hablan Astruc, médico
de Montpellier y Morejón y Chinchilla (Historia bibliográfica de la
Medicina Española, obra póstuma de don Antonio Hernández
Morejón, t. II, Madrid, 1843, pág. 219. Anales históricos de la
Medicina..., por don Anastasio Chinchilla, t. I, Valencia, 1841, pág.
186). Delgado llaman ambos al autor, así como el privilegio de
Clemente VII para imprimir su libro en 4 de diciembre de 1526; éste
debió de ser su propio apellido, italianizado de alguna manera en
Delicado. En 1533 editó el Amadís de Gaula, Venecia.

59. Año 1528. Fray Francisco de Osuna, franciscano († 1540?),

comenzó en 1528 á publicar la Primera parte del Abecedario
espiritual, Sevilla; Burgos, 1537; Medina, 1544; Zaragoza, 1546;
Sevilla, 1554. La Segunda parte, Sevilla, 1530; Burgos, 1539 y
1545; Sevilla, 1554; Burgos, 1555. La Tercera parte, Toledo, 1527;
Valladolid, 1537; Burgos, 1544; Sevilla, 1554; Burgos, 1555. La
Cuarta parte, 1530; Burgos, 1536; sin lugar, 1542 y 1551; Valladolid,
1551; Sevilla, 1554. La Quinta parte, Burgos, 1542; Sevilla, 1554;
Burgos, 1554. La Sexta parte, Sevilla, 1554; Medina, 1554. Gracioso
convite de las gracias del santo Sacramento, Sevilla, 1530; Burgos,
1537 y 1542, etc. Norte de los estados, Sevilla, 1531, 1536, 1541;
Burgos, 1541 y 1550; Medina, 1550. Fué el Abecedario de los libros
que más leyó Santa Teresa. En latín: Sanctuarium biblicum, Tolosa,
1533. Sermones de Virgine super verba Beatus venter, Tolosa,
1553. Pars meridionalis, París, 1583; Zaragoza, 1546, 1549;
Medina, 1554. Commentaria super verba Missus est, Amberes,
1545. Trilogium evangelicum, Amberes, 1537; París, 1557. Pars
occidentalis, Amberes, 1536; Zaragoza, 1546; París, 1546, 1548;
Zaragoza, 1549; París, 1550; Medina, 1554; Lyon, 1569; Venecia,
1572, 1583, etc. Passio compassionis, Venecia, 1573. Tercera parte
del libro llamado Abecedario Espiritual, ed. M. Mir, Nueva Bibl. de
Aut. Esp., t. XVI.

El protonotario Luis Mexía, acaso pariente de los hermanos Pedro y

Cristóbal Mexía, los tres erasmistas, tradujo la obra de Erasmo
Colloquio intitulado institución del Matrimonio cristiano, Valencia,
1528. "En este presente tratado se contienen tres Colloquios de
Erasmo en romance... Colloquio de Erasmo llamado
Menipsigamos... Una carta de Erasmo al Emperador: con la
respuesta del emperador á Erasmo. Trasladadas de latín en
romance... El primero del segundo tratado de los Colloquios de
Erasmo...". Los coloquios de Erasmo, Sevilla, 1529 (Brunet); Toledo,
1530. Colloquios familiares compuestos en latín... traduzidos por un
muy sabio varón, 1528 (?): los ocho primeros traducidos por
anónimo; los tres últimos por Luis Mexía. El anónimo cree Bonilla
fué Alonso de Virués (Erasmo en Esp., pág. 65). Doze coloquios de
Erasmo, Zaragoza, 1530 (Juan M. Sánchez, Bibliogr. Arag. siglo xvi,
pág. 228). Colloquios de Erasmo, 1532, sin más que: I. A. T. O. L.
(Bonilla, ibid., pág. 68): es reimpresión de la edic. de 1530
"nuevamente añadido", acaso por el impresor I(uan) de A(yala) en
TOL(edo). El Colloquiorum liber se publicó en 1522 ó 1523; Basilea,
1524. Los Coloquios de Erasmo se han reimpreso en los Orígenes
de la Novela, t. IV, Madrid, 1915. Escribió además Luis Mexía el
Apólogo de la ociosidad y el trabajo, intitulado Labricio Portundo,
obra que glosó y moralizó el aventurero humanista Francisco
Cervantes de Salazar, Alcalá, 1546.

El M. Bernardo Pérez de Chinchón nació en Valencia, donde fué

chantre, canónigo de Gandía y de la servidumbre de don Juan de
Borja, duque de Gandía. Declaración del Pater Noster. Item el
sermón de la grandeza y muchedumbre de las misericordias de
Dios, Logroño, 1528; Amberes, 1549: es traducción de la Precatio
Dominica, de Erasmo. Silenos de Alcibiades compuesto por el
famoso doctor Erasmo, Valencia, 1529; Amberes, 1555. Diálogos
christianos contra la secta mahomética y contra la pertinacia de los
judíos; en la dedicatoria dice Valencia, 1534. Libro del Aparejo que
se deue hazer para bien morir, Burgos, 1535; Amberes, 1549;
Sevilla, 1551; ó Preparación y aparejo para bien morir, compuesto
por el famoso y excelente doctor Desiderio Erasmo Roterodano,
Amberes, 1555. Historia de las cosas que han pasado en Italia
desde el año 1521 de nuestra redempción hasta el año 30 sobre la
restitución del Duque Francisco Sforcia en el ducado de Milán,
Valencia, 1536. Espejo de la vida humana, Granada, 1587; Alcalá,
1589, 1590; Sevilla, 1656. Antialcoran, sive contra errores Sectae
Machometanae, Salamanca, 1595.

60. Año 1528. Francisco de las Natas, beneficiado en la

parroquial de Cuevas Rubias y en la de Santa Cruz de Rebilla
Cabriada (Burgos), publicó Segundo libro de las Eneidas de Virgilio,
trobado en metro mayor de nuestro romance castellano, Burgos,
1528. Comedia Claudina, en coplas, 1536 (Reg. Colón). Comedia
llamada Tidea... Trátanse los amores de don Tideo con la donzella y
cómo la alcançó por interposición de aquella vieja alcagueta; y en fin
por bien de paz fueron en uno casados, 1550. Es el argumento de
La Celestina, en coplas, con feliz desenlace y con algunos pastores
á lo Enzina. En la versificación y en las cinco jornadas sigue á
Naharro. Hállase en la Bibl. de Munich (Fern. Wolf, Sitzungberichte,
de la Acad. de Viena, t. VIII, 1852). La ha reimpreso Cronan, Madrid,
1913, Bibliófilos Madrileños.

Juan Pastor publicó Auto nuevo del santo nacimiento de Cristo

nuestro Señor, Sevilla, 1528. En él cita, y escribió de hecho, dos
Farsas llamadas Grismaltina y Clariana. Además la Farsa ó Tragedia
de la castidad de Lucrecia, reimpresa por Bonilla en la Revue
Hispanique, 1912, del ejemplar de la Nacional, y por Ochoa, Madrid,
1914. En ella no ve Bonilla ninguna cualidad brillante ni en la
versificación, ni en los incidentes, ni en la trama principal. "El bobo
es verdaderamente inaguantable, y la ocurrencia de hacer
acompañar á Tarquino, como si fuese cualquier pirulero, por un
negrito, no abona el ingenio de Juan Pastor. Una Tragedia tan
desmayada y fría era digna de estar inspirada en la obra de quien
diputó al Fedón platónico por un escrito sin importancia".

61. Año 1528. Juan de Aguilera, profesor salmantino, publicó

Canones Astrolabii, Salamanca, 1528, 1554.—Arnoldo Alberti (†
1545), mallorquín, canónigo y luliano, publicó Quaestio de secreto,
Valencia, 1528. Repetitio nova, ibid., 1534. De agnoscendis
assertionibus Catholicis et Haereticis, Panhormi, 1553. Commentaria
super Artem Magistri R. Lulli.—Libro de Juan bocacio que tracta de
las ilustres Mugeres, Sevilla, 1528.—Fray Luis de Carvajal,
franciscano andaluz, antierasmista, publicó Apologia monasticae
religiones diluens nugas Erasmi, París, 1528; Salamanca, 1528;
Amberes, 1529. Tradújose al castellano: Dulcoratio amarulentiarum
Erasmicae responsionis ad Apologiam. De restituta Theologia,
Colonia, 1540; Amberes, 1548. Consúltense fray Juan de San
Antonio, Bibliotheca Franciscana, t. II, pág. 292. Eysengrein,
Catalogus testium veritatis, Dilingen, 1565, página 192. Sepúlveda,
t. III, epíst., págs. 219, 611.—Fray Juan de Cazalla, franciscano de
Veracruz, publicó Lumbre del Alma, Sevilla, 1528.—Rodrigo de
Cueto publicó Primus Tractatus Summularum in textum Petri
Hispani, 1528.—Floramante de Colonia y Lidaman de Ganayl, 1528.
—Martín de Frías publicó varios Tratados sobre moral, 1528;
Salamanca, 1550.—Fuero de Vizcaya, Burgos, 1528; Medina, 1575.
—Esteban Martínez ó Martín, vecino de Castromocho, publicó el
Auto de cómo San Juan fué concebido y ansimesmo el nacimiento
de San Juan, Burgos, 1528; otra edición con otras canciones, sin
lugar ni año (La Barrera).—Cursus quattuor mathematicarum artium,
Alcalá, 1528.—Obras... assi en prosa como en metro de Moner, las
más dellas en lengua castellana y algunas en su lengua natural
catalana, Barcelona, 1528. Véase M. Pelayo, Antol. de poet. lír.
cast., t. VII, pág. ccxlii, etc.—Fray Alejo de Salamanca,
franciscano de Zamora, publicó De Christi D. Republica Dialogi tres,
Salamanca, 1528.—Don Francisco Velázquez Minaya publicó
Esfera forma del mundo con una breve descripción del mapa,
Madrid, 1528 (Vindel).

62. Año 1529. Juan de Valdés (1501?-1541),

hermano de Alfonso, hijo del corregidor perpetuo de
Cuenca, don Fernando de Valdés, nació en aquella
ciudad; debió de estudiar en Alcalá y anduvo diez
años "andante en corte" y dado á la lección de libros
de caballerías, aunque mezclándola con la de
Luciano, de quien aprendió el tono del dialogar. Supo
las lenguas clásicas y el hebreo. Por medio de su
hermano, se relacionó con Erasmo, el cual, en 1528,
le escribió animándole á continuar sus estudios y
felicitándole porque "enriquece su ánimo, nacido
para la virtud, con todo linaje de ornamentos". En
1527 compuso su hermano el Diálogo de Lactancio,
y parece le ayudó Juan corrigiéndolo y retocándolo.
En 1528 compuso el mismo Juan el Diálogo de
Mercurio y Carón, obra lucianesca, sátira moral y
religiosa, más variada y artística que los Coloquios,
de Erasmo, y que el Diálogo de Lactancio, de su
hermano Alonso, aunque en el asunto se les
parezca. También se parece á las Danzas de la
muerte de la Edad Media, en cuanto van
presentándose personas de todos estados, juzgando
sus buenas y malas acciones. Monumento clarísimo,
como dice M. Pelayo, del habla castellana. El
ingenio, la gracia y la amenidad rebosan en él, y bien
puede decirse que nada hay mejor escrito en
castellano durante el reinado de Carlos V, fuera de la
traducción del Cortesano, por Boscán. La lengua
brilla del todo formada, robusta, flexible y jugosa, sin
afectación ni pompa vana, pero, al mismo tiempo, sin
sequedad ni dureza, y con toda la noble y
majestuosa serenidad de las lenguas clásicas. En
1531, Juan de Valdés, "caballero noble y rico", en
frase de Juan Pérez, "gentilhombre de capa y
espada", como le llama Carnesechi, fué á Roma con
una carta de recomendación de su hermano para
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, que, viendo en él la
estampa de su hermano, no sólo en el aspecto, sino
también en la doctrina, ingenio y estudios, le agasajó
cuanto pudo. Seguía allí en 1532; pero, fuera de
algún corto viaje á Roma, asentó en Nápoles desde
1535 hasta su muerte. Había llegado erasmista á
Italia y, á fuerza de leer y pensar, tomó algunas
doctrinas heréticas, por ejemplo, sobre la
justificación y la gracia, quizá en los Lugares
Comunes, de Melanchton. Su doctrina se aparta de
las de éste, de las de Lutero, Calvino y demás
herejes del siglo xvi por ciertos aspectos
sustanciales que le dan carácter personal en lo
dogmático y en la exégesis bíblica, sobre todo en lo
que toca á la disciplina de la Iglesia. Después de
1534, pues habla como de cosa conocida de El
Cortesano, no publicado hasta aquel año, y antes de
setiembre de 1536, pues se nombra en él á
Garcilaso como á persona viva, escribió el Diálogo
de la Lengua, que nació de verdaderas
conversaciones con amigos suyos, españoles é
italianos, tenidas en la ribera del Chiaja. Las
doctrinas filológicas no podían ser certeras en aquel
tiempo, y apenas merece recordarse más que la de
la ortografía, que no se ha de escribir de una manera
y pronunciar de otra, principio que tomó de Nebrija,
en quien se ensaña más de lo justo, y la del rechazar
los latinismos. Pero como crítico literario, juzgó tan
delicadamente autores y obras, que sus fallos ha ido
robusteciéndolos el tiempo. Su principio acerca del
estilo es el mismo de Cervantes y el que practicó en
todos sus escritos, distinguiéndose cabalmente por
él entre todos los escritores castellanos. "El que
tengo me es natural y sin afectación ninguna.
Escribo como hablo; solamente tengo cuidado de
usar de vocablos que signifiquen bien lo que quiero
decir, y dígolo cuanto más llanamente me es posible,
porque, á mi parecer, en ninguna lengua está bien la
afectación". Admirable principio, que vale por todos
los tratados de retórica. Ése es, realmente, el estilo
de Valdés, y si de alguno, de él puede decirse que
escribió llano, transparente y sin la menor afectación.
El diálogo es apacible charla entre dos italianos
corteses y entendidos: un soldado que pica en
desenfadado y fanfarrón y el mismo Valdés, hombre
descontentadizo, de delicado gusto cuanto al arte,
respetado maestro y ahidalgado toledano, con sus
puntas de franca modestia y su picante de
socarronería castellana. Tiene vida el diálogo; es
cosa sucedida; corre por todo él cierto aire
lucianesco y helénico; cortesano gracejo y lindos
donaires le engalanan.
63. Juan de Valdés, en el Diálogo de la Lengua, se dice castellano,
criado en el reino de Toledo y en la Mancha de Aragón, y paisano de
mosén Diego de Valera; por consiguiente, natural de Cuenca, donde
era regidor perpetuo su padre Ferrando de Valdés. Que era
hermano de Alfonso se ve por las cartas de Erasmo y Sepúlveda.
Francisco de Enzinas, que conoció á los dos hermanos, dice que
Juan fué "praeclare instructus in disciplina fraterna" (Memoires, ed.
Campan, t. II, pág. 154), esto es, cuanto á las ideas reformistas
erasmianas. Gallardo: "J. de V. compuso el Diálogo de Mercurio y
Carón, según resulta de documentos que vi el año 1820 en los
papeles del Archivo de la Inquisición general". La primera edición del
Diálogo de Mercurio y Carón es de 1529, aunque no tiene fecha, é
impresa en Italia. De ella se valió Usoz para su reimpresión; hay
ejemplares en las Bibls. de Rostock, Munich y Goettinga; 2.ª, sin
lugar ni año; 3.ª, en el Museo Brit.; 4.ª, copia de la segunda; 5.ª,
acaso flamenca; 6.ª, Dos diálogos escritos por Juan de Valdés,
ahora cuidadosamente reimpresos, 1850, t. IV de los Reformistas
Españoles, de Usoz, Madrid. Ambos diálogos están prohibidos en el
Índice, de Pío IV (1564) y en los posteriores de España y Roma.
Hay traducción italiana: Due dialoghi, l'uno di Mercurio et Caronte...,
l'altro di Lattantio..., 1546, y tuvo reimpresiones; el traductor créese
haber sido Bruccioli. Otra alemana, Amberg, 1609, 1613; Francfort,
1643. El título es: Diálogo de Mercurio y Carón: en que allende de
muchas cosas graziosas y de buena doctrina, se cuenta lo que ha
acaescido en la guerra desde el año de mill y quinientos y veinte y
uno, hasta los desafíos de los reyes de Francia et Inglaterra, hechos
al Emperador en el año de M. D. XXVIII... "La causa principal...
deseo de manifestar la justicia del Emperador y la iniquidad de los
que le desafiaron, y en estilo que de todo género de hombres fuese
con sabor leído". Es diálogo político y moral, Lucianesco, imitación
del 10.º de los Diálogos de los muertos y del Charon sive
speculatores, del Charon, de Pontano, y aun de los Coloquios, de
Erasmo, aunque es más variado y artístico que cualquiera de los del
roterodano. Ocultó su nombre, diciendo que lo era "uno que
derechamente deseaba la honra de Dios y el bien universal de la
república cristiana". La fecha: "en este año de M.D.XXVIII". Por
contexto del Diálogo saca M. Pelayo (Heterod., II, pág. 155) que "no
pasaba Valdés de erasmista, aunque no más mesurado y razonable
que su hermano... andaba muy lejos de la doctrina de Lutero contra
la eficacia de las obras, y más bien pensaba como los católicos en
este punto... no se harta de decir que los ayunos, devociones, rezos,
etc., son "muy buenos medios para alcanzar y seguir la doctrina
cristiana y ganar el Cielo, con tal que no vayan desnudos y vacíos
de caridad...". Hay un tono de buena fe y sinceridad en todo el
Diálogo tal, que induce á creer que, cuando Valdés le escribió,
todavía era, ó se creía, católico, aunque le extraviaban sus fatales
propensiones al laicismo y á la inspiración privada, que después
hicieron en él un místico sui generis, misionero de capa y espada,
catequizador de augustas princesas y anacoretas de buena
sociedad". En la teoría del pacto social ó político se adelantó á
Rousseau cerca de tres siglos, y le aventajó en claridad, sin
declamaciones ni paradojas: "Cata que ay pacto entre el príncipe y
el pueblo; que si tú no hazes lo que deves con tus súbditos,
tampoco son ellos obligados á hazer lo que deven contigo. ¿Con
qué cara les pedirás tus rentas si tú no les pagas á ellos las suyas?
Acuérdate que son hombres y no bestias, y que tú eres pastor de
hombres y no señor de ovejas. Pues que todos los hombres
aprenden el arte con que viven, ¿por qué tú no aprenderás el arte
para ser príncipe, que es más alta y más excelente que todas las
otras? Si te contentas con el nombre de Rey ó príncipe sin procurar
de servirlo, perderlo has y llamarte han tirano. Que no es verdadero
Rey ni príncipe aquel que le viene de linage, mas aquel que con
obras procura de serlo. Rey es y libre el que se rige y manda á sí
mismo; y esclavo y siervo el que no se sabe refrenar. Si te precias
de libre, ¿por qué servirás á tus apetitos, que es la más torpe y fea
servidumbre de todas? Muchos libres he uisto servir y muchos
esclavos ser servidos. El esclavo es siervo por fuerza y no puede
ser reprehendido por serlo, pues no es más en su mano; mas el
vicioso que es siervo uoluntario no deve ser contado entre los
hombres. Ama, pues, la libertad y aprende á ser de veras Rey". "Á
los pobres, lisiados, clérigos y frayles mendicantes ó mercenarios,
ordena cómo les sea dado de comer y no les consientas andar
mendicando".

El Diálogo de la Lengua no se publicó hasta que lo hizo Mayáns en

el t. II de sus Orígenes de la lengua española, 1737, tomándolo del
único manuscrito conocido hasta la fecha, que está en la Biblioteca
Nacional (x-236) y fué de Zurita; pero echándolo á perder, y así se
reprodujo en 1873. Luis Usoz, en 1860, hizo otra edición, correcta y
ajustada al original. Marcio parece ser Marco Antonio Magno,
apoderado de Julia Gonzaga y traductor del Alfabeto, de Valdés;
Coriolano, el secretario del virrey don Pedro de Toledo, más bien
que el Obispo de San Marcos en Calabria, como quiso Boehmer; el
soldado español, que primero se llama Pacheco y después Torres;
en fin, Valdés mismo, que hace de maestro, á quien los demás
consultan, y un taquígrafo llamado Aurelio, completan los
personajes del Diálogo.

64. Después de escribir el Diálogo de la lengua, se

dió enteramente Valdés á la propaganda de sus
doctrinas religiosas, con aquellos dulcísimos
modales y hablar halagüeño y atractivo, con aquella
respetada autoridad de maestro, que se ve en el
mismo Diálogo. Juntábanse en su casa, ó en el
palacio de la princesa Julia Gonzaga, ó en el del
señor Bernardo Guesta, y más á menudo en la
quinta de Chiaja, cerca del Posílipo, sus discípulos,
todos personas de cuenta de Nápoles. El Alfabeto es
un diálogo entre Valdés y Julia Gonzaga, tenido en
1535, de vuelta de los sermones del padre Ochino;
perdióse el original castellano y sólo se conserva la
traducción italiana, retrotraducida al castellano por
Usoz. Consérvanse de sus traducciones, hechas del
original griego, las epístolas de San Pablo á los
romanos y primera á los corintios, impresas en
Génova: la primera, en 1556; la segunda, en 1557.
Es fiel y puntual versión, siguiendo el texto de
Erasmo é inspirándose en Lutero, Melanchton y
Bucer. También tradujo del hebreo el Psalterio,
inédito y descubierto por Boehmer en la Biblioteca
Imperial de Viena, con un comentario sobre el primer
libro, y el Comentario á San Mateo, que está en la
Biblioteca Imperial de Viena. Su principal obra
religiosa son las Consideraciones divinas (1538-
1539), cuyo original castellano no se ha impreso,
sirviéndonos hoy de texto la traducción italiana
publicada en Basilea, 1550, por Celio Segundo
Curión: así que Usoz hizo tres ediciones castellanas,
conforme á una traducción castellana hecha en 1558
de la traducción italiana y vertiéndolas él mismo del
italiano. Últimamente se ha descubierto en Viena el
texto castellano original. Murió Valdés en Nápoles,
dejando heredera á Julia Gonzaga, no sólo de su
espíritu, sino también de sus manuscritos. Guardó
ella muchos de éstos en su poder como sagradas
reliquias, hasta que, á su fallecimiento, los legó á sus
amigos, quienes los publicaron poco á poco,
traducidos del castellano al italiano. Apenas murió
Valdés, se establecía la Inquisición en Nápoles,
desperdigando á sus partidarios y discípulos. Fué un
reformador religioso y literario, y con ideas políticas
de castiza cepa española, sustentadas con brillantez
y brío durante todo el siglo xvi por muchos teólogos,
filósofos y juristas, como Las Casas, Falcón, Fox
Morcillo, Simón Abril, Mariana.
65. Rivadeneira, en el t. LX Autor. Esp., pág. 597: "Comenzó á picar
la herejía entre gente principal, siendo maestro della Valdés,
hermano del secretario Valdés". Caracciolo, Vida de Paulo IV (César
Cantú, Gli eretici d'Italia, pág. 333): "En 1535 vino de Nápoles un
cierto Juan de Valdés, noble español cuanto pérfido hereje. Era
(según me dijo el cardenal Monreal, que mucho le recordaba) de
hermoso aspecto, de dulcísimos modales y de hablar suave y
atractivo; hacía profesión de lenguas y sagrada escritura; habitó en
Nápoles y Tierra de Labor... leía y explicaba en su casa á los
discípulos y afiliados las epístolas de San Pablo". Nic. Balbani, Vida
de Galeazzo Caracciolo: "Había por entonces en Nápoles un hidalgo
español, que teniendo algún conocimiento de la verdad evangélica
y, sobre todo, de la doctrina de la justificación, había comenzado á
traer á la nueva doctrina á algunos nobles, con quienes conversaba,
refutando las opiniones de la propia justicia y del mérito de las obras
y poniendo de manifiesto algunas supersticiones... los discípulos de
Valdés eran en Nápoles numerosísimos, pero en el conocimiento de
la verdad cristiana no habían pasado más allá del artículo de la
justificación y de rechazar algunos abusos del papismo; por lo
demás, iban á las iglesias, oían misa y participaban de la común
idolatría" (esto es, de la práctica católica). Miscellanea variarum
rerum (en Ferm. Caballero): "Paréceme, dice Jacobo Bonfadio, que
veo á v. señoría suspìrar con íntimo afecto por aquella tierra y
acordarse de Chiaja y del hermoso Posílipo... Pero ¿adonde iremos,
después que el señor Valdés ha muerto?" Allá acudía el elocuente
capuchino sienés fray Bernardino Ochino, general de su Orden,
varón de ayunos y maceraciones, siempre descalzo y á la
intemperie, pidiendo limosna de puerta en puerta, durmiendo en el
campo al pie de un árbol y que predicaba con tal espíritu y devoción,
que hacía llorar á las piedras, en frase de Carlos V. Juan de Valdés,
en 1536, se lo atrajo para sí, y con él á otros religiosos de su Orden.
Iban también Pedro Mártir Vermigli, canónigo regular de San Agustín
y abad de Spoleto; Marco Antonio Flaminio, buen médico y elegante
poeta latino; monseñor Pietro Carnesecchi, noble florentino,
protonotario y secretario de la Sede Apostólica, embajador del
Duque de Ferrara, muy protegido por Clemente VII y por todos los
Médicis; Galeazzo Caracciolo, marqués de Vico; Marco Antonio
Magno, apoderado de la Duquesa de Trajetto; el humanista é
historiador de Génova Jacobo Bonfadio: tales eran los discípulos
más allegados, sin contar con que más ó menos claudicaban en la
fe los Arzobispos de Otranto, Sorrento y Reggio; los de Catania, La
Cava, San Felice, Nola y Policastro, y más de tres mil afiliados,
según Caracciolo. Las más nobles señoras de Nápoles, Catalina
Cibo, duquesa de Camerino; Isabel Briceño, Victoria Colonna y Julia
Gonzaga, eran de su partido, ó participaban más ó menos de sus
doctrinas. Pero la discípula querida de Valdés, la que inspiró casi
todos sus escritos religiosos, fué Julia Gonzaga, duquesa viuda de
Trajetto y condesa de Fondi, de famosa hermosura y de no menos
maravilloso menosprecio del mundo, del cual se apartó para darse á
la caridad y devoción. La traducción del Alfabeto al italiano por
Marco Antonio Magno se imprimió en 1546, y el único ejemplar
conocido, descubierto por Wiffen, sirvió á Usoz de texto para las
versiones castellana é inglesa de entrambos: Alphabeto Christiano,
che insegna la vera via d' acquistare il lume dello Spirito Santo...
M.D.XLVI. Alfabeto Christiano, scritto in lingua Spagnuola por
Giovanni di Valdés. E dallo stesso manoscrito autografo recato nell'
Italiano por M. A. Magno. Otra ristampata fedelmente la versione
italiana, pagina per pagina, con l' aggiunta di due traduzioni, l' una in
Castigliano, l' altra in Inglese... Londra. L' anno MDCCCLX, por Usoz
y Wiffen. Según Carnesecchi había trabajado sobre todas las
epístolas de San Pablo, menos la de los Hebreos. Comentario ó
declaración breve y compendiosa sobre la Epístola de San Pablo
Apóstol á los romanos, Venecia, 1556. Comentario ó declaración
familiar y compendiosa sobre la primera Epístola de san Paulo
Apóstol á los Corinthios, Venecia, 1557; reimpresa modernamente
sin lugar ni año. Esta publicación la hizo en Ginebra, con el rótulo de
Venecia, el calvinista español Juan Pérez. Hay ejemplares en la
Bibl. de San Isidro y entre los libros de Usoz, el cual las reimprimió
(ts. X y XI de su colección), Madrid, 1856. Le cento et dieci divine
Considerationi del S. Giovanni Valdesso: nelle quali si ragiona delle
cose più utili, più necessarie et più perfette della Christiana
professione, Basilea, 1550 (ejemplar en la Bibl. de M. Pelayo). Hay
traducción francesa, tres veces impresa, Lyon, 1563; París, 1565;
Lyon, 1601; dos traducciones inglesas, Oxford, 1638; Londres, 1865.
Ediciones di Usoz: Ziento i diez consideraziones de Juan de Valdés.
Ahora publicadas por primera vez en castellano... Año de
MDCCCLV, t. IX de Reformistas. Ziento i diez consideraziones
leídas i explicadas hazia el año de 1538 á 1539. Por Juan de
Valdés. Conforme á un manuscrito Castellano escrito el año 1538,
existente en la Biblioteca de Hamburgo. Y ahora publicadas por
primera vez con un facsímile... España. Año MDCCCLXII, t. XVI de
Reformistas antiguos españoles. Pero el ms. de Hamburgo no es el
original de Valdés, sino una traducción del italiano, hecha con poco
esmero por algún protestante español en 1558. Tornó Usoz á
publicar las Ziento i diez consider..., traducidas por él mismo,
Londres, 1863, t. XVII de Reformistas, con notas, apéndices y
documentos sobre los hermanos Valdés. La traducción italiana fué
reimpresa por Boehmer, Halle, 1860; su mujer las tradujo al alemán,
Halle, 1870. De este libro saca M. Pelayo que Valdés fué
antitrinitario y arriano, creyendo que Cristo tuvo la imagen de Dios,
pero que no fué Dios, sino algo intermedio entre Dios y el hombre.
Fué de severo ascetismo y tuvo á la carne por enemiga de Dios, tal
como suena, entendiendo por ella, no los pecados y obras carnales,
como San Pablo, sino el mismo cuerpo humano y sus actos
fisiológicos. Atribuye á Dios el mal y el pecado, como verdadero
autor de él; condena la ciencia y el deseo de saber; no desecha las
imágenes; cree que la unión con Dios se hace por el amor, que nace
del conocimiento intuitivo. M. Pelayo le tiene por luterano, cerrado
en lo de la justificación y la fe; por unitario, en lo de la Trinidad, y, en
lo demás, por un iluminado, predecesor de Jorge Fox y de Barclay.
Es un místico frío y sin unción, por lo que tiene de islamita y arriano.
M. Pelayo, Heterod., t. II, pág. 203: "¿Y hay algo de español en el
ingenio de Valdés? Á mi juicio, dos cosas: la extremosidad de
carácter, que le lleva á sacar todas las consecuencias del primer
yerro, y de erasmista le convierte en luterano, y de luterano en
iluminado, y de iluminado en unitario; en segundo lugar, la
delicadeza de análisis psicológico y la tendencia á escudriñar los
motivos de las acciones humanas, que es lo que más elogian en él
los extranjeros, y el único parecido que tiene con nuestros místicos
ortodoxos".

66. Juan de Valdés, Diálogo de Mercurio y Carón, ed. E. Boehmer,

en Romanische Studien (1881), t. VI, Heft XIX. Diálogo de la lengua,
ed. E. Boehmer, en Romanische Studien (1895), t. VI, Heft XXII.
Trataditos, ed. E. Boehmer, Bonn, 1880. Ziento i diez
consideraziones, ed. L. de Usoz i Rio, Londres, 1863. Le cento e
dieci considerazioni di Giovanni Valdesso, ed. Boehmer.
Commentary upon 1 Cor., tr. por J. T. Betts, London, 1883. El
Evangelio según San Mateo, Madrid, 1880. Consúltense: B. B.
Wiffen, Life and writings of Juan Valdés otherwise Valdessio,
London, 1865. E. Boehmer, Spanish Reformers, Strassburg-London,
1874-1883, ts. I y II. Fermín Caballero, Conquenses ilustres, Madrid,
1875, t. IV. M. Carrasco, Alfonso et Juan de Valdés, leur vie et leurs
écrits religieux, Genève, 1880. M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Historia de
los Heterodoxos españoles, t. II, págs. 149-206, y t. III, págs. 843-
848. E. Boehmer, Revista Cristiana, Madrid, 1885-1887. C. A.
Wilkens, Geschichte des spanischen Protestantismus im 16.
Jahrhundert, Gütersloh, 1888. W. Webster, Gleanings in Church
History, London, 1903, págs. 136-157. B. Croce, Una data
importante nella vita di Juan de Valdés, en Archivo storico per le
provincie napolitane (1903), fasc. I. Diálogo de Mercurio y Carón,
trad. danesa por E. Gigas, Kjöbenhavn, 1904. A. Stor, Julia Gonzaga
y Juan de Valdés, en La Ilustración Española y Americana (1906), t.
LXXXI, págs. 124, 126-127. E. Boehmer, en Realencyclopädie für
protestantische Theologie und Kirche (Leipzig, 1908), t. XX, págs.
380-390. J. Heep, Juan de Valdés in seinem Verhältnis zu Erasmus
und dem Humanismus, Leipzig, 1909. Id., J. de Valdés, seine
Religion, sein Werden, seine Bedeutung, Leipzig, 1909.
67. Año 1529. Aurelio é Isabella. Amorosa historia de Aurelio é
Isabella, hija del Rey d'Escocia, Venecia, 1529; Amberes, 1556;
Bruselas, 1596, 1608.—Diego de Cabranes, del concejo de
Villaviciosa, maestro en Artes y en Santa Teología, religioso de la
Orden y caballería del glorioso Apóstol Santiago del Espada, et
capellán de S. M., publicó la Clave espiritual para abrir la alta
materia de la predestinación, Toledo, 1529. Abito y armadura
espiritual, Puebla de Guadalupe, 1545.—Miguel de Eguía, impresor
de Alcalá, publicó La Memoria de la Passión de Christo, Alcalá,
1529.—Coloquio espiritual de la Pasión de N. S., Sevilla, 1529, hoy
desconocido (Reg. Colón).—Estímulo de Amor, de S. Buenaventura,
Logroño, 1529; Alcalá, 1597 (dos ed.).—Fray Martín de
Castañega, franciscano, publicó el Tratado muy sotil y bien fundado
de las supersticiones y hechizerías y vanos conjuros y abusiones: y
otras cosas al caso tocantes y de la possibilidad é remedio dellas,
Logroño, 1529. (Se funda en el proceso contra el aquelarre de
Zugarramurdi, en Logroño, 1527, por el que fueron condenados 150
brujos).—Alfonso Martínez publicó De la complexión de las
Mugeres, Medina, 1529. Otros le llaman Antonio Martínez ó Alonso
Martín.—Fray Rodrigo Navarro, dominico, publicó Discursos
Evangélicos, Alcalá, 1529.—Antonio Polo, canónigo de Cuenca,
publicó Contra Sacerdotes Concubinarios, Venecia, 1529.—Regla
de la orden de la cavallería de señor Santiago del Espada, Toledo,
1529; ibid., 1530. (Véase I, 502).—Sumario breve de los Sonetos
Sacramentos, Sevilla, 1529.—Fray Luis Vicente tradujo Historia de
todas las propriedades de las cosas, Toledo, 1529.—Luis de Villa
Rubia publicó De preservatione ᘔ cura ab Epidemiali morbo, Toledo,
1529.

68. Año 1530. El padre M. Juan de Ávila (1500-

1569), apóstol de Andalucía, beato desde 1894,
nació en Almodóvar del Campo; fué hijo de Alonso
de Ávila y Catalina Xixona y estudió Derecho en
Salamanca (1514) durante cuatro años. Pero, como
después decía él: "¿para qué se me daban á mí las
negras leyes?" Vuelto de vacaciones á casa,
recogióse (1518) en una celdilla y se entregó á las
asperezas y vida devota, aunque, por consejo de un
franciscano, se fué á estudiar Artes y Teología en
Alcalá (1520), para mejor servir á Dios en su Iglesia.
Oyó á fray Domingo de Soto, se hizo amigo de
Pedro Guerrero, después Arzobispo de Granada, y,
ordenado de sacerdote (1525), pensó en pasar á las
Indias á predicar la fe; pero ya en Sevilla (1527),
detúvole el arzobispo don Alonso Manrique,
empleándole en la predicación, con la cual, por
púlpitos, plazas y hospitales, y con la enseñanza del
Catecismo á los niños, no es de creer el fruto que
logró. En Écija convirtió á Dios á doña Sancha
Carrillo, hija de los señores de Guadalcázar, para
quien, aquel mismo año de 1530, escribió el Audi
filia, paráfrasis en 113 capítulos del Salmo 44,
publicado, sin autorización del autor, hacia 1538;
volvióse á publicar en Alcalá, 1556, también
furtivamente, y, prohibido por la Inquisición, rehízolo
estando en Montilla, en 1557, y así es como salió
con aprobación oficial en 1574 y 1577.
Denunciáronle á la Inquisición algunos presumidos y
envidiosos de su celo y fama y encarceláronle
(1532), hasta que, aclarada la verdad de su ejemplar
vida y doctrina y la calumnia de los delatores, fué
dado por libre (1533), en sentencia definitiva y por
voto unánime. De Sevilla pasó á predicar á Alcalá de
Guadaira, Jerez, Palma, Écija, Andújar y Córdoba,
donde hizo asiento por varios años, estando allí en
1535 y 1536; luego á Granada (1537), Guadalcázar,
adonde fué para asistir á la muerte de doña Sancha,
en 1537, y Granada otra vez, y allí predicó las
honras de la Emperatriz (1539) con el efecto que
todos saben en el Marqués de Lombay, después San
Francisco de Borja. Allí había sido no menos
instrumento de la conversión de San Juan de Dios
(1537). Estuvo en Baeza, donde organizó la Escuela
y Universidad, que el doctor Rodrigo López, capellán
y familiar de Su Santidad, había fundado en 1538,
siendo nombrado nuestro Beato su patrono por bula
de Paulo III (1540), y haciendo él las constituciones
de los estudios y eligiendo los maestros entre sus
mejores discípulos. Fué gran parte para que, en
1544, se fundasen en Córdoba los estudios de Artes
y Teología, nombrando él los lectores. Predicó en
Montilla la Cuaresma de 1545, trabando amistad con
el conde de Feria, don Pedro Fernández de Córdoba
y Figueroa y su mujer doña Ana Ponce de León, á
quienes acompañó en 1546 desde Córdoba á Zafra,
donde predicó, así como en Fregenal (1547),
volviendo á Córdoba para el 1549, año en que
escribió á San Ignacio, respondiéndole á la que le
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