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Infrastructure Robotics Methodologies Robotic Systems
and Applications 1st Edition Dikai Liu(Edt) Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Dikai Liu(edt), Carlos Balaguer(edt), Gamini Dissanayake(edt),
Mirko Kovac(edt)
ISBN(s): 9781394162840, 1394162847
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 13.92 MB
Year: 2023
Language: english
Infrastructure Robotics
 IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed

Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Infrastructure Robotics

Methodologies, Robotic Systems and Applications

Edited by
Dikai Liu
University of Technology Sydney
Sydney, Australia

Carlos Balaguer
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Spain

Gamini Dissanayake
University of Technology Sydney
Sydney, Australia

Mirko Kovac
Imperial College London
London, UK

IEEE Press Series on Systems Science and Engineering

MengChu Zhou, Series Editor
Copyright © 2024 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Liu, Dikai, editor.

Title: Infrastructure robotics : methodologies, robotic systems and
applications / edited by Dikai Liu [and three others].
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023041014 (print) | LCCN 2023041015 (ebook) | ISBN
9781394162840 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394162857 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781394162864 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Robotics. | Infrastructure (Economics)
Classification: LCC TJ211 .I48144 2024 (print) | LCC TJ211 (ebook) | DDC
629.8/92–dc23/eng/20231101
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023041014
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023041015

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of Dikai Liu; Courtesy of Prof. Mirko Kovac, Laboratory of Sustainability
Robotics, Empa & Aerial Robotics Laboratory, Imperial College London. Video taken by
Schwarzpictures.com; Carlos Balaguer

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

 v

Contents

About the Editors xv

Preface xix
Acronyms xxi

Part I Methodologies 1

1 Infrastructure Robotics: An Introduction 3

Dikai Liu and Gamini Dissanayake
1.1 Infrastructure Inspection and Maintenance 3
1.2 Infrastructure Robotics 6
1.2.1 Inspection and Maintenance of Steel Bridges 7
1.2.2 Climbing and Wheeled Robots for Inspection of Truss Structures 8
1.2.3 Robots for Underwater Infrastructure Maintenance 10
1.3 Considerations in Infrastructure Robotics Research 11
1.4 Opportunities and Challenges 13
1.5 Concluding Remarks 15
Bibliography 15

2 Design of Infrastructure Robotic Systems 19

Kenneth Waldron
2.1 Special Features of Infrastructure 19
2.2 The Design Process 20
2.3 Types of Robots and Their Design and Operation 21
2.4 Software System Design 23
2.5 An Example: Development of the CROC Design Concept 23
2.6 Some Other Examples 27
2.7 Actuator Systems 30
vi Contents

2.8 Concluding Remarks 31

Bibliography 31

3 Perception in Complex and Unstructured Infrastructure

Environments 33
Shoudong Huang, Kai Pan, and Gamini Dissanayake
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Sensor Description 35
3.2.1 2D LiDAR 35
3.2.2 3D LiDAR 35
3.2.3 Sonar 36
3.2.4 Monocular Camera 36
3.2.5 Stereo Camera 36
3.2.6 GRB-D Camera 37
3.3 Problem Description 37
3.4 Theoretical Foundations 38
3.4.1 Extended Kalman Filter 39
3.4.2 Nonlinear Least Squares 40
3.4.3 Environment Representations 42
3.4.4 Mapping Techniques 44
3.4.5 Localization Techniques 47
3.4.6 SLAM Techniques 49
3.5 Implementation 53
3.5.1 Localization 54
3.5.2 SLAM 54
3.6 Case Studies 55
3.6.1 Mapping in Confined Space 55
3.6.2 Localization in Confined Space 55
3.6.3 SLAM in Underwater Bridge Environment 56
3.7 Conclusion and Discussion 56
Bibliography 57

4 Machine Learning and Computer Vision Applications in Civil

Infrastructure Inspection and Monitoring 59
Shuming Liang, Andy Guo, Bin Liang, Zhidong Li, Yu Ding, Yang Wang,
and Fang Chen
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 GNN-Based Pipe Failure Prediction 60
4.2.1 Background 60
4.2.2 Problem Formulation 61
4.2.3 Data Preprocessing 61
 Contents vii

4.2.4 GNN Learning 62

4.2.5 Failure Pattern Learning 64
4.2.6 Failure Predictor 65
4.2.7 Experimental Study 65
4.3 Computer Vision-Based Signal Aspect Transition Detection 67
4.3.1 Background 67
4.3.2 Signal Detection Model 67
4.3.3 Track Detection Model 69
4.3.4 Optimization for Target Locating 72
4.4 Conclusion and Discussion 75
Bibliography 77

5 Coverage Planning and Motion Planning of Intelligent

Robots for Civil Infrastructure Maintenance 81
Mahdi Hassan and Dikai Liu
5.1 Introduction to Coverage and Motion Planning 81
5.2 Coverage Planning Algorithms for a Single Robot 82
5.2.1 An Offline Coverage Planning Algorithm 82
5.2.2 A Real-Time Coverage Planning Algorithm 86
5.3 Coverage Planning Algorithms for Multiple Robots 90
5.3.1 Base Placement Optimization 90
5.3.2 Area Partitioning and Allocation 93
5.3.3 Adaptive Coverage Path Planning 97
5.4 Conclusion 101
Bibliography 102

6 Methodologies in Physical Human–Robot Collaboration for

Infrastructure Maintenance 105
Marc G. Carmichael, Antony Tran, Stefano Aldini, and Dikai Liu
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Autonomy, Tele-Operation, and pHRC 106
6.2.1 Autonomous Robots 106
6.2.2 Teleoperated Robots 108
6.2.3 Physical Human–Robot Collaboration 109
6.3 Control Methods 110
6.3.1 Motion Control 110
6.3.2 Force Control 111
6.4 Adaptive Assistance Paradigms 113
6.4.1 Manually Adapted Assistance 114
6.4.2 Assistance-As-Needed Paradigms 115
6.4.3 Performance-Based Assistance 115
viii Contents

6.4.4 Physiology-Based Assistance 116

6.5 Safety Framework for pHRC 117
6.6 Performance-Based Role Change 119
6.7 Case Study 121
6.8 Discussion 122
Acknowledgements 123
Bibliography 123

Part II Robotic System Design and Applications 127

7 Steel Bridge Climbing Robot Design and Development 129

Hung M. La
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Recent Climbing Robot Platforms Developed by the ARA Lab 133
7.3 Overall Design 134
7.3.1 Mechanical Design and Analysis 136
7.4 Overall Control Architecture 140
7.4.1 Control System Framework 141
7.5 Experiment Results 148
7.5.1 Switching Control 149
7.5.2 Robot Navigation in Mobile and Worming Transformation 152
7.5.3 Robot Deployment 153
7.6 Conclusion and Future Work 155
Bibliography 156

8 Underwater Robots for Cleaning and Inspection of

Underwater Structures 161
Andrew Wing Keung To, Khoa Le, and Dikai Liu
8.1 Introduction to Maintenance of Underwater Structures 161
8.2 Robot System Design 163
8.2.1 Hull Design and Maneuvering System 164
8.2.2 Robot Arms for Docking and Water-Jet Cleaning 164
8.3 Sensing and Perception in Underwater Environments 166
8.3.1 Underwater Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) Around
Bridge Piles 167
8.3.2 Marine Growth Identification 168
8.4 Software Architecture 170
8.5 Robot Navigation, Motion Planning and System Integration 170
8.5.1 Localization and Navigation in Open Water 170
 Contents ix

8.5.2 System Integration 173

8.6 Testing in a Lab Setup and Trials in the Field 174
8.6.1 Operation Procedure 174
8.6.2 Autonomous Navigation in Narrow Environments 176
8.6.3 Vision-Based Marine Growth Removing Process 178
8.6.4 Inspection and Marine Growth Identification 179
8.7 Reflection and Lessons Learned 180
8.8 Conclusion and Future Work 181
Acknowledgments 182
Bibliography 182

9 Tunnel Structural Inspection and Assessment Using an

Autonomous Robotic System 185
Juan G. Victores, E. Menendez, and C. Balaguer
9.1 Introduction 185
9.2 ROBO-SPECT Project 186
9.2.1 Robotic System 187
9.2.2 Intelligent Global Controller 191
9.2.3 Ground Control Station 192
9.2.4 Structural Assessment Tool 192
9.3 Inspection Procedure 192
9.4 Extended Kalman Filter for Mobile Vehicle Localization 195
9.5 Mobile Vehicle Navigation 197
9.6 Field Experimental Results 198
9.7 Conclusion 201
Bibliography 201

10 BADGER: Intelligent Robotic System for Underground

Construction 205
Santiago Martínez, Marcos Marín, Elisabeth Menéndez,
Panagiotis Vartholomeos, Dimitrios Giakoumis, Alessandro Simi, and
Carlos Balaguer
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 Boring Systems and Methods 207
10.2.1 Directional Drilling Methods 207
10.2.2 Drilling Robotic Systems 209
10.3 Main Drawbacks 210
10.4 BADGER System and Components 212
10.4.1 Main Systems Description 212
10.4.2 BADGER Operation 215
x Contents

10.5 Future Trends 218

Bibliography 218

11 Robots for Underground Pipe Condition Assessment 221

Jaime Valls Miro
11.1 Introduction to Ferro-Magnetic Pipeline Maintenance 221
11.1.1 NDT Inspection Taxonomy 222
11.2 Inspection Robots 223
11.2.1 Robot Kinematics and Locomotion 224
11.3 PEC Sensing for Ferromagnetic Wall Thickness Mapping 228
11.3.1 Hardware and Software System Architecture 230
11.4 Gaussian Processes for Spatial Regression from Sampled Inspection
Data 232
11.4.1 Gaussian Processes 234
11.5 Field Robotic CA Inspection Results 236
11.6 Concluding Remarks 240
Bibliography 240

12 Robotics and Sensing for Condition Assessment of

Wastewater Pipes 243
Sarath Kodagoda, Vinoth Kumar Viswanathan, Karthick Thiyagarajan,
Antony Tran, Sathira Wickramanayake, Steve Barclay, and
Dammika Vitanage
12.1 Introduction 243
12.2 Nondestructive Sensing System for Condition Assessment of Sewer
Walls 245
12.3 Robotic Tool for Field Deployment 252
12.4 Laboratory Evaluation 254
12.5 Field Deployment and Evaluation 255
12.6 Lessons Learned and Future Directions 258
12.7 Concluding Remarks 259
Bibliography 260

13 A Climbing Robot for Maintenance Operations in Confined

Spaces 263
Gibson Hu, Dinh Dang Khoa Le, and Dikai Liu
13.1 Introduction 263
13.2 Robot Design 265
13.3 Methodologies 271
13.3.1 Perception 271
13.3.2 Control 274
 Contents xi

13.3.3 Planning of Robot Body Motion 279

13.4 Experiments and Results 279
13.4.1 Experiment Setup 279
13.4.2 Lab Test Results 280
13.4.3 Field Trials in a Steel Bridge 282
13.5 Discussion 283
13.6 Conclusion 283
Bibliography 284

14 Multi-UAV Systems for Inspection of Industrial and Public

Infrastructures 285
Alvaro Caballero, Julio L. Paneque, Jose R. Martinez-de-Dios, Ivan Maza,
and Anibal Ollero
14.1 Introduction 285
14.2 Multi-UAV Inspection of Electrical Power Systems 287
14.2.1 Use Cases 287
14.2.2 Architecture 288
14.3 Inspection Planning 289
14.3.1 Vehicle Routing Problem 289
14.4 Onboard Online Semantic Mapping 296
14.4.1 GNSS-Endowed Mapping System 296
14.4.2 Reflectivity and Geometry-Based Semantic Classification 297
14.4.3 Validation 298
14.5 Conclusion 300
Bibliography 302

15 Robotic Platforms for Inspection of Oil Refineries 305

Mauricio Calva
15.1 Refining Oil for Fuels and Petrochemical Basics 305
15.2 The Inspection Process 307
15.3 Inspection and Mechanical Integrity of Oil Refinery
Components 310
15.3.1 Liquid Storage Tank Inspection 310
15.3.2 Pressurized Vessels Inspection 312
15.3.3 Process Pipping 314
15.3.4 Heat Exchanger Bundles 315
15.4 Plant Operations, Surveillance, Maintenance Activities, and
Others 316
15.4.1 Surveillance, Operations, and Maintenance of Oil and Gas
Refineries 316
15.4.2 Safety and Security 318
xii Contents

15.4.3 Utilities and Support Activities 318

15.5 Robotic Systems for Inspection 319
15.5.1 Robotics for Storage Tanks 320
15.5.2 Robotics for Pressure Vessels 324
15.5.3 Robotics for Process Piping 328
15.5.4 Robotics Heat Exchanger Bundles 331
15.6 Robotics for Plant Operations, Surveillance, Maintenance, and Other
Related Activities 332
15.6.1 Operations, Surveillance, and Maintenance of Oil and Gas Refineries
with Robotic Systems 332
15.6.2 Safety and Security Robotics 334
15.6.3 Robotics for Utilities and Support Activities 335
15.7 Conclusion 335

16 Drone-Based Solar Cell Inspection With Autonomous Deep

Learning 337
Zhounan Wang, Peter Zheng, Basaran Bahadir Kocer, and Mirko Kovac
16.1 Introduction 337
16.1.1 Motivation 337
16.1.2 Related Works 339
16.1.3 Scope 341
16.2 Aerial Robot and Detection Framework 341
16.2.1 Simulation Environment 343
16.2.2 Solar Panel Detection 343
16.2.3 Aerial Robot Trajectory 345
16.2.4 Sensory Instrumentation for Aerial Robot 346
16.3 Learning Framework 348
16.3.1 Dataset Preparation 349
16.3.2 CNN Architecture 351
16.3.3 Performance Evaluation Measures 352
16.4 Conclusion 357
Acknowledgments 358
Bibliography 358

17 Aerial Repair and Aerial Additive Manufacturing 367

Yusuf Furkan Kaya, Lachlan Orr, Basaran Bahadir Kocer, and Mirko Kovac
17.1 Review of State of the Art in Additive Manufacturing at Architectural
Scales 367
17.2 Review of Demonstrations of Aerial Manufacturing and Repair 371
17.2.1 Demands and Challenges 374
 Contents xiii

17.2.2 Future Prospects 376

17.3 Initial Experimental Evaluations 378
17.4 Conclusion and Discussion 379
Bibliography 379

Index 385
Exploring the Variety of Random
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Catholic
World, Vol. 06, October, 1867 to March, 1868.
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Catholic World, Vol. 06, October, 1867 to March, 1868.

Author: Various

Release date: October 28, 2017 [eBook #55841]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Don Kostuch

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHOLIC

WORLD, VOL. 06, OCTOBER, 1867 TO MARCH, 1868. ***
[Transcriber's note: This text is derived from
archive.org/stream/catholicworld06pauluoft/catholicworld06pauluoft
_djvu.txt Page numbers are shown in curly braces, such as {123}.
They have been moved to the nearest sentence break.]

The Catholic World.

A Monthly Magazine

of

General Literature And Science

VOL. VI.

October, 1867, To March, 1868.

 New York:
The Catholic Publication House,
126 Nassau Street.
1868.
 John A. Gray & Green,

Printers,

16 And 18 Jacob Street, New York.

 Contents.

A Royal Nun, 106.

Aimée's Sacrifice, 156.
A Winged Word, 257.

Basher's Sacrifice, and what came of it, 124.

Baby, 227.
Bellini's Romance, 408.
Bethlehem: A Pilgrimage, 462.
Bunyan, John, and Plagiarism, 535.
Bartoleme Las Casas, 829.

Christian Schools and Scholars, 44.

Carlyle's Shooting Niagara, 86.
Cartesian Doubt, The, 234.
Composer's Difficulty, The, 251.
Christianity in France, Present Condition of, 275, 360.
Catholic Congress at Malines, The Third, 289.
Conscript, the Story of, 310, 441, 607, 732.
Cornelius, Peter, the Master of German Painting, 391.
Comedy of Convocation, The, 554.
Catholic Congress of Malines, Bishop Dupanloup's Speech at, 587.
Couture's Book, 653.
Canada Thistles, 721.
Composers, The Rival, 758.
Church and her Attributes, The, 788.

Double Marriage, The, 776.

Faith and the Sciences, 330.

Forget Me Not, 639.
Indians, What shall we do with the, 403.
Irish in America, The, 765.
Italy, Affairs in, 814.

Jesuits in North America, The, 192.

Justification, The Catholic Doctrine of, 433.
Joseph Görres, 497.

Kings of England, The Title of, 257.

Learned Women and Studious Women, 24, 209.

Labor Question, The, 472.
Libraries—Family, Parish, and Sunday-School, 546.
Lacordaire, Inner Life of, 689.

Manager's Dilemma, The, 20.

Martyrs of Gorcum, The, 71.
Meadowbrook Adventure, My, 346.
Magas; or, Long Ago, 666, 804.
Miscellany, 709.
Nature and Grace, 509.

Our Boy Organist, 64.

Old Guide to Good Manners, An, 98.
Old Religion, The, 622.
Old Roman World, The, 751.

Protestants, A Few Thoughts about, 132.

Paris Impious—and Religious Paris, 577.
Philosophy not always Vain, 680.
Paris, The Pre-Historical Congress of, 703.

Rome and the World, 1.

Ritualism and its True Meaning, 375.
Reign of Law, The, 595.
Sayings of the Fathers of the Desert, 92, 171, 421, 700, 851.
Subjective in Religion, Function of the, 175.
Stage-Coach, The Inside of, 412.
Sandal of His Holiness, The Ceremonial, 471.
Sacrifice and the Ransom, The, 485.

Temporal Power of the Popes, The, 528.

The Pre-Historical Congress of Paris, 703.

Women, Learned and Studious, 24, 209.

Washington, Unpublished Letters of, 145.
What Doctor Marks died of, 824.
 Poetry.
All Souls' Day, 172.
Abscondita, 731.

Beati Mites, Quoniam Ipse Possidebunt Terram, 606.

Divine Loadstone, The, 757.

In Memoriam, 43.
Imogen, 190.

Joy and Grief, 358.

Love of the Pardoned, The, 823.

Mater Filii, 484.

Matin, 527.

Our Lady, 62.

Per Liquidum AEthera Vates, 327.

Providence, 701.

Ran Away to Sea, 103.

Seventy-Three, 266.
Seven Sleepers, The Legend of the, 544.
Sub Umbra, 638.

With Christ, 19.

 New Publications.
Aner's Return, 430.
Alexis, the Runaway, 575.

Battle-Fields of Ireland, The, 288.

Blessed Margaret Mary, History of, 287.
Bohemians of the Fifteenth Century, 144.
Breaking Away, 575.
Blessed Eucharist, The, 859.

Clergy and the Pulpit, 139.

Catholic Crusoe, 430.
Climbing the Rope, 575.
Childhood, Happy Hours of, 576.
Coral Island, The, 717.
Catholic Poets, Selections from, 718.
Claudia, 719.
Comedy of Convocation, The, 719.
Catholic Almanac, 720.
Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland, The, 859.

Day's Synthesis and Art of Discourse, 425.

Dotty Dimple, 576.
Daughter of an Empress, The, 713

Essays on Religion and Literature, 141.

Extracts from the Fathers, 144.

Froude's Short Studies on Great Subjects, 428.

Folks and Fairies, 860.

Galin Method of Musical Instruction, The, 430.

Golden Truths, 716.

Heiress of Killorgan, The, 432.

Haldeman's Affixes, their Origin and Application, 432.
Holy Kings, The Three, 573.
Hildebert, The Hymn of, 574.
Holly and Mistletoe, 576.
Home Fairy Tales, 860.

Irish Reformation, Dr. Brady on the, 571.

Ireland, an Illustrated History of, 855.
Ireland, Legends of the Wars in, 858.

Katrina, Holland's, 285.

Lacorclaire's Letters to Young Men, 144.

Life of St. Aloysius Gonzaga, The, 288.
Little Pet Books, 288.
Life of Curran and Grattan, The, 576.
Layman's Breviary, The, 717.
Lovers' Dictionary, 860.

Modern History, Fredet's and Kearney's, 144,

Meditations of St. Thomas, 431.
My Prisons, 575.
Marie Antoinette and her Son, 713.
Morgan Rattler, 717.
Manual of Physical Exercises, 860.

Napoleon and Queen of Prussia, 713.

Newman's Verses on Various Occasions, 858.

Preston's Lectures on Reason and Revelation, 710.

Poems, 711.

Queens of American Society, The, 719.

Recamier, Madame, Life of, 430.
Rome and the Popes, 718.

Swetchine, Madame, Life of, 429.

Saint Ignatius and the Society of Jesus, 431.
Saint Gwendoline, Ye Legend of, 573.
Shamrock and Thistle, 574.
Saint Vincent de Paul, The Spirit of, 718.
Saint Francis of Assisi, Life of, 718.
Seek and Find, 720.
Strickland's Queens of England, 860.

Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 715.

Tommy Hickup, 720.

Uberto, 286.
Ungava, 717.

Votary, The, 286.

Whitney on Language and the Study of Language, 423.

Women, The Friendships of, 852.

Young Fur Traders, The, 717.

The Catholic World

Vol. VI., No. 31.—October, 1867.

 Rome And The World.

Under the head Rome or Reason we showed in THE CATHOLIC

WORLD for last month that Catholicity is based on reality, and is
the synthesis, so to speak, of Creator and creature, of God and
man, of heaven and earth, nature and grace, faith and reason,
authority and liberty, revelation and science, and that there is in the
real order no antagonism between the two terms or categories. The
supposed antagonism results from not understanding the real nexus
that unites them in one dialectic whole, and forms the ground of
their mutual conciliation and peace, expressed in the old sense of
the word "atonement."

Christianity is supernatural, indeed, but it is not an after-thought, or

an anomaly in the original plan of creation. Our Lord was the Lamb
slain from the foundation of the world; the Incarnation is included
in creation as its completion or fulfilment; and hence many
theologians hold that, even if man had not sinned, God would have
become incarnate, not, indeed, to redeem man from sin and death
which comes by sin, but to ennoble his nature, and to enable him
to attain to that supernatural union with God in which alone he
finds or can find his supreme good or perfect beatitude.
Christianity, whether this be so or not, must always be regarded as
teleological, the religion of the end—not accidentally so, but made
so in the original plan of the Creator. It enters dialectically, not
arbitrarily, into that plan, and really completes it. In this view of the
case the Creator's works from first to last are dialectical, and there
is and can be no contradiction in them; no discrepancy between
the natural and supernatural, between faith and reason, nature and
grace, the beginning, medium, and end, but all form integral parts
of one indissoluble whole.
But, if there is and can be no antagonism between Rome and
Reason, there certainly is an antagonism between Rome and the
World, which must not be overlooked or counted for nothing, and
which will, in some form, most likely, subsist as long as the world
stands. Rome symbolizes for us the catholic religion, or the divine
order, which is the law of life. The Catholic Church in its present
state dates only from the Incarnation, out of which it grows, and of
which it is in some sort the visible continuation; but the Catholic
religion, as the faith, as the law of life, dates from the beginning.
The just before the coming of Christ were just on the same
principles, by the same faith, and by obedience to the same divine
law, or conformity to the same divine order, that they are now, and
will be to the end; and hence the deist Tindal expressed a truth
which he was far from comprehending when he asserted that
"Christianity is as old as the world." Tindal's great error was in
understanding by Christianity only the natural law promulgated
through natural reason, and in denying the supernatural.
Christianity is that and more too. It includes, and from the first has
included, in their synthesis, both the natural and the supernatural.
The human race has never had but one true or real religion, but
one revelation, which, as St. Thomas teaches, was made in
substance to our first parents in the garden. Times change, says St.
Augustine, but faith changes not. As believed the fathers—the
patriarchs—so believe we, only they believed in a Christ to come,
and we in a Christ that has come. Prior to the actual coming of
Christ the Church existed, but in a state of promise, and needed his
actual coming to be perfected, or fulfilled, as St. Paul teaches us in
his epistle to the Hebrews; and hence none who died before the
Incarnation actually entered heaven till after the passion of our
Lord.

Now, to this divine order, this divine law, this catholic faith and
worship symbolized to us by Rome, the visible centre of its unity
and authority, stands opposed another order, not of life, but of
death, called the world, originating with our first parents, and in
their disobedience to the divine law, or violation of the divine order
established by the Creator, conformity to which was essential to the
moral life and perfection of the creature, or fulfilment of the
promise given man in creation. The order violated was founded in
the eternal wisdom and goodness of the Creator, and the relations
which necessarily subsist between God as creator and man as his
creature, the work of his hands. There is and can be for man no
other law of life; even God himself can establish no other. By
obedience to the law given or conformity to the order established
man is normally developed, lives a true normal life, and attains to
his appointed end, which is the completion of his being in God, his
beatitude or supreme good. But Satan tempted our first parents to
depart from this order and to transgress the divine law, and in their
transgression of the law they fell into sin, and founded what we call
the world—not on the law of life, but on what is necessarily the law
of death.

The principle of the world may be collected from the words of the
Tempter to Eve: "Ye shall not surely die, but shall be as gods,
knowing good and evil." These words deny the law of God, declare
it false, and promise to men independence of their Creator, and the
ability to be their own masters, their own teachers and guides. "Ye
shall be as gods, knowing good and evil;" that is, determining for
yourselves, independently of any superior, what is right or wrong,
good or evil, or what is or is not fitting for you to do. You shall
suffice for yourselves, and be your own law. Hence, as the basis of
Rome is the assertion of the divine law, conformity to the divine
order, or submission to the divine reason and will, that is, humility,
the basis of the world is the denial of the divine order, the rejection
of the law of life and the assertion of the sufficiency of man for
himself, that is, simply, pride. Rome is based on humility, the world
on pride; the spirit of Rome is loyalty and obedience, the spirit of
the world is disloyalty and disobedience, always and everywhere
the spirit of revolt or rebellion. Between these two spirits there is
necessarily an indestructible antagonism, and no possible
reconciliation.
The radical difference between Rome and the world is the radical
difference between the humility of the Christian and the pride of
the Stoic. All Christian piety and virtue are based on humility; the
piety and virtue of the stoic are based on pride. The Christian is
always deeply impressed with the greatness and goodness of God;
the stoic with the greatness and strength of himself. The Christian
submits to crosses and disappointments, to the sufferings and
afflictions of life, because he loves God, and is willing to suffer
anything for his sake; the stoic endures them without a murmur,
because he disdains to complain, and holds that he is, and should
be, superior to all the vicissitudes and calamities of life. The
Christian weeps as his Master wept at the grave of Lazarus, and
finds relief in his tears; the stoic is too proud to weep; he wraps
himself in his own dignity and self-importance, and, when his
calamities are greater than he can bear, he seeks relief, like Cato, in
suicide, thus proving his weakness by the very means he takes to
conceal it. The Christian throws his burden on the Lord, and rises
above it; the stoic insists on bearing it himself, and at last sinks
under it. The world despises humility, and tramples on the humble.
To it the Christian is tame, passive, mean-spirited, contemptible. It
has no sympathy with the beatitudes, such as, Blessed are the poor
in spirit; blessed are the pure in heart; blessed are the meek;
blessed are the peacemakers. It understands nothing of true
Christian heroism, or of the greatness of repose. It sees strength
only in effort, which is always a proof of weakness, and the harder
one strains and tugs to raise a weight, the stronger it holds him.
We may see it in the popular literature of the day, and in nearly all
recent art. The ancients had a much truer thought when they
sculptured their gods asleep, and spread over their countenance an
air of ineffable repose. The Scriptures speak of the mighty works of
God, but represent them as the hiding of his power. All the great
operations of nature are performed in silence, and the world notes
them not. The Christian's greatness is concealed by the veil of
humility, and his strength is hidden with God. He works in silence,
but with effect, because he works with the power of Him to whom
is given all power in heaven and in earth.
Mr. Gladstone thinks he finds in Homer the whole body of the
patriarchal religion, or the primitive tradition of the race, and he
probably is not much mistaken; but no one can study Homer's
heroes without being struck with the contrast they offer to the
heroes of the Old Testament. The Old Testament heroes are as
brave, as daring, and as effective as those of Homer; but they
conceal their own personality, they go forth to battle in submission
to the divine command, not seeking to display their own skill or
prowess, and the glory of their achievements they ascribe to God,
who goes with them, assists them, fights for them, and gives the
victory. What is manifest is the presence and greatness of God, not
the greatness and strength of the hero, who is nothing in himself.
In Homer the case is reversed, and what strikes the reader is the
littleness of God and the greatness of men. The gods and
goddesses take part in the fray, it is true, but they are hardly the
equals of the human warriors themselves. A human spear wounds
Venus, and sends Mars howling from the field. It is human
greatness and strength, human prowess and heroism, without any
reference to God, to whom belongs the glory, that the poet sings,
the creature regarded as independent of the Creator. In reading the
Old Testament, you lose sight of the glory of men in the glory of
God; in reading Homer, you lose sight of the glory of God in the
glory of men. Abraham, Joshua, Gideon, Jephtha, David, the
Maccabees fight as the servants of the Most High; Agamemnon,
Ajax, Diomed, Achilles, even Hector, to display their own power, and
to prove the stuff that is in them.

Perhaps no author, ancient or modern, has so completely embodied

in his writings, the spirit of the world, the Welt-Geist, as the
Germans say, as Thomas Carlyle. This writer may have done some
service to society in exposing many cants, in demolishing numerous
shams, and in calling attention to the eternal verities, of which few
men are more ignorant; but he has deified force, and consecrated
the worship of might in the place of right. Indeed, for him, right is
cant, and there is no right but might. He spurns humility,
submission, obedience, and recognizes God only in human ability.
His hero-worship is the worship of the strong and the successful.
Ability, however directed or wherever displayed, is his divinity. His
heroes are Woden and Thor, Cromwell, Frederick the Great,
Mirabeau, Danton, Napoleon Bonaparte. The men who go straight
to their object, whether good or bad, and use the means necessary
to gain it, whether right or wrong, are for him the divine men, and
the only thing he censures is weakness, whether caused by
indecision or scruples of conscience. His hero is an elemental force,
who acts as the lightning that rives the oak, or the winds that fill
the sails and drive the ship to its port. Old-fashioned morality,
which requires a man to seek just ends by just means, is with him
a cant, a sham, an unreality, and the true hero makes away with it,
and is his own end, his own law, his own means. He is not
governed, he governs, and is the real being, the real God; all else
belong to the unveracities, are mere simulacra, whose end is to
vanish in thin air, to disappear in the inane. The man who
recognizes a power above him, a right independent of him, and in
submission to the divine law, and from love of truth and justice,
weds himself to what is commanded, espouses the right and
adheres to it through good report and evil report, takes up the
cause of the oppressed, the wronged and outraged, the poor, the
friendless, and the down-trodden, and works for it, gives his soul to
it, and sacrifices his time, his labor, and his very life to advance it,
when he has no man with him, and all the world unheeds, jeers, or
thwarts him, is unheroic, and has no moral grandeur in him, has no
virtue—unless he succeeds. He is a hero only when he carries the
world with him, bends the multitude to his purpose, and comes out
triumphant. The unsuccessful are always wrong; lost causes are
always bad causes; and the unfortunate are unveracious, and
deserve their fate. The good man struggling with fate, and holding
fast to his integrity in the midst of the sorest trials and temptations,
and overborne in all things save his unconquerable devotion to
duty, is no hero, and deserves no honor, though even the ancients
thought such a man worthy of the admiration of gods and men.
Carlyle forgets that there is an hereafter, and that what to our dim
vision may seem to be failure here may there be seen to have been
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