Endless Ebook, One Click Away – Start Downloading at ebookname.

com

Raspberry PI Computer Vision Programming 1st

Edition Pajankar

https://ebookname.com/product/raspberry-pi-computer-vision-
programming-1st-edition-pajankar/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Browse and Get More Ebook Downloads Instantly at https://ebookname.com

Click here to visit ebookname.com and download ebook now
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Raspberry Pi Gaming 2nd Edition Design create and play

all kinds of video games on your Raspberry Pi computer
Shea Silverman

https://ebookname.com/product/raspberry-pi-gaming-2nd-edition-
design-create-and-play-all-kinds-of-video-games-on-your-
raspberry-pi-computer-shea-silverman/

Raspberry Pi Robotics Essentials 1st Edition Grimmett

https://ebookname.com/product/raspberry-pi-robotics-
essentials-1st-edition-grimmett/

Raspberry Pi LED Blueprints 1st Edition Kurniawan

https://ebookname.com/product/raspberry-pi-led-blueprints-1st-
edition-kurniawan/

New Practical Chinese Reader Vol 1 3rd Ed 3rd Edition

Liu Xun

https://ebookname.com/product/new-practical-chinese-reader-
vol-1-3rd-ed-3rd-edition-liu-xun/
The Fundamentals of Interior Architecture First Edition
Naomi House

https://ebookname.com/product/the-fundamentals-of-interior-
architecture-first-edition-naomi-house/

Environmental Impact Assessment Methodologies 2nd

edition Y. Anjaneyulu

https://ebookname.com/product/environmental-impact-assessment-
methodologies-2nd-edition-y-anjaneyulu/

Operator Theory Functional Analysis and Applications

Operator Theory Advances and Applications 282 1st ed.
2021 Edition M. Amélia Bastos (Editor)

https://ebookname.com/product/operator-theory-functional-
analysis-and-applications-operator-theory-advances-and-
applications-282-1st-ed-2021-edition-m-amelia-bastos-editor/

Measure and Integration 1st Edition Leonard F.

Richardson

https://ebookname.com/product/measure-and-integration-1st-
edition-leonard-f-richardson/

A Treatise on Universal Algebra With Applications

Alfred North Whitehead

https://ebookname.com/product/a-treatise-on-universal-algebra-
with-applications-alfred-north-whitehead/
Toward Better Infrastructure Conditions Constraints and
Opportunities in Financing Public Private Partnerships
1st Edition Riham Shendy

https://ebookname.com/product/toward-better-infrastructure-
conditions-constraints-and-opportunities-in-financing-public-
private-partnerships-1st-edition-riham-shendy/
Raspberry Pi Computer Vision
Programming

Design and implement your own computer vision

applications with the Raspberry Pi

Ashwin Pajankar

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Raspberry Pi Computer Vision Programming

Copyright © 2015 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: May 2015

Production reference: 1250515

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78439-828-6

www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Author Project Coordinator

Ashwin Pajankar Nikhil Nair

Reviewers Proofreaders
James Allen Stephen Copestake
Arush Kakkar Safis Editing
Luis A. Larco
Fred Stakem Indexer
Priya Sane
Aldo Vargas

Graphics
Commissioning Editor
Sheetal Aute
Amit Ghodake
Disha Haria

Acquisition Editor
Llewellyn Rozario Production Coordinator
Shantanu Zagade

Content Development Editor

Merwyn D'souza Cover Work
Shantanu Zagade

Technical Editor
Edwin Moses

Copy Editors
Puja Lalwani
Vedangi Narvekar
 About the Author

Ashwin Pajankar is a Bangalore-based software professional with more than

5 years of experience in software design, development, testing, and automation.
He graduated from IIT Hyderabad with an MTech degree in computer science
and engineering. He holds multiple professional certifications from Oracle, IBM,
Teradata, and ISTQB in development, databases, and testing. Apart from work, he
enjoys serving the community. He has won several awards in college through college
outreach initiatives and at work for community service through his employers
for corporate social responsibility programs. He was introduced to the Raspberry
Pi while organizing a hackathon at his workplace, and he's been hooked on to Pi
ever since. He writes plenty of code in Bash, Python, and Java on his cluster of Pi.
Currently, he's building India's biggest cluster of the recently launched Raspberry
Pi 2. He's reviewed two other titles related to Python from Packt and is working on
another book on Raspberry Pi.

You can view Ashwin's LinkedIn profile by visiting in.linkedin.com/in/

ashwinpajankar.

I would like to thank my wife, Kavitha, for motivating me to

write this book to share my knowledge with others. I would also
like to thank Merwyn D'Souza and Llewellyn Rozario from Packt
Publishing for providing me with the opportunity, guidance, and
necessary support to write this book. Last but not least, I would like
to thank all the reviewers who helped me make the book better by
providing their precious feedback.
 About the Reviewers

James Allen is a computer scientist and a teacher whose experiences run the gamut
from web and application programming to graphic design and sound engineering.
If a form of media can be produced on a computer, there is a very good chance that
he has dabbled in something along those lines.

He is very interested in the enabling factor of technology and how advancements

in personal computers and handheld devices have opened up a wide variety
of activities to a big chunk of the population. He is especially interested in
opening up these activities further. Above all, he wants to be happy and bring
happiness to others. You can read more about his (mis)adventures by visiting
http://jamesmallen.net.

Arush Kakkar is a robotics enthusiast who has experience in computer

vision, machine learning, and hardware technologies. His primary focus is
on autonomous robotics, which includes drones and self-driving cars. He has
contributed to the development of these systems in different capacities, including
computer vision and path planning. He is the electronics engineer for the solar car
team of his university, DTU Solaris. He is also interested in building commercial
solutions in robotics to reduce the manual labor required in jobs. You can contact
him through his website, www.arushkakkar.com, and read about some of his
projects on http://blog.arushkakkar.com.
Luis A. Larco is a software engineer at GE Healthcare in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
as well as a research associate at the Medical Imaging Research Center (MIRC) at
the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, Illinois. Originally from Lima, Peru,
Luis was raised in Miami, Florida, where he attended high school and college. He
subsequently relocated to Illinois and studied at the Illinois Institute of Technology.
He received bachelor’s degrees in electrical engineering and computer engineering.
While studying for his undergraduate degree, he worked on a research project
with the Chicago Police Department on predictive policing. In his free time, he
enjoys performing with his jazz band, where he plays the bass, as well as hiking
and mountain biking.

Aldo Vargas is a mechatronics engineer who graduated from UNAM in Mexico

City. He has previously worked in the robotics industry. He is currently completing
his PhD in aerospace engineering from the University of Glasgow, United
Kingdom. He is developing GNC (guidance, navigation, and control) algorithms for
unmanned aerial systems. The research aim is to give UAS the ability to "see" using
advanced and practical computer vision algorithms programmed in Python. He has
academic and industrial experience in control systems, embedded systems, artificial
intelligence, machine learning, computer vision, robotics, and systems integration.

Aldo loves to design, build, and control drones at work and during his free time.
He also enjoys scuba diving, skydiving, and riding motorcycles. If you're interested
in knowing more about his work, you can visit http://aldux.net.
 www.PacktPub.com

Support files, eBooks, discount offers, and more

For support files and downloads related to your book, please visit www.PacktPub.com.

Did you know that Packt offers eBook versions of every book published, with PDF
and ePub files available? You can upgrade to the eBook version at www.PacktPub.com
and as a print book customer, you are entitled to a discount on the eBook copy. Get in
touch with us at service@packtpub.com for more details.

At www.PacktPub.com, you can also read a collection of free technical articles, sign
up for a range of free newsletters and receive exclusive discounts and offers on Packt
books and eBooks.
TM

https://www2.packtpub.com/books/subscription/packtlib

Do you need instant solutions to your IT questions? PacktLib is Packt's online digital
book library. Here, you can search, access, and read Packt's entire library of books.

Why subscribe?
• Fully searchable across every book published by Packt
• Copy and paste, print, and bookmark content
• On demand and accessible via a web browser

Free access for Packt account holders

If you have an account with Packt at www.PacktPub.com, you can use this to access
PacktLib today and view 9 entirely free books. Simply use your login credentials for
immediate access.
 Table of Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer Vision and Raspberry Pi 1
Computer vision 1
OpenCV 2
Single-board computers and the Raspberry Pi 4
Raspberry Pi 4
Operating systems 5
Raspbian 6
Setting up your Raspberry Pi B+ 7
Preparing your microSD card manually 9
Booting up your Raspberry Pi for the first time 11
Shutting down and rebooting your Pi safely 12
Preparing your Pi for computer vision 13
Testing OpenCV installation with Python 15
NumPy 16
Array creation 16
Basic operations on arrays 17
Linear algebra 17
Summary 18
Chapter 2: Working with Images, Webcams, and GUI 19
Running Python programs with Raspberry Pi 19
Working with images 22
Using matplotlib 24
Drawing geometric shapes 26
Working with trackbar and named window 28
Working with a webcam 30
Creating a timelapse sequence using fswebcam 32
Webcam video recording and playback 34

[i]
Table of Contents

Working with a webcam using OpenCV 34

Saving a video and playback of a video using OpenCV 36
Working with the Pi camera module 37
Using raspistill and raspivid 37
Using picamera in Python with the Pi camera module 38
picamera and OpenCV 39
Summary 39
Chapter 3: Basic Image Processing 41
Retrieving image properties 41
Arithmetic operations on images 42
Blending and transitioning images 45
Splitting and merging image colour channels 47
Creating a negative of an image 48
Logical operations on images 50
Exercise 51
Summary 52
Chapter 4: Colorspaces, Transformations, and Thresholds 53
Colorspaces and conversions 53
Tracking in real time based on color 56
Image transformations 58
Scaling 58
Translation, rotation, and affine transformation 59
Perspective transformation 64
Thresholding image 66
Otsu's method 68
Exercise 69
Summary 70
Chapter 5: Let's Make Some Noise 71
Noise 71
Introducing noise to an image 72
Kernels 74
2D convolution filtering 74
Low-pass filtering 76
Exercise 79
Summary 79

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 6: Edges, Circles, and Lines' Detection 81

High-pass filters 81
Canny Edge detector 85
Hough circle and line transforms 86
Exercise 90
Summary 90
Chapter 7: Image Restoration, Quantization, and Depth Map 91
Restoring images using inpainting 91
Image segmentation 93
Mean shift algorithm based segmentation 94
K-means clustering and image quantization 95
Comparison of mean shift and k-means 98
Disparity map and depth estimation 98
Summary 99
Chapter 8: Histograms, Contours, Morphological
Transformations, and Performance Measurement 101
Image histograms 101
Image contours 104
Morphological transformations on image 106
OpenCV performance measurement and improvement 107
Summary 108
Chapter 9: Real-life Computer Vision Applications 109
Barcode detection 109
Motion detection and tracking 117
Hand gesture recognition 121
Chroma key with green screen 126
Summary 132
Chapter 10: Introduction to SimpleCV 133
SimpleCV and its installation on Raspberry Pi 133
Getting started with the camera, display, and images 135
Binary thresholding and color distances 137
The blur effect on a live web camera feed 140
Histogram calculation 141
Greyscale conversion 142

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Detecting corners and lines in an image 143

Blob detection in images 144
Sending Raspberry Pi on a boating vacation 145
Exercise 149
Summary 150
Index 151

[ iv ]
 Preface
Raspberry Pi was developed as a low-cost single-board computer with the
intention of promoting computer science education in schools. It also represents
a welcome return to a simple and fun yet effective way to learn computer science
and programming.

You can use Raspberry Pi to learn and implement concepts in computer vision.

With a $35 Raspberry Pi computer and a USB webcam, anyone can afford to become
a pro in computer vision in no time and build a real-life computer vision application
to impress friends and colleagues.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Introduction to Computer Vision and Raspberry Pi, takes you through the
introduction and initial setup of Raspberry Pi and computer vision.

Chapter 2, Working with Images, Webcams, and GUI, teaches you how to work with
images, videos, and various cameras.

Chapter 3, Basic Image Processing, explores arithmetic and logical operations on images.

Chapter 4, Colorspaces, Transformations, and Thresholds, introduces you to colorspaces

and conversions, which are then followed by a simple project. This chapter also
explores geometric transformations and segmentation by thresholding.

Chapter 5, Let's Make Some Noise, teaches the basics of noise in digital images and
low-pass filters. It also discussed their usage in the removal of noise from images.

Chapter 6, Edges, Circles, and Lines' Detection, explores high-pass filters and their
applications. It also explores the detection of features like edges, circles, and lines.

[v]
Preface

Chapter 7, Image Restoration, Quantization, and Depth Map, explores image restoration
by inpainting. It also teaches image segmentation, quantization, and depth maps.

Chapter 8, Histograms, Contours, Morphological Transformations, and Performance

Measurement, introduces the readers to histograms and plotting. It explores the
concepts of contours and morphological transformations on an image. It concludes
with the basics of performance measurement and improvement.

Chapter 9, Real-life Computer Vision Applications, implements various real-life

applications of computer vision using Raspberry Pi and a webcam.

Chapter 10, Introduction to SimpleCV, teaches the installation and usage of

SimpleCV, a powerful yet simple computer vision library, and concludes
with a few real-life projects.

What you need for this book

The following hardware is recommended for maximum enjoyment:

• The Raspberry Pi computer (Model B, B+, or Pi 2)

• SD card (8 GB minimum)
• 5V 1A power supply
• HDMI or VGA monitor
• HDMI to VGA converter if a VGA monitor is used
• Wired Internet connection
• A keyboard and a mouse
• A good quality webcam
• A Pi Camera
• A Windows computer/laptop with an embedded or external card reader

Who this book is for

This book is intended for novices as well as seasoned Raspberry Pi and Python
enthusiasts who would like to explore the area of computer vision. Readers with
very little programming or coding/scripting experience can create wonderful
image processing and computer vision applications with relatively few lines
of code in Python.

[ vi ]
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
a firm rim to the tray in which the glass is held at three points. The
adjustment of the index glass is left under control, as it may
occasionally be necessary to remove it from effects of spray upon
and about it. The horizon glass is made about 1½ inches in width
and ¾ inch in depth. This is entirely enclosed in a tray, the whole
surface being a mirror without any plane part to the glass as with
the ordinary sextant, so that it is entirely protected by the metal. By
this arrangement the eye receives the direct ray from the object
immediately before it, and the reflected ray from an object whose
angular position is desired to be taken with it: but these images do
not come exactly into contact, as the narrow frame interposes. It is,
however, sufficiently near for terrestrial observations. The
adjustment of the horizon glass to the perpendicular of the plane of
the arc is the same as that shown in detail for the box sextant
further on. The adjustment of the horizon glass to the index is by a
stiff arm extended from the sole-plate projected into a loose
opening, where it is held firmly by two opposing capstan-headed
screws, as before described. The arc of the sextant is of 6 inches
radius, graduated upon silver to 20′, and reading by the vernier to
single minutes only by the microscope. The clamp and tangent are
the same as those described for the nautical sextant. The frame is
straight braced. The telescope has a wide field, with achromatic
object-glass of 4½ inches focus, the clear aperture being 1-1/8
inches. The supporting ring of the telescope has no rising stem or
collimating adjustment, but is solidly fixed in its true position by the
maker. The ring carries a plain disc pin-hole sight, which takes the
place of the telescope for near observations. The instrument in use is
held in the hand by a firm oblong handle. The instrument rests, if
required for reading, upon three legs as the ordinary sextant. Its
weight is about 2¾ lbs., or when packed in its case, 5 lbs. Its
examination and adjustment are of the same kind as those just
described for the nautical sextant.
664.—Box Sextant.—This very neat and portable instrument
was invented by the late William Jones.[50] It is used for taking
angles within 120° upon the surface of the land to within a single
minute of arc. It has become deservedly popular with British
surveyors as a land surveying instrument, and is equally so as a
military one. It is the same in principle as the nautical sextant
already described, but it possesses the great merit—as a surveying
instrument constantly in hand—that all its glasses and delicate parts
are securely protected from accidental injury by being covered;
whereas the nautical sextant, made for one or two diurnal
observations only, has all these parts exposed. And it is not only that
all parts are protected when the instrument is in use, but they are all
doubly protected by the covering box when carried about out of use;
so that it is found that a well-made box sextant set originally in
perfect adjustment will retain this adjustment in average use for very
many years. The author has seen an instrument twenty years in use
still in perfect adjustment. The box which covers the instrument out
of use forms also a most convenient handle or support for it when in
use by attaching it in a reversed position underneath, as it appears
in Fig. 297. This attachment is made either by a screw cut entirely
round the body of the instrument, or, what is much better, by a
bayonet fitting, for the reason that large screws of this description
are liable to cross thread. The general description of the outer parts
is as follows:—
 Fig. 297.—Perspective view of the box sextant ready for use.
Larger image

665.—C a covering box which inverts from the position shown in

the figure and covers the instrument. This has a diameter of 3 inches
and a depth of 1½ inches. B box containing the optical and moving
parts of the sextant. A axis of index glass. This axis also carries a
toothed segment fixed close under the front of the box, by which
both the index glass and index are moved by means of a pinion to
be described. The index carries a vernier divided into 30, which
reads into the arc to single minutes; the arc is divided to half
degrees on silver. The magnifier is centred by a swivel hinge joint
over the axis, so as to permit it to be brought to focus upon the arc
at any position. This magnifier is held down on the front of the box
when out of use by a nib catch at a position of about 80° of the arc.
O a milled head, the axis of which carries a pinion which works into
the segment above described under the index glass. The pinion is
about 1 to 9 of the segment, so that the index traverses the arc of
60° (reading 120°) by one-and-a-half turns. This gives a
conveniently slow motion to the index glass, and enables this
sextant, if it be well made, to be set rapidly with great precision. S
two nibs, part of two levers for putting the shades in or out of
action.
666.—In the closed form of sextant the shades block the
reflecting position between the index and the horizon glass. For
surface surveying they have therefore to be opened out, through an
opening closed by a slide shutter which moves by a stud in a slot on
the under side. The shades consist of one green and one dense red
glass which must be worked parallel, as before described for the
nautical sextant. These are used for taking altitudes of the sun, for
adjustments only.
667.—The Key K is a milled head which screws out, and carries a
watch-key pipe at the end of its stem by which adjustments may be
made from three square-headed screws fitting its pipe, two of which
are close to b, the axis of the horizon glass. These adjust
perpendicularly to the plane of the arc. One screw at a adjusts the
parallelism of the index and horizon glasses when the index is at
zero.
668.—The Telescope is achromatic, with draw tube for focussing.
It magnifies about 2½ diameters. It has a concave eye-glass, and
therefore gives an erect image, Fig. 14. A sun-glass E screws over
the eye-glass when it is required for sun observations. The telescope
is attached to the sextant by means of a crank-piece upon the
telescope which is fixed by the mill-headed screw T′ and two steady
pins. The crank-piece screws in reverse position upon the telescope
for portability before putting it by in its case.
669.—By some makers the telescope is made to slide into the
body of the sextant and thus become quite portable. This plan is a
very neat one, but it requires care to see that the shades do not
interfere before it is put by. The weight of the entire sextant with its
solid leather case is about 18 oz. only. For close work the telescope
is not generally used. A sliding shutter pierced with a small hole
covers the telescope opening into the sextant, which is used as a
sight hole.
 Fig. 298.—Box sextant under the face.
Larger image

670.—The Interior or Optical and Mechanical part of the Sextant

is shown Fig. 298. I index glass, fixed over the toothed segment on
the same axis. The pinion is shown working into the segment moved
by the milled head O of Fig. 297 on the face of the sextant. Fig. 298:
horizon glass, cut by ED, adjusts to the vertical by screws CC′, which
have square fittings on the face of the instrument, shown Figs. 299
and 300 full size. The differential adjustment between horizon and
index glasses is made by a screw with a square fitting at P. This
adjustment acts by screwing against a helical spring, shown at Q.
The reflected rays enter by a wide window in the side of the box,
Fig. 298 d, the direct rays by a small window f. The path of a ray is
shown by fine lines from R to E, for the positions in which the index
and horizon glasses are placed. The pin-hole opposite which the eye
is placed is shown white. S shades with their axis are shown cut off,
to prevent confusion of other parts. They are simply round discs of
parallel glass on arms which rise from the back of the face by
pressure of the nibs at S.

Fig. 299.—Plan of horizon glass. Fig. 300.—Section of the same.

Larger image

671.—The Construction of the Box Sextant may be fairly inferred

from inspection of the engravings. The face-plate is made of a casing
in brass 1/8 inch thick, which should be well hammered to harden
and stiffen it. The axis, which has a wide collar, is fitted into a hole in
the plate, first by turning it as exactly as possible, and then by
burnishing it in by friction, the hole being broached slightly conical
with a D-broach. The careful fitting of the axis is an important part.
The horizon glass frame, Fig. 300, is held down by a central screw
which fits tightly both in its fore hole and thread. The flange of the
tray F is cut to an angle on its under side to permit adjusting to
verticality by rocking over this angle, by tightening and loosening the
adjusting screws cc′ which protrude in square heads to the face of
the instrument. The horizon glass, H, which is half silvered, is fixed
in a tray-piece which has two narrow fillets turned to the face of the
glass, and a spring-piece at the back brought up by a screw a. This
glass is entirely open at its unsilvered part. The toothed segment
should be cut upon its own axis, and although fitted to the pinion
without any looseness, it should not press the index axis. The silver
is inlaid in the arc on the plan shown Fig. 127. The vernier is
soldered closely on the index and should read down to a fine clean
edge.
672.—Examination of the Box Sextant.—The glasses should be
cleanly silvered, with a sharp, clear cut between the silver and the
clear glass of the horizon glass. The pinion should move softly and
equally in causing the index arm to traverse the arc. If the pinion be
moved in little jerks backwards and forwards there should be no
shake, but the index should follow every slight motion. The magnifier
rising joint should move rather stiffer than the traversing joint, so
that the focus is not changed by traversing across the arc. The
magnifier should have about 1 inch or less focus, and should stand
square to the plane of the sextant when in focus. The graduation
should be deep and fine, and the vernier should read 30 = 29 at the
two ends and the centre of the arc. If there be a small excess or
defect of vernier to arc, this should be noted and allowed for, either
at the time of reading or as an index error. The sliding fittings of the
pin-hole sight, shades, and under shutter should move firmly but not
stiffly. The telescope should fit without shake. The covering box
should fit well in both positions of cover or hand-hold.
673.—Adjustment.—The box sextant is best adjusted by the sun
upon the plan described art. 648. The adjusting screws, as already
stated, are moved by the key, which unscrews from the face of the
sextant, Fig. 297 K. The adjustment is made permanently by the
maker, except only that of the horizon glass, which is at the
command of the user. The adjustment to perpendicularity of face is
made by the two screws upon the face near b; adjustment to zero of
arc by the screw at the side a. In defect of appearance of the sun,
the sextant may be adjusted to any clear, sharp line, as that of a
stretched piece of twine, for perpendicularity of plane, and to any
object of clear outline sufficiently distant, say at half a mile, to avoid
error of parallax for index zero, art. 621.
674.—Use of the Box Sextant.—The sextant has its under shutter
opened by pressing the stud attached over in its slot. The nibs of the
shade levers, Fig. 297 S, are then raised and the shades depressed.
The cover is then screwed, or slid on if it fixes with bayonet notches,
upon the under side of the sextant to form the hand-hold. The pin-
hole sight is pressed over for use if not already in its position, unless
it be intended to use the telescope. The box sextant is held in the
left hand, with the right-hand thumb and forefinger constantly
holding the milled head, and turning this so as to bring the two
objects, of which it is desired to obtain the angular position, from the
observer, exactly in apparent juxtaposition, the one over the other. In
turning the milled head it is better to let all the other fingers of the
right hand clutch and steady the instrument. To take angles objects
should be observed that cut sharp, erect outlines, as buildings,
posts, trees, etc., if possible. In open country it is necessary to use
pickets, to be described further on. With pickets the reflected image
of the upper half of one picket should form a continuous outline with
the direct image of the lower half of the other picket in the eye, so
that the pair of pickets appear as one. Where an angle greater than
120° is required an intermediate picket is set up, and angles taken to
the right and left of this are added together.
675.—It must always be remembered that the sextant takes
angular positions actually, whereas plans are made in azimuthal
angles. There are some not very satisfactory means of approximate
correction for this, for which books on surveying may be consulted;
but altogether the sextant is not very useful for taking angles for
plans on other than fairly level ground, wherein it has proved a most
valuable and sufficiently exact instrument. Where ground is
undulatory fairly good work may be done with it by taking stations
for exterior triangles at equal heights on the hillsides, as ascertained
by a hand level or clinometer to be described, or sometimes from
hilltop to hilltop where these are of fairly equal heights. For sketch
plans of very hilly or mountainous districts the prismatic compass,
art. 148, is better, as this gives, although with less precision than the
sextant, its angles in azimuth.

Fig. 301.—Interior construction of box sextant with supplementary

arc.
Larger image

676.—Box Sextant with Supplementary Arc.—

This sextant is preferred by many because of its more extended use.
It is complete as an ordinary sextant for angles up to 120°; but if it
be thought desirable to extend the angles to 220°—by a single
observation this may be done. The ordinary arrangement of the box
sextant just described is left intact and forms the upper part of the
instrument. This arrangement, as in the box sextant, is attached
entirely to the face or arc plate, the only difference being that the
index glass is made of less depth. For the supplementary arc
arrangement a mirror is fixed upon the lower or sole plate exactly
under the position of the index glass. This mirror is termed the
supplementary index glass. The position of the face of the index
glass is at right angles to the face of the ordinary index glass when
the index is at zero. The arrangement of glasses is shown Fig. 301:
MM′ index glasses. The supplementary angle is read through a
separate pin-hole sight which is placed at about 90° from the pin-
hole sight of the proper sextant and a little lower down on the rim.
The arc of this sextant reads in the ordinary manner, left to right, to
an inner circle of figures for angles from 0° to 130°. The
supplementary arc reads by the same vernier, and is figured in the
same manner at the tens; but it reads into an outer circle of figures
which progress in the reverse direction, that is, right to left. The
readings of the supplementary arc are from 90° to 220°, so that for
a certain range, that is, for angles from 90° to 130°, these may be
taken either by direct arc or by supplementary arc. The
supplementary angle is taken by means of the coincident images of
two reflections, one from the index glass and one from the
supplementary index glass, and not by one direct and one reflected
image as in the sextant proper.
 Figs. 302, 303.—Diagram of supplementary arc sextant.
Larger image

677.—Theory of Supplementary Angles to the Sextant.—For the

measurement of these angles we have to consider direct reflections
only of two reflecting planes placed one above the other nearly in
contact, so that the images projected from both planes may reach
the eye superimposed. Let Fig. 302 II′ be the surface of a mirror
(index glass) which is movable to any angle in relation to the face of
the mirror SS′ (supplementary index). For demonstration of the
principle these mirrors are shown in this diagram at 90° to each
other; therefore coincident reflections will be at 90° + 90° = 180°.
Let the lines FC and BC form a right line (180°); F fore sight and B
back sight. An object at F would be reflected from the mirror II′ to
the eye at E, the angles FCI and ECI′ being equal. Another object at
B reflected from the face of the mirror SS′ would also reach the eye
at E, the angles BCS′ and ECS′ being equal. And as the angles FCI
and BCI′ are equal in crossing a right line, the line FCB must be also
a right line (180°) which is indicated by the angle of coincidence of
the two reflections to E. The positions of the reflections are shown
as angular measurements upon the graduated arc.
 678.—In Fig. 303 let SS′ remain as before, angle BCE will remain
as shown in both figures. Move the index glass from the position II′
of Fig. 302 to the position JJ′ of Fig. 303, so that after this
movement the eye at E would receive the image of an object at a
new position F′ as reflected from the mirror JJ′, F′CJ and ECJ′ being
equal. In this process, as the reflector JJ′ in the angle ICJ would
have moved half the angle JCF, the record of this movement upon
the index, which moves with JJ′, is at the same time double the true
angular difference, as with the sextant proper fully described, the
graduations being in both cases the same pro ratâ. The increase of
angle is taken supplementary to the angle given by the first
reflection, by addition to this angle in a direction right to left from
the right line of the former sight EC; consequently this increase is
read backward on the sextant, that is, right to left, and is indicated
by the outer line of numerals.
679.—Manufacture.—The general structure of this instrument is
nearly the same as the ordinary box sextant, except the parts just
referred to. The supplementary index glass is an ordinary mirror
similar to the index glass but of only ¼ inch in depth: it is mounted
in the same way. Its adjustments are similar to the horizon glass in
kind, but there are no exterior screws, this glass being permanently
fixed by the maker. Opposite the supplementary index glass a wide
window is cut through the rim of the case near the sole plate to take
sight of the object at angles exceeding 120°, so that in this sextant
two large windows are cut out opposite to each other. The diameter
of this sextant is 3 inches; the exterior depth about 1-5/8 inches,
that is, 1/8 inch deeper than the ordinary box sextant. It weighs
about 20 oz. It is carried in a solid leather case with strap to pass
over the shoulder.
680.—Examination and Adjustment.—Examination will be nearly
the same as for the common box sextant. The most important point
is that the readings taken within both arcs should be alike, assuming,
which is necessary, that the part comprising the sextant proper is
perfectly adjusted. Thus there is a 90° on both direct and reverse
arcs. The 90° may be measured by any pair of objects on the direct
arc, and afterwards compared by shifting the index to the 90°, on
the supplementary arc. If no object be found at 90°, then 95° 30′ or
any other quantity may be compared. It is also well to compare
readings at or about 120° on both arcs. The 90° and 120° fall in the
same position in the reading, and this checks any error in either. If
the adjustment be not fairly perfect, the instrument should be
returned to the maker. Indeed, this sextant would be better without
any external means of adjustment, leaving these to be made by the
optician in such a permanent form that they will not be liable to
change. It is, as the plain box sextant, exceptionally protected from
accident.
681.—In using this instrument the arc up to 120° is taken exactly
as with the plain box sextant. Beyond 120° the sextant is shifted to
take sight through the supplementary pin-hole, being particular to
observe that the pinion is now turned the reverse way to increase
the angle, and that the vernier reads for the supplementary arc right
to left. It is in this reversing, if not carefully performed, that a little
difficulty is experienced in using this instrument.
682.—Box Sextant, with Continuous Arc to
240°.—This instrument is an improvement by the author upon one
originally designed by Mr. W. Franklin. The reading is taken
continuously from the same sight-hole and by the same arc, and in a
direct manner without any reversal for part of the arc. This sextant
reads with certainty to 240°.
683.—In the construction of this sextant there are two horizon
glasses superimposed one above the other and crossing each other,
with faces which are adjustable for perpendicularity at an angle of
120°. The horizon glass is divided top from bottom by a clear band
cut through it, as in the old form of back-sight nautical sextants. One
of the wide glasses reflects into the upper, and the other into the
lower mirror of the horizon glass. The pin-hole sight or the telescope
is placed in the same position as in the plain box sextant described.
The horizon glass is fixed and both the index mirrors adjust to
angular positions, or one index glass only and the horizon glass is
adjusted, this arrangement being optional. The arc is graduated as
the plain box sextant, but it reads with two rows of figures from 0°
to 120°, and from 120° to 240°, the 0° of the under line being under
120° of the upper. When the arc is set to zero the index glasses are
in such a position that the direct vision and the reflection as seen in
the upper mirror of the horizon glass are coincident for direct
images, as at the zero of the plain sextant, but at this point the
lower mirror of the horizon glass reflects to the eye an object at
120°. When the index is moved forward the angles continue onward,
reflected from both glasses, so that the upper reads on 10°, 20°,
30°, etc., whereas the lower read 130°, 140°, 150°, etc.; so that if
the objects desired to be triangulated are under 120° the
coincidence is seen in the upper mirror, and if over this in the lower,
the great distance of 120° apart of the angles preventing the risk of
accidentally taking the one for the other. In the compact form of a
box sextant this instrument embraces the uses of the ordinary
reflecting circle of double the diameter, due to the entire circle
graduation; and the range is sufficient, as beyond 240° the head
materially interferes with observation. The size and weight of the
instrument are generally but little over that of the plain box sextant.
The adjustments are made permanently by the maker. The use of
this instrument is fully inferred from the description given. The
construction is shown in Fig. 304, E place of the eye with direct ray
through the horizon glass H to O. The index glass I is that of the
ordinary sextant, shown by dotted lines, throwing the image of an
object at P to the upper horizon glass and thence to the eye at E. B
is the fixed supplementary glass with its surface at 60° to the lower
horizon glass at A. The sight lines from an object at Q are reflected
from B to A and thence to E. A spring arrangement shown SS with a
milled head underneath permits the lower glass A to be drawn down
to convert the instrument into a simple box sextant.
 Fig. 304.—Stanley's continuous arc box sextant.
Fig. 305.—Section of supplementary horizon arrangement.
Larger image

684.—Details of Spring Arrangement to the supplementary

horizon glass are shown in Fig. 305 full size in section. The springs
SS in Fig. 304 and S Fig. 305 form two points of support to the
horizon glass, the silvered face of which is shown at A. A third point
of contact is near D, placed in the centre of the end of the
supporting plate for the horizon glass. When the screw R, which is
placed in a loose fitting, is released, the springs bring the supporting
plate tight up to D and hold the horizon glass firmly in an elevated
position. When the screw R is tightened it brings this glass down.
The horizon glass is adjusted over a rocking centre by the screws
CC′. A screw and collar b prevent the loss of the screw R. By this
arrangement the horizon glass is brought in or out of the field of
view, in order to use the supplementary arc or for leaving it as a
plain sextant.
 Fig. 306.—Stanley's portable surveying sextant.
Larger image

685.—Open Surveying Sextants, similar to nautical

sextants but generally smaller and of stronger construction,
preceded the box sextant, and are still used to a limited extent upon
the Continent, particularly with some form of supplementary arc, or
arrangement to produce a large part of the reflecting circle. These
forms are also occasionally revived by the opticians of our own
country. The reason of this is easily seen. To the optician who lives in
a town, moves on a level surface, and has comfortably warm hands,
even in the winter, to hold and move the separate parts of an
instrument, the open sextant appears the most perfect, as he can
get at every part of it easily to clean and adjust. The surveyor takes
another view of the subject. He is exposed in the open country to all
weathers and all difficulties of movement over the land; therefore
that form of instrument which is best protected and least liable to
injury by a fall will be sure to be popular with him. It is upon these
conditions the box sextant of some form is generally preferred.
A handy form of portable surveying sextant has been devised by
the author and is shown at Fig. 306.
The arc is of 4 inches radius and is divided on silver to read 20″,
is complete with shades and telescope and packs into a case 7 × 6 ×
2½ inches.

Fig. 307.—Optical square. Fig. 308.—Double optical square.

Larger image

686.—Optical Square.—This extremely handy little

instrument is invaluable for taking offsets in chaining for any
irregularity or obliquity to the right line in the boundaries of fields,
hedgerows, fences, streams, etc., giving as it does instantly at sight
a right angle to any object that may be sighted on either hand. The
instrument is optically constructed exactly as a box sextant; but the
glasses are fixed with their faces permanently at the angle of 45° to
each other, by which means the reflection of 90° is truly given on
principles fully discussed at the commencement of this chapter. This
instrument being made very small, that is, 2 inches or less in
diameter, it is found most convenient for manipulation to place the
adjustments to the larger glass, that is, the index glass. The horizon
glass, Fig. 307, h is therefore fixed firmly, like the index glass of the
box sextant, by two screws to the sole plate. The index glass i is held
and adjusted in exactly the same manner as the horizon glass of the
box sextant, as shown in detail, Figs. 299, 300, the only difference
being that the frame which holds the glass is made of the entire
height. The rim of the case of the optical square is formed of a short
length, 3/8 inch to 5/8 inch, of a pair of telescope tubes which slide
easily together. One of these is attached to the sole plate and the
other to the cover, so that at first they close together as a box and
lid. All the openings required for sight, as Fig. 307 at Q for horizon
sight, o for index sight, and e for pin-hole or eye sight, are cut
through the two tubes.

Fig. 309.—Optical square.

Larger image
 687.—The inner case is cut in the plane of some part of the
circumference of the instrument from a pin-hole into a bayonet
notch, made with a horizontal slot for the two cases to revolve upon
each other upon a pin, sufficiently to close and open the sight holes.
This plan secures the instrument from any intrusion of dust when it
is closed and out of use. An adjusting key is placed in the case, held
by a tube or stud at the position k. The weight of the entire
instrument is about 4 oz. if of ordinary make; but smaller ones are
made in German-silver or silver, 1¼ inches diameter, 3/8 inch thick,
weighing under 2 oz. These latter are very convenient for the
waistcoat pocket, and are equally as exact as the larger instruments.
Fig. 309 shows the general outward appearance of the optical
square.
688.—Examination and Adjustment of the Optical Square.—Place
two pickets in an open space at a distance apart, the further the
better. Range an intermediate short picket in right line with these or
the top of a stake the height of the eye, or what is better still, if at
hand, the top of a tripod stand. Place the optical square over the
intermediate station or tripod. Place another picket, which we will
distinguish as the 90° picket, at a distance, and make this appear in
the optical square coincident by reflection with the direct sight of one
of the pickets in the right line from our station. Turn the optical
square right over on its place, and looking in the opposite direction
take a sight at the other right line picket and observe the 90° picket.
If this still appears coincident with the direct line in reflection the
optical square is in perfect adjustment. If it does not appear so, half
the difference must be adjusted by means of the key taken from the
interior of the case and placed on the square at k, Fig. 307, and this
observation repeated until the 90° is correct.
689.—In Using the Optical Square it is customary to walk along
the chain line at about the desired position for taking an offset,
looking by direct vision through the plain part of the horizon glass h
at a fore sight object until the required object is sighted by reflection
at right angles to this, where it appears by coincidence of image with
the fore sight. The heel of the forward foot in stepping indicates
fairly the vertical position of the optical square; but some surveyors
prefer the use of a drop arrow to fix the point. The offset is then
chained in the line.
690.—Double Optical Square.—This instrument is
exactly what its title indicates, that is two optical squares, the one
placed exactly over the other, the one reflecting to the right hand
and the other to the left. A simpler name, however, would be an
optical cross. This arrangement of reflectors greatly extends it use.
First, as regards the 90°, this need not depend in any way upon the
position of the observer, as two objects may be observed, one to the
right and one to the left, to appear to cut the direct forward line of
sight, and therefore to cut the base line at the exact position of the
instrument at right angles to it. Secondly, an intermediate station can
be found in direct line between any two points, as the 90° + 90°
forms this line.
691.—The arrangement of the optical part of the instrument is
shown Fig. 308. The two index glasses CD are fixed at equal angles
to the direct line of sight EO. The two horizon glasses AB are
superimposed with the interval of a small space, 1/16 inch, between
them. The horizon glasses are each separately adjusted so that their
reflecting planes are respectively 45° to the index glass from which
they receive the reflections. The diameter of the instrument as
usually made is about 2¼ inches; its depth 7/8 inch. The weight is
about 9 oz. It is generally carried in a light, solid leather, sling case.
Total weight with instrument, 12 oz.
692.—Examination and Adjustment of the Double Optical Square.
—1. Place the instrument, as already described for the optical
square, at a station intermediate between two pickets. Examine the
right angles, first looking towards one picket and then towards the
other from the same position, as with the optical square, turning it
over for this examination. 2. Turn the instrument half round and
examine it this way also by turning it over again in like manner.
Adjust either horizon glass if required. 3. Now take the position for
the eye of the former 90° and see whether the extreme pickets
appear in true position by the exact coincidence of their images at
180°. 4. Do this again, facing the opposite way and turning the
instrument half round. If the extreme pickets still range in line from
the central station the adjustment is perfect. If they do not do so
half the error must be corrected by returning to the first and second
adjustments to find out between which pair of mirrors it lies. For this
adjustment the instrument is much better to be placed upon the top
of a tripod, as the position of the axis should remain fixed after
turning it over or changing the direction of the instrument. It is only
from severe accident that the maker's adjustment will be disturbed.
693.—Apomecometer.—This little instrument, the
invention of Mr. R. C. Millar, is intended to measure the height of
buildings, trees, etc., by measuring the distance from the vertical
upon the surface of the ground. It performs one of the functions of
the box sextant in the same manner as the optical square, that is, to
measure a single angle by reflection. The angle measured is 45°,
consequently by measuring a space upon level ground up to a
vertical, the vertical will be known, this being equal to the horizontal.
Of course this will always be approximate, as the ground will seldom
be truly level; but by taking a position, even on an incline, as nearly
as possible level with the object, a very fair estimate may be made.
Horizontal distances may be measured in the same manner from a
perpendicular to any line.
694.—The instrument is constructed in exactly the same manner
as the optical square just described as regards its mirrors and its
adjustments, but the faces of the mirrors are fixed at the angle of
22° 30′, so as to give a reflection of 45°, upon principles fully
discussed. In Fig. 310, A is the index glass, B the horizon glass, E
the pin-hole sight. There is a window opposite the index glass, and
one behind the horizon glass, each sufficient to take in a wide field
of view at about 45° and in the direct line E to H. These windows
close by rotation of the casing of the box, which is made as the
optical square. When closed the instrument is dust-tight and may be
carried in the waistcoat pocket loose, or in a light snap leather case.
Its size is 1¼ inches diameter, 3/8 inch in thickness, weight 2 oz. in
German silver.
 695.—The Use of the Apomecometer.—To measure the altitude of
a building the open side nearest level is selected, and a station for
observation is taken which is at a distance thought to be
approximate to the height. The instrument is held edgewise with the
pin-hole sight to the eye, and the reflection of a point of the building
about level with the eye is observed by direct vision through the
instrument. At the same time there will appear a reflection of the
summit of the building. If we now walk backwards or forwards, as
the case demands, keeping sight of a level object, as for instance in
Fig. 311 the plinth of a building, then at a certain point the summit
of the building will appear by coincident reflection. The height of the
object will be the same as the distance plus the height of the
observer's eye. This distance may be measured on the ground, or if
a rough estimate is sufficient it may be stepped, the principle of
which is shown by Fig. 310 in the line OH, being equal to FH. If a
part of an object is required to be measured such part may be taken
on the horizontal plane, as for instance the height of the figure in
Fig. 311, by ab being = ed, as the base ab can easily be measured.
An approximate may be found by dropping a small pebble at a and
at b and then measuring the distance apart of these pebbles.
 Fig. 310.—Optical details of the apomecometer.
Fig. 311.—Scheme for measuring heights.
Larger image

696.—The distance of an inaccessible object may be measured,

as for instance a buoy at sea, by measuring in any straight line
double the distance and taking equal angles thereto by the
apomecometer on any direct line. An approximate idea may be
formed by walking over measuring points. As for instance, b being a
buoy at sea, Fig. 312, walk from e, at which a walking-stick may be
set up, towards an object o. At E the buoy and object o will appear
to be coincident. Then drop a stone or make a mark directly under
the instrument. Walk on till beyond E′ and turn to face e. Now in
returning, the buoy and the object e will appear coincident at E′. The
distance EE′ is double that of the intermediate a to b.
Fig. 312.—Scheme for measuring distances.
Larger image
 CHAPTER XV.
GRAPHIC SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES CONNECTED THEREWITH
—PLANE TABLES—ALIDADES—TELESCOPIC ARRANGEMENTS—SUBTENSE
MEASUREMENTS—VARIOUS DEVICES FOR HOLDING THE PAPER—CONTINUOUS
PAPERS—ADJUSTMENT OF TRIPOD HEADS—METHOD OF USING—
EDGEWORTH'S STADIOMETER—SKETCHING PROTRACTOR—SKETCHING CASE—
CAMERA LUCIDA, ETC.

697.—Plane Tables.—These instruments have been used for

filling in the greater number of topographical surveys in all countries.
They possess the merit that any intelligent, untrained person can be
readily brought to comprehend their manipulation in the work to be
performed, as angles of position of objects are taken directly by
drawing lines pointing to them from a point upon a sheet of paper
stretched upon a table. In new countries natural objects without very
marked outline are conveniently defined for position. The objection
to this method, from a point of view of the practical surveyor, is that
the work which can be done with equal facility in a comfortable
office from the field-book is with this instrument performed in the
open air, under risk of rain, dust, and other atmospheric discomforts
affecting both the person and the material on which he works. But
for countries where the climate can be depended upon, the facility
with which surveyors with little experience can map details for filling
in superior triangulations made with the theodolite, its use has
gained much favour. Natives can be easily taught to use it, and the
check on their work through the previous triangulation is perfect.
The subject of plane tables will in these pages be considered only in
its general aspect, with the examples of a few good instruments,
referring the reader who cares to follow the subject further to an
excellent paper by Mr. J. Pierce, Jun., read before the Institute of
Civil Engineers, February, 1888.[51]
 698.—The Plane Table in its simplest form consists of a small
drawing-board mounted upon a firm tripod stand, and is shown at
Fig. 313.

Fig. 313.—Simple plane table.

Larger image

A rule termed an alidade, with sights placed at its ends, gives the
direction of any object from a given point on the sheet of paper
stretched upon the table, to which a fine line is drawn by an HH
pencil to point the direction. The alidade sometimes carries a trough
compass fixed upon it, but this is generally a separate instrument
which is placed against its fiducial or ruling edge to give a magnetic
north to south line, to which all other lines are assumed to take
angular direction. A loose spirit level is also provided, by means of
which the board may be set level by shifting the legs of the tripod.
699.—Plane Table with Telescope.—Where greater
refinement of observation is required than is possible with sights, a
telescope is mounted on the alidade, which moves in the vertical
plane upon an axis, so that it may be directed in a linear direction
with the fiducial edge of the rule to any point in azimuth. The
telescope sometimes carries a level, so that the table may be set
level by means of the alidade.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookname.com