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 SECOND EDITION

DISCRETE
SYSTEMS and
DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
with MATLAB ®

Taan S. ElAli
 SECOND EDITION

DISCRETE
SYSTEMS and
DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
with MATLAB ®
 SECOND EDITION

DISCRETE
SYSTEMS and
DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
with MATLAB ®

Taan S. ElAli
King Faisal University

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® soft-
ware or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular
pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20111107

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This book is dedicated first to the glory of Almighty God. It is dedicated next

to my beloved parents, father, Saeed, and mother, Shandokha. May Allah

have mercy on their souls. It is dedicated then to my wife, Salam; my beloved

children, Mohammad, Nusayba, Ali, and Zayd; my brothers, Mohammad

and Khaled; and my sisters, Sabha, Khulda, Miriam, and Fatma. I ask the

Almighty to have mercy on us and to bring peace, harmony, and justice to all.
Contents

Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................. xvii
Author.................................................................................................................... xix

1. Signal Representation....................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Why Do We Discretize Continuous Systems?...................................3
1.3 Periodic and Nonperiodic Discrete Signals....................................... 3
1.4 Unit Step Discrete Signal......................................................................4
1.5 Impulse Discrete Signal........................................................................6
1.6 Ramp Discrete Signal............................................................................ 6
1.7 Real Exponential Discrete Signal........................................................7
1.8 Sinusoidal Discrete Signal....................................................................7
1.9 Exponentially Modulated Sinusoidal Signal................................... 11
1.10 Complex Periodic Discrete Signal..................................................... 11
1.11 Shifting Operation............................................................................... 15
1.12 Representing a Discrete Signal Using Impulses............................. 16
1.13 Reflection Operation............................................................................ 20
1.14 Time Scaling......................................................................................... 20
1.15 Amplitude Scaling............................................................................... 20
1.16 Even and Odd Discrete Signal........................................................... 21
1.17 Does a Discrete Signal Have a Time Constant?............................... 24
1.18 Basic Operations on Discrete Signals................................................ 25
1.18.1 Modulation.............................................................................. 25
1.18.2 Addition and Subtraction...................................................... 26
1.18.3 Scalar Multiplication.............................................................. 26
1.18.4 Combined Operations............................................................ 26
1.19 Energy and Power Discrete Signals.................................................. 28
1.20 Bounded and Unbounded Discrete Signals.....................................30
1.21 Some Insights: Signals in the Real World......................................... 31
1.21.1 Step Signal............................................................................... 31
1.21.2 Impulse Signal......................................................................... 31
1.21.3 Sinusoidal Signal..................................................................... 31
1.21.4 Ramp Signal............................................................................. 32
1.21.5 Other Signals........................................................................... 32
End of Chapter Examples.............................................................................. 32
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................... 53

vii
viii Contents

2. Discrete System.............................................................................................. 57
2.1 Definition of a System......................................................................... 57
2.2 Input and Output................................................................................. 57
2.3 Linear Discrete Systems...................................................................... 58
2.4 Time Invariance and Discrete Signals.............................................. 61
2.5 Systems with Memory......................................................................... 62
2.6 Causal Systems.....................................................................................63
2.7 Inverse of a System..............................................................................64
2.8 Stable System........................................................................................65
2.9 Convolution........................................................................................... 66
2.10 Difference Equations of Physical Systems........................................ 69
2.11 Homogeneous Difference Equation and Its Solution..................... 70
2.11.1 Case When Roots Are All Distinct....................................... 73
2.11.2 Case When Two Roots Are Real and Equal........................ 73
2.11.3 Case When Two Roots Are Complex................................... 74
2.12 Nonhomogeneous Difference Equations and Their Solutions...... 75
2.12.1 How Do We Find the Particular Solution?..........................77
2.13 Stability of Linear Discrete Systems: The Characteristic
Equation................................................................................................77
2.13.1 Stability Depending on the Values of the Poles.................77
2.13.2 Stability from the Jury Test.................................................... 78
2.14 Block Diagram Representation of Linear Discrete Systems..........80
2.14.1 Delay Element.........................................................................80
2.14.2 Summing/Subtracting Junction........................................... 81
2.14.3 Multiplier................................................................................. 81
2.15 From the Block Diagram to the Difference Equation..................... 82
2.16 From the Difference Equation to the Block Diagram:
A Formal Procedure............................................................................83
2.17 Impulse Response................................................................................ 86
2.18 Correlation............................................................................................ 88
2.18.1 Cross-Correlation.................................................................... 88
2.18.2 Auto-Correlation..................................................................... 90
2.19 Some Insights........................................................................................ 91
2.19.1 How Can We Find These Eigenvalues?............................... 91
2.19.2 Stability and Eigenvalues...................................................... 92
End of Chapter Examples.............................................................................. 93
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 135

3. Fourier Series and the Fourier Transform of Discrete Signals............. 141

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 141
3.2 Review of Complex Numbers.......................................................... 141
3.2.1 Definition............................................................................... 142
3.2.2 Addition................................................................................. 143
3.2.3 Subtraction............................................................................. 143
3.2.4 Multiplication........................................................................ 143
Contents ix

3.2.5 Division.................................................................................. 144

3.2.6 From Rectangular to Polar.................................................. 144
3.2.7 From Polar to Rectangular.................................................. 145
3.3 Fourier Series of Discrete Periodic Signals.................................... 145
3.4 Discrete System with Periodic Inputs: The Steady-State
Response��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
3.4.1 General Form for yss(n)......................................................... 151
3.5 Frequency Response of Discrete Systems...................................... 152
3.5.1 Properties of the Frequency Response.............................. 154
3.5.1.1 Periodicity Property.............................................. 154
3.5.1.2 Symmetry Property.............................................. 155
3.6 Fourier Transform of Discrete Signals............................................ 157
3.7 Convergence Conditions................................................................... 159
3.8 Properties of the Fourier Transform of Discrete Signals............. 159
3.8.1 Periodicity Property............................................................. 159
3.8.2 Linearity Property................................................................ 160
3.8.3 Discrete-Time Shifting Property........................................ 160
3.8.4 Frequency Shifting Property............................................... 160
3.8.5 Reflection Property............................................................... 161
3.8.6 Convolution Property........................................................... 161
3.9 Parseval’s Relation and Energy Calculations................................. 164
3.10 Numerical Evaluation of the Fourier Transform
of Discrete Signals����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165
3.11 Some Insights: Why Is This Fourier Transform?........................... 170
3.11.1 Ease in Analysis and Design............................................... 170
3.11.2 Sinusoidal Analysis.............................................................. 170
End of Chapter Examples............................................................................ 171
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 185

4. z-Transform and Discrete Systems.......................................................... 191

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 191
4.2 Bilateral z-Transform.......................................................................... 191
4.3 Unilateral z-Transform...................................................................... 193
4.4 Convergence Considerations............................................................ 196
4.5 Inverse z-Transform........................................................................... 199
4.5.1 Partial Fraction Expansion.................................................. 199
4.5.2 Long Division........................................................................ 201
4.6 Properties of the z-Transform........................................................... 202
4.6.1 Linearity Property................................................................ 203
4.6.2 Shifting Property.................................................................. 203
4.6.3 Multiplication by e−an. .......................................................... 205
4.6.4 Convolution........................................................................... 205
4.7 Representation of Transfer Functions as Block Diagrams........... 206
4.8 x(n), h(n), y(n), and the z-Transform.................................................. 208
4.9 Solving Difference Equation Using the z-Transform.................... 209
x Contents

4.10 Convergence Revisited...................................................................... 211

4.11 Final-Value Theorem......................................................................... 214
4.12 Initial-Value Theorem........................................................................ 215
4.13 Some Insights: Poles and Zeroes...................................................... 215
4.13.1 Poles of the System............................................................... 216
4.13.2 Zeros of the System............................................................... 216
4.13.3 Stability of the System.......................................................... 216
End of Chapter Exercises............................................................................. 217
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 249

5. State-Space and Discrete Systems............................................................ 259

5.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 259
5.2 Review on Matrix Algebra................................................................ 260
5.2.1 Definition, General Terms, and Notations........................ 260
5.2.2 Identity Matrix...................................................................... 260
5.2.3 Adding Two Matrices........................................................... 261
5.2.4 Subtracting Two Matrices.................................................... 261
5.2.5 Multiplying a Matrix by a Constant................................... 261
5.2.6 Determinant of a Two-by-Two Matrix............................... 261
5.2.7 Transpose of a Matrix........................................................... 262
5.2.8 Inverse of a Matrix................................................................ 262
5.2.9 Matrix Multiplication........................................................... 262
5.2.10 Eigenvalues of a Matrix........................................................ 263
5.2.11 Diagonal Form of a Matrix.................................................. 263
5.2.12 Eigenvectors of a Matrix...................................................... 263
5.3 General Representation of Systems in State Space........................ 264
5.3.1 Recursive Systems................................................................. 264
5.3.2 Nonrecursive Systems.......................................................... 266
5.3.3 From the Block Diagram to State Space............................. 267
5.3.4 From the Transfer Function H(z) to State Space................ 270
5.4 Solution of the State-Space Equations in the z-Domain............... 277
5.5 General Solution of the State Equation in Real Time.................... 278
5.6 Properties of An and Its Evaluation................................................. 280
5.7 Transformations for State-Space Representations......................... 283
5.8 Some Insights: Poles and Stability................................................... 285
End of Chapter Examples............................................................................ 286
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 315

6. Block Diagrams and Review of Discrete System Representations...... 323

6.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 323
6.2 Basic Block Diagram Components.................................................. 324
6.2.1 Ideal Delay............................................................................. 324
6.2.2 Adder...................................................................................... 324
6.2.3 Subtractor............................................................................... 324
6.2.4 Multiplier............................................................................... 325
Contents xi

6.3 Block Diagrams as Interconnected Subsystems............................ 325

6.3.1 General Transfer Function Representation....................... 325
6.3.2 Parallel Representation........................................................ 325
6.3.3 Series Representation........................................................... 326
6.3.4 Basic Feedback Representation........................................... 326
6.4 Controllable Canonical Form Block Diagrams
with Basic Blocks................................................................................ 327
6.5 Observable Canonical Form Block Diagrams
with Basic Blocks............................................................................... 329
6.6 Diagonal Form Block Diagrams with Basic Blocks....................... 330
6.6.1 Distinct Roots Case............................................................... 330
6.6.2 Repeated Roots Case............................................................ 332
6.7 Parallel Block Diagrams with Subsystems..................................... 332
6.7.1 Distinct Roots Case............................................................... 332
6.7.2 Repeated Roots Case............................................................ 333
6.8 Series Block Diagrams with Subsystems........................................334
6.8.1 Distinct Real Roots Case......................................................334
6.8.2 Mixed Complex and Real Roots Case................................ 335
6.9 Block Diagram Reduction Rules...................................................... 335
6.9.1 Using the Reduction Rules.................................................. 335
6.9.2 Using Mason’s Rule.............................................................. 335
End of Chapter Examples............................................................................ 336
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 359

7. Discrete Fourier Transform and Discrete Systems............................... 365

7.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 365
7.2 Discrete Fourier Transform and the Finite-Duration
Discrete Signals.................................................................................. 366
7.3 Properties of the DFT........................................................................ 367
7.3.1 How Does the Defining Equation Work?.......................... 367
7.3.2 DFT Symmetry...................................................................... 369
7.3.3 DFT Linearity........................................................................ 371
7.3.4 Magnitude of the DFT.......................................................... 371
7.3.5 What Does k in X(k), the DFT, Mean?................................. 372
7.4 Relation the DFT Has with the Fourier Transform of
Discrete Signals, the z-Transform, and the Continuous
Fourier Transform.............................................................................. 373
7.4.1 DFT and the Fourier Transform of x(n).............................. 373
7.4.2 DFT and the z-Transform of x(n)......................................... 374
7.4.3 DFT and the Continuous Fourier Transform of x(t)......... 374
7.5 Numerical Computation of the DFT............................................... 377
7.6 Fast Fourier Transform: A Faster Way of Computing the DFT...... 378
7.7 Applications of the DFT.................................................................... 380
7.7.1 Circular Convolution............................................................ 380
7.7.2 Linear Convolution...............................................................384
xii Contents

7.7.3
Approximation to the Continuous Fourier Transform........ 385
7.7.4
Approximation to the Coefficients of the Fourier
Series and the Average Power of the Periodic
Signal x(t)................................................................................ 386
7.7.5 Total Energy in the Signal x(n) and x(t).............................. 391
7.7.6 Block Filtering....................................................................... 393
7.7.7 Correlation............................................................................. 393
7.8 Some Insights...................................................................................... 394
7.8.1 DFT Is the Same as the fft.................................................... 394
7.8.2 DFT Points Are the Samples of the Fourier
Transform of x(n)................................................................... 394
7.8.3 How Can We Be Certain That Most of the Frequency
Contents of x(t) Are in the DFT?......................................... 395
7.8.4 Is the Circular Convolution the Same as the Linear
Convolution?.......................................................................... 395
7.8.5 Is |X(w)| ≅ |X(k)|?.................................................................. 395
7.8.6 Frequency Leakage and the DFT........................................ 395
End of Chapter Exercises............................................................................. 396
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 415

8. Sampling and Transformations................................................................ 421

8.1 Need for Converting a Continuous Signal
to a Discrete Signal......................................................................... 421
8.2 From the Continuous Signal to Its Binary
Code Representation...................................................................... 422
8.3 From the Binary Code to the Continuous Signal..........................423
8.4 Sampling Operation.......................................................................... 424
8.4.1 Ambiguity in Real-Time Domain....................................... 424
8.4.2 Ambiguity in the Frequency Domain............................... 427
8.4.3 Sampling Theorem............................................................... 427
8.4.4 Filtering before Sampling.................................................... 428
8.4.5 Sampling and Recovery of the Continuous Signal.......... 429
8.5 How Do We Discretize the Derivative Operation?.......................434
8.6 Discretization of the State-Space Representation.......................... 438
8.7 Bilinear Transformation and the Relationship between
the Laplace-Domain and the z-Domain Representations............440
8.8 Other Transformation Methods.......................................................445
8.8.1 Impulse Invariance Method................................................446
8.8.2 Step Invariance Method.......................................................446
8.8.3 Forward Difference Method...............................................446
8.8.4 Backward Difference Method.............................................446
8.8.5 Bilinear Transformation.......................................................446
8.9 Some Insights...................................................................................... 449
8.9.1 Choice of the Sampling Interval Ts..................................... 449
8.9.2 Effect of Choosing Ts on the Dynamics of the System...... 449
Contents xiii

8.9.3
Does Sampling Introduce Additional Zeros
to the Transfer Function H(z)?............................................. 450
End of Chapter Examples............................................................................ 450
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 467

9. Infinite Impulse Response Filter Design............................................... 473

9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 473
9.2 Design Process.................................................................................... 474
9.2.1 Design Based on the Impulse Invariance Method........... 475
9.2.2 Design Based on the Bilinear Transform Method........... 477
9.3 IIR Filter Design Using MATLAB®. ................................................480
9.3.1 From the Analogue Prototype to the IIR Digital Filter..... 481
9.3.2 Direct Design......................................................................... 481
9.4 Some Insights...................................................................................... 482
9.4.1 Difficulty in Designing IIR Digital Filters
in the z-Domain..................................................................... 482
9.4.2 Using the Impulse Invariance Method..............................484
9.4.3 Choice of the Sampling Interval Ts.....................................484
End of Chapter Examples............................................................................484
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 515

10. Finite Impulse Response Digital Filters................................................. 521

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 521
10.1.1 What Is an FIR Digital Filter?.............................................. 521
10.1.2 Motivating Example............................................................. 521
10.2 FIR Filter Design................................................................................ 524
10.2.1 Stability of FIR Filters........................................................... 526
10.2.2 Linear Phase of FIR Filters.................................................. 527
10.3 Design Based on the Fourier Series: The Windowing Method..... 528
10.3.1 Ideal Lowpass FIR Filter Design......................................... 529
10.3.2 Other Ideal Digital FIR Filters............................................. 531
10.3.3 Windows Used in the Design of the Digital FIR Filter...... 532
10.3.4 Which Window Does Give the Optimal h(n)?..................534
10.3.5 Design of a Digital FIR Differentiator................................ 535
10.3.6 Design of Comb FIR Filters................................................. 537
10.3.7 Design of a Digital Shifter: The Hilbert
Transform Filter.................................................................... 539
10.4 From IIR to FIR Digital Filters: An Approximation......................540
10.5 Frequency Sampling and FIR Filter Design...................................540
10.6 FIR Digital Design Using MATLAB®.............................................. 541
10.6.1 Design Using Windows....................................................... 541
10.6.2 Design Using Least-Squared Error....................................542
10.6.3 Design Using the Equiripple Linear Phase.......................542
10.6.4 How to Obtain the Frequency Response...........................542
xiv Contents

10.7 Some Insights......................................................................................543

10.7.1 Comparison with IIR Filters................................................543
10.7.2 Different Methods Used in the FIR Filter Design............543
End of the Chapter Examples.....................................................................544
End of Chapter Problems............................................................................. 572

Bibliography......................................................................................................... 579
 Another Random Document on
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to dinner that night, take Grace by surprise, and see for himself.
When he refused she taunted him with backing out of his own test,
and dared him to the scratch. She telephoned Grace finally that she
wanted to bring a friend to dinner, and they drove over together.
“Milly and Bobolink were out in his car,” she said; “and Cousin
Grace didn’t see us coming. We walked right in on her in the living-
room before she knew he was there.” Caro paused to wipe her eyes.
“I’ll cry for six months whenever I think about it. I don’t see how
Cousin Grace can care so much—he’s been so hateful to her. I
thought she was going to faint at first. Then she stood there
speechless, her hands stretched out, and her face the most beautiful
thing I ever saw. He called her name and went toward her, and she
just slipped into his arms with one long sob, as if her heart were
breaking. And I went out and shut the door.”
When Milly came in she was plainly overjoyed, for her mother’s
sake, if not for his; and Bobolink, Caro declared, behaved like an
archangel. She inconsistently elucidated this remark by explaining
that he had been brought up on a farm and was as crazy about the
country as I am myself; and he has always kept up his knowledge of
agriculture and his interest in it. Cousin Jason, who had taken him
for what he politely terms a city fool, thawed visibly toward him
during the evening. And before he left he had promised to give the
bride away.
Caro, who believes in striking while the iron is hot, offered to go
to town with him the next day to order his dress-suit for the
occasion. As the wedding is to be on the twenty-ninth, there is
certainly no time to lose. But Cousin Jason, who has scorned
conventionality all his life, balked instantly, and declared that if he
had to make a fool of himself to do it he wouldn’t come to the
wedding at all.
Grace agreed at once to his wearing anything he chose; but Caro
was resolved to carry her point.
“You see, Mammy Lil, he was just in retreat, and I had to rout
him. If I had let him make a stand about the clothes he’d wear I’d
have been throwing away my victory. So I told him he had to have a
dress-suit. He’d need it for my wedding as well as Milly’s. I didn’t tell
him before Cousin Grace; I waited till he drove me back to Cousin
Jane’s. And next day I went over again to sit up with him about it.”
“He ought to have admired your persistence.”
“That’s just what I told him. He began to weaken a little, so I
brought him over and showed him the Perchery as a reward. And he
went this very day. The tailor said he couldn’t make it in time, and
Cousin Jason crowed and said he’d told me so. But I explained to
the tailor that he could make it, and that he had it to do. So he
agreed. We bought gloves, and a tie, and everything; and I made
him get his hair cut, and he’s going to look scrumptious. You really
haven’t an idea what can be done with an old relation till you begin
to furbish him up.”

October 30th. Milly was married in church, and she and Cousin
Jason and Grace stopped by here on their way to the wedding for
me to see them. Milly was beautiful, and no bride but Caro could be
sweeter; and Grace, all in silvery gray, with that deep light in her
eyes, was like nothing but the Moonlight Sonata. As to Cousin Jason,
he was furbished almost past recognition; and my admiration
pleased him like a boy.
Caro fluttered about them, radiant in her bridesmaid’s dress, and
followed by David’s adoring eyes. The Peon escorted Grace; and
after awhile I watched the carriages coming back. Before they left
for the station Caro telephoned me, and Uncle Milton wheeled me
down to the gate, where I waved my handkerchief and cast my
handful of rice as they drove by, Milly’s exquisite face alight with a
look her husband may well carry in his heart always.

November 29th. How fast the days slip by! Milly came home early
in the week, and yesterday was the Thanksgiving I prophesied about
to David last spring.
 Certainly I am going all about the house; and to emphasize my
success as a seer we had a family gathering at Thanksgiving dinner.
The bride and groom were here, of course, and Grace, who leaves
as soon as Caro is married, and Cousin Jason—resplendent, by the
way, in his dress-suit, which he considered a capital joke on Caro.
Cousin Jane looked not a day over fifty, and Cousin Chad had done
some furbishing himself to keep her company.
To think of a dinner party at Bird Corners again, after all these
years! The Peon and I beamed at one another from the ends of the
table; and in the centre, the bride and groom faced the bride-and-
groom-to-be, with the older people tucked in at the corners. And it
was all so good to see and hear—such a fairy tale come true—that,
as I lie here today resting, I am just too happy for words.
David and Caro are to be married next Wednesday—married
here, at Bird Corners. I dare not risk going to the church yet, and
Cousin Jane’s is quite as far away. Besides, both the children want it
here, and it is and always has been Caro’s home as well as David’s.
Cousin Jane has really been sweet about it; and it is all settled that
she and Caro are to come over in time for me to help dress the
bride. Grace is coming tomorrow, and will stay with me until it is all
over and she goes away herself.

December 9th. The wedding day was perfect—cloudless blue,

and the little red wren singing his matins in the lilac almost before it
was light. I am glad the child is a winter bride. She can afford to
ignore the seasons, for she carries spring-time in her heart, like her
namesake out of doors.
It was all beautiful, and I with my own hands helped to make it
so. But nothing about it is very clear to me except the look in the
children’s eyes—our children, both of them, at last. Caro’s joy had
sobered her, so that she walked the earth in radiance, instead of
fluttering, light-winged, above it; but David’s joy had set him on the
heights. Oh, my son, my son, child of my soul always! I could not
have borne the look upon his face if I had not known Caro through
and through. But now I am not afraid.
Grace went the day after the wedding, and left me in a world
where real and Make-Believe are blended into one. The Peon comes
home early, and together we walk across the grass to the Perchery,
and talk of how he wheeled me there in those sorrowful days last
spring, when it seemed the knoll would never know the nest we
longed to see there. And in the evening we sit in the firelight
together, and hear the childish voices of long ago in the room, and
childish feet in the hall. And we laugh over the good old days, and
smile over the new days, which are better. And before I go to bed
we go to the window and look at the children’s house, standing clear
against the stars. And they come and stand beside us there, their
tiny hands in ours—the dear, long-ago little children, who will be
with us always, though the big children, dearer still, come and go
across the grass between their home and ours.

THE END

Transcriber’s Notes:
Punctuation and obvious typesetting errors have been corrected
without note. When variation in spelling or hyphenation occurred,
majority use has been employed.

[End of In the Garden of Delight, by Lily Hardy Hammond]

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