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Marius Iulian Mihailescu and Stefania Loredana Nita

Pro Cryptography and Cryptanalysis

with C++23
Creating and Programming Advanced Algorithms
2nd ed.
Marius Iulian Mihailescu
Bucharest, Romania

Stefania Loredana Nita

Bucharest, Romania

ISBN 978-1-4842-9449-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9450-5

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9450-5

© Marius Iulian Mihailescu and Stefania Loredana Nita 2021, 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress
Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(https://github.com/Apress). For more detailed information, please
visit http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Table of Contents
Part I: Foundations
Chapter 1:​Getting Started in Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
Book Structure
Internet Resources
Forums and Newsgroups
Security Protocols and Standards
Cryptography Tools and Resources
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2:​Cryptography Fundamentals
Information Security and Cryptography
Cryptography Goals
Cryptographic Primitives
Background of Mathematical Functions
One-to-One, One-Way, and Trapdoor One-Way Functions
Permutations
Inclusion
Concepts and Basic Terminology
Domains and Codomains Used for Encryption
Encryption and Decryption Transformations
The Participants in the Communication Process
Digital Signatures
Signing Process
Verification Process
 Public-Key Cryptography
Hash Functions
Case Studies
Caesar Cipher Implementation in C++23
Vigenére Cipher Implementation in C++23
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3:​Mathematical Background and Its Applicability
Probabilities
Conditional Probability
Random Variables
Birthday Problem
Information Theory
Entropy
Number Theory
Integers
Algorithms inℤ
Integers Modulo n
Algorithms ℤm
The Legendre and Jacobi Symbols
Finite Fields
Basic Notions
Polynomials and the Euclidean Algorithm
Case Study 1:​Computing the Probability of an Event That Takes
Place
Case Study 2:​Computing the Probability Distribution
 Case Study 3:​Computing the Mean of the Probability
Distribution
Case Study 4:​Computing the Variance
Case Study 5:​Computing the Standard Deviation
Case Study 6:​Birthday Paradox
Case Study 7:​(Extended) Euclidean Algorithm
Case Study 8: Computing the Multiplicative Inverse Under
Modulo q
Case Study 9:​Chinese Remainder Theorem
Case Study 10:​The Legendre Symbol
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4:​Large Integer Arithmetic
A Bit of History
What About Cryptography?​
Algorithms Used for Large Integer Arithmetic
Subtraction (Subtraction Modulo)
Multiplication
Big Integers
Review of Large Integer Libraries
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5:​Floating-Point Arithmetic
Why Floating-Point Arithmetic?​
Displaying Floating-Point Numbers
The Range of Floating Points
Floating-Point Precision
 Next Level for Floating-Point Arithmetic
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6:​New Features in C++23
Headers
The <expected> Header
The <generator> Header
The <flat_​map> Header
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7:​Secure Coding Guidelines
Secure Coding Checklist
CERT Coding Standards
Identifiers
Noncompliant Code Examples and Compliant Solutions
Exceptions
Risk Assessment
Automated Detection
Related Guidelines
Rules
Rule 01.​Declarations and Initializations (DCL)
Rule 02.​Expressions (EXP)
Rule 03.​Integers (INT)
Rule 05.​Characters and Strings (STR)
Rule 06.​Memory Management (MEM)
Rule 07.​Input/​Output (FIO)
 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8:​Cryptography Libraries in C/​C++23
Overview of Cryptography Libraries
Hash Functions
Public-Key Cryptography
Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC)
OpenSSL
Configuration and Installing OpenSSL
Botan
CrypTool
Conclusion
References
Part II: Pro Cryptography
Chapter 9:​Elliptic-Curve Cryptography
Theoretical Fundamentals
Weierstrass Equation
Group Law
Practical Implementation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10:​Lattice-based Cryptography
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lattice-based Cryptography
Applications of Lattice-based Cryptography
Security of Lattice-based Cryptography
Lattice-based Cryptography and Quantum Computing
 Mathematical Background
Example
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11:​Searchable Encryption
Components
Entities
Types
Security Characteristics
An Example
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12:​Homomorphic Encryption
Full Homomorphic Encryption
A Practical Example of Using FHE
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13:​Ring Learning with Errors Cryptography
Mathematical Background
Learning with Errors (LWE)
Ring Learning with Errors (RLWE)
Practical Implementation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14:​Chaos-based Cryptography
Security Analysis
 Chaotic Maps for Plaintexts and Image Encryption
Rössler Attractor
Complex Numbers:​A Short Overview
Practical Implementation
Secure Random Number Generator Using Chaos Rössler
Attractor
Encrypt and Decrypt Using Chaos and Fractals
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15:​Big Data Cryptography
Verifiable Computation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16:​Cloud Computing Cryptography
A Practical Example
Conclusion
References
Part III: Pro Cryptanalysis
Chapter 17:​Starting with Cryptanalysis
Part III:​Structure
Cryptanalysis Terms
A Bit of Cryptanalysis History
Understanding Cryptanalysis Techniques
Analyzing Cryptographic Algorithms
Cracking Cryptographic Systems
Understanding Cryptographic Systems
 Understanding Cryptographic Keys
Understanding Cryptographic Weaknesses
Analyzing Cryptographic Keys
Penetration Tools and Frameworks
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18:​Cryptanalysis Attacks and Techniques
Standards
FIPS 140-2, FIPS 140-3, and ISO 15408
Validation of Cryptographic Systems
Cryptanalysis Operations
Classification of Cryptanalytics Attacks
Attacks on Cipher Algorithms
Attacks on Cryptographic Keys
Attacks on Authentication Protocols
Conclusion
References
Chapter 19:​Differential and Linear Cryptanalysis
Differential Cryptanalysis
Linear Cryptanalysis
Performing Linear Cryptanalysis
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20:​Integral Cryptanalysis
Basic Notions
Theorem 20-1 [1, Theorem 1, p.​114]
 Theorem 20-2 [1, Theorem 2, p.​114]
Practical Approach
Conclusion
References
Chapter 21:​Brute-Force and Buffer Overflow Attacks
Brute-Force Attack
Buffer Overflow Attack
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22:​Text Characterization​
Chi-Squared Statistic
Cryptanalysis Using Monogram, Bigram, and Trigram
Frequency Counts
Counting Monograms
Counting Bigrams
Counting Trigrams
Conclusion
References
Chapter 23:​Implementation and Practical Approach of
Cryptanalysis Methods
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Ciphertext-Only Attack (COA)
Known-Plaintext Attack (KPA)
Chosen-Plaintext Attack (CPA)
 Chosen-Ciphertext Attack (CCA)
Conclusion
References
Index
About the Authors
Marius Iulian Mihailescu, PhD
is an associate professor at the Faculty of Engineering and Informatics,
Spiru Haret University in Bucharest, Romania. He is also the CEO of
Dapyx Solution Ltd., a company based in Bucharest specializing in
information security and cryptography-related research projects. He is
a lead guest editor for applied cryptography journals and a reviewer for
multiple publications with information security and cryptography
profiles. He authored and co-authored more articles in conference
proceedings, 25 articles, and books. For more than six years, he has
been a lecturer at well-known national and international universities
(the University of Bucharest, Titu Maiorescu University, and Kadir Has
University in Istanbul, Turkey). He has taught courses on programming
languages (C#, Java, C++, Haskell) and object-oriented system analysis
and design with UML, graphs, databases, cryptography, and information
security. He served three years as an IT officer at Royal Caribbean
Cruises Ltd., dealing with IT infrastructure, data security, and satellite
communications systems. He received his PhD in 2014, and his thesis
was on applied cryptography over biometrics data. He holds two MSc in
information security and software engineering.

Stefania Loredana Nita, PhD

is a lecturer at the Ferdinand I Military Technical Academy in
Bucharest, Romania, and a software developer at the Institute of for
Computers in Bucharest. Her PhD thesis was on advanced
cryptographic schemes using searchable encryption and homomorphic
encryption. She has been an assistant lecturer at the University of
Bucharest, teaching courses on advanced programming techniques,
simulation methods, and operating systems. She has authored several
whitepapers and journal articles, as well as books on the Haskell
programming language. Stefania is a lead guest editor for information
security and cryptography issues, such as advanced cryptography and
its future: searchable and homomorphic encryption. She has a master’s
degree in software engineering and bachelor’s degrees in computer
science and mathematics.
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone
has more than 25 years of experience in
security, web/mobile development,
cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT
passions are security and Android. He
has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP,
Java, VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for
more than 20 years. He has a master’s
degree in computing science from the
University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a CISO, CSO,
security executive, IoT executive, project
manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect,
PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years. His technical skills include security, Android, cloud,
Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web and mobile development,
MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python, Pro Rails,
Django CMS, Jekyll, Scratch, and more.
He worked as visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the
Networking Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto
University). He holds four international patents (PKI, SIP, SAML, and
Proxy areas). He is currently working for Cognizant as head of
cybersecurity and CISO to help internally and externally with clients in
information and cyber security areas, like strategy, planning, processes,
policies, procedures, governance, awareness, and so forth. In June 2017,
he became a permanent member of the ISACA Finland Board. Massimo
has reviewed more than 45 IT books for different publishing companies
and is the co-author of Pro Spring Security: Securing Spring Framework
5 and Boot 2-based Java Applications (Apress, 2019), Beginning EJB in
Java EE 8 (Apress, 2018), Pro JPA 2 in Java EE 8 (Apress, 2018), and Pro
Android Games (Apress, 2015).
Part I
Foundations
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
M. I. Mihailescu, S. L. Nita, Pro Cryptography and Cryptanalysis with C++23
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9450-5_1

1. Getting Started in Cryptography and

Cryptanalysis
Marius Iulian Mihailescu1 and Stefania Loredana Nita1
(1) Bucharest, Romania

Cryptography and cryptanalysis are two fascinating and highly

technical disciplines that have played a critical role in modern
communication and security. Cryptography is the practice of protecting
data using encryption algorithms, while cryptanalysis is trying to break
those algorithms. Whether you have just become interested in these
topics or have been studying them for some time, this step-by-step
guide helps you get started in the world of cryptography and
cryptanalysis. From understanding the basics of cryptography to
exploring advanced techniques, this guide provides you with all the
necessary information to become an expert in the field. Along the way,
you learn about the history of cryptography, common algorithms and
techniques used in encryption, and the tools and resources available to
help you grow your knowledge. Therefore, let’s get started!
Cryptography is the practice of protecting data by using encryption
algorithms. The word cryptography comes from the Greek words
kryptos, which means hidden, and graphein, which means written. As
such, it has been around for a very long time, but it wasn’t until the
invention of the telegraph that it started to play a larger role in society.
The telegraph was a critical piece of infrastructure in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, and it needed a way to secure messages. As a
result, cryptography became more standardized and public knowledge.
The first standardized cipher was the Vigenère cipher, invented in 1553
but not publicly known until 1863. The next major cipher was the one-
time pad, invented in 1917 and the first known completely unbreakable
cipher. The next major advancement in cryptography came with the
invention of the computer and the rise of digital communications. Since
then, there have been many advances in cryptography, including the
invention of the RSA algorithm, which is widely used today.
Knowledge is one of the most important aspects to consider when
designing and implementing complex systems, such as companies,
organizations, and military operations. Information falling into the
wrong hands can be a tragedy and result in a huge loss of business or
disastrous outcomes. To guarantee communication security,
cryptography can encode information so that no one can decode it
without legal rights. Many ciphers have been broken when a flaw or
weakness has been found in their design or enough computing power
has been applied to break an encoded message. Cryptology consists of
cryptography and cryptanalysis, as you see later.
With the rapid evolution of electronic communication, the number
of issues raised by information security is significantly increasing every
day. Messages that are shared over publicly accessible computer
networks around the world must be secured and preserved and have
the proper security mechanisms to protect against abuse. The business
requirements in electronic devices and their communication consist of
having digital signatures that can be legally recognized. Modern
cryptography provides solutions to all these problems.
The idea of this book started from an experience that has been
achieved through three directions: (1) cryptography courses for
students (graduate and undergraduate) in computer science at the
University of Bucharest and Titu Maiorescu University; (2) industry
experience achieved in national and international companies; (3)
ethical hacking best practices; and (4) security audit.
This book aims to present the most advanced cryptography and
cryptanalysis techniques and their implementations using C++20. Most
implementations are in C++20, using the latest programming language
features and improvements (see Chapter 5).
The book is an advanced and exhaustive work, comprehensively
covering all the most important topics in information security,
cryptography, and cryptanalysis. The content of the book can be used in
a wide spectrum of areas by multiple professionals, such as security
experts with their audits, military experts and personnel, ethical
hackers, teachers in academia, researchers, software developers, and
software engineers when security and cryptographic solutions need to
be implemented in a real business software environment, student
courses (undergraduate and graduate levels, master’s degree,
professional and academic doctoral degree), business analysts and many
more.

Cryptography and Cryptanalysis

It is very important to understand the meanings of the main concepts
involved in a secure communication process and to see their
boundaries.
Cryptology is the science or art of secret writing; the main goal is to
protect and defend the secrecy and confidentiality of information
with the help of cryptographic algorithms.
Cryptography is the defensive side of cryptology; the main objective
is to create and design cryptographic systems and their rules. When
you look at cryptography, you can see a special kind of art: protecting
the information by transforming it into an unreadable format called
ciphertext.
Cryptanalysis is the offensive side of cryptology; its main objective is
to study cryptographic systems with the scope of providing the
necessary characteristics in such a way as to fulfill the function for
which they have been designed. Cryptanalysis can analyze the
cryptographic systems of third parties through the cryptograms
realized with them so that it breaks them to obtain useful
information for their business purpose. Cryptanalysts, code breakers,
and ethical hackers deal with cryptanalysis.
Cryptographic primitives represent well-established or low-level
cryptographic algorithms for building cryptographic protocols;
examples include hash functions and encryption functions.
This book provides a deep examination of all three sides from the
practical side of view with references to the theoretical background by
illustrating how a theoretical algorithm should be analyzed for
implementation.
There are many different algorithms and techniques in modern
cryptography. Here are a few of the more common ones.
Symmetric-key algorithms use both sides of a communication to
generate a shared secret key and then use that key to encrypt and
decrypt messages. The most prominent example is AES, which is
used by the US government and many businesses worldwide.
Asymmetric-key algorithms use two different keys to encrypt and
decrypt messages. The most common example is RSA, which secures
websites and applications like Gmail.
Hash algorithms are commonly used to create digital signatures for
data and are sometimes used for message authentication. The most
well-known example is probably the SHA family of hash algorithms.
Trapdoor function algorithms generate digital signatures and are
sometimes used to implement public-key encryption. The most
common example is probably the RSA function.
One-time pad algorithms are the only unbreakable ciphers
requiring truly random keys. The most widely used OTP algorithm is
the Vernam cipher, which was the basis for the encryption used by
the US military in World War II.
Book Structure
The book is divided into 23 chapters divided into three parts: Part I
(Chapters 1–8) covers foundational topics, Part II (Chapters 9–17)
covers cryptography, and Part III (Chapters 18–23) covers
cryptanalysis.
Part I includes topics from beginner to advanced level and from
theoretical to practice. Chapter 2 discusses the basic concepts of
cryptography. Chapter 3 covers a collection of key elements regarding
complexity theory, probability theory, information theory, number
theory, abstract algebra, and finite fields and how they can be
implemented using C++20, showing their interaction with
cryptography and cryptanalysis algorithms.
Chapters 4 and 5 focus on integer arithmetic and floating-point
arithmetic processing. The chapter is vital, and other chapters and
algorithm implementations depend on these chapters’ content. Number
representations and working with them on the computer’s memory can
represent a difficult task.
Chapter 6 discusses the newest features and enhancements of
C++23. It presents how the new features and enhancements are
important in developing cryptography and cryptanalysis algorithms
and methods. It goes through three-way comparison, lambdas in
unevaluated contexts, string literals, atomic smart pointers, <version>
headers, ranges, coroutines, modules, and so forth.
Chapter 7 presents the most important guidelines for securing the
coding process, keeping an important balance between security and
usability based on the most expected scenarios based on trusted code.
Important topics include securing state data, security and user input,
security-neutral code, and library codes that expose protected
resources.
Chapter 8 covers the libraries and frameworks that are developed in
C++/C++23.
Part II covers the most important modern cryptographic primitives.
Chapters 9–16 discuss advanced cryptography topics by showing
implementations and how to approach this kind of advanced topic from
a mathematical background to a real-life environment.
 Chapter 9 discusses the basics of one of the most important
branches of cryptography: elliptic-curve cryptography.
Chapter 10 introduces the Lattice Cryptography Library and hot its
works for implementation, pointing out the importance of
postquantum cryptography. Implementations of key exchange protocols
proposed by Alkim, Ducas, Poppelmann, and Schwabe [1] are discussed.
The discussion continues by instantiating Chris Peikert’s key exchange
protocol [2]. The implementation is based on modern techniques for
computing, known as the number theoretic transform (NTT). The
implementations apply errorless fast convolution functions over
successions of integer numbers.
Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 present two important cryptographic
primitives, homomorphic and searchable encryption. For searchable
encryption (SE), Chapter 11 presents a framework using C++23 for SE,
showing the advantages and disadvantages of removing the most
common patterns from encrypted data. Chapter 12 discuss how to use
the SEAL library in practical examples. The SEAL library contains one of
the most important homomorphic encryption schemes: BGV
(Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan) [3].
Chapter 13 identifies the issues generated during implementing
(ring) learning with error cryptography mechanisms. It gives an
example of implementing the lattice-based key exchange protocol, a
library used only for experiments.
Chapter 14 is based on the new concepts behind chaos-based
cryptography and how it can be translated into practice. The chapter
generates some new outputs, and its contribution is important for
advancing cryptography as it is a new topic that didn’t get the proper
attention until now.
Chapter 15 discusses new methods and their implementations for
securing big data environments, big data analytics, access control
methods (key management for access control), attributed-based access
control, secure search, secure data processing, functional encryption,
and multiparty computation.
Chapter 16 points out the security issues about the applications
running in a cloud environment and how they can be resolved during
the design and implementation phase.
 Part III deals with advanced cryptanalysis topics and shows how to
pass the barrier between theory and practice and how to think about
cryptanalysis in terms of practice by eliminating the most vulnerable
and critical points of a system or software application in a network or
distributed environment.
Chapter 17 introduces you to cryptanalysis by presenting the most
important characteristics of cryptanalysis. Chapter 18 starts by
showing the important criteria and standards used in cryptanalysis,
how the tests of cryptographic systems are made, the process of
selecting the cryptographic modules, the cryptanalysis operations, and
classifications of cryptanalysis attacks.
Chapter 19 and Chapter 20 show how to implement and design
linear, differential, and integral cryptanalysis. These chapters focus on
techniques and strategies, and their primary role is to show how to
implement scripts for attacking linear and differential attacks.
Chapter 21 presents the most important attacks and how they can
be designed and implemented using C++23. You study the behavior of
the software applications when they are exposed to different attacks,
and you see how to exploit the source code. This chapter also discusses
software obfuscation and why it is a critical aspect that needs to be
considered by the personnel involved in implementing the software
process. Additionally, you learn how this analysis can be applied to
machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms that can be used
to predict future attacks over software applications that are running in
a distributed or cloud environment.
Chapter 22 goes through the text characterization method and its
implementation. It discusses chi-squared statistics; identifying
unknown ciphers; index of coincidence; monogram, bigram, and
trigram frequency counts; quad ram statistics as a fitness measure;
unicity distance; and word statistics as a fitness measure.
Chapter 23 presents the advantages and disadvantages of
implementing cryptanalysis methods, why they should have a special
place when applications are developed in distributed environments,
and how the data should be protected against such cryptanalysis
methods.
As you become more advanced in your study of cryptography, you
want to explore analysis techniques like frequency analysis, letter
analysis, and statistics that can help you break ciphers that are not
completely unbreakable. Sometimes, it is even possible to find flaws in
algorithms and protocols that can be exploited for malicious purposes.
For instance, cryptography is used in WEP and WPA/WPA2 networks to
encrypt data. It has been discovered that cracking the WEP takes less
than 10 minutes and that WPA/WPA2 is relatively easy to crack.

Internet Resources
The Internet has many resources that are very useful in keeping up
with progress in the field.
Bill’s Security Site (https://asecuritysite.com/). This
website contains various implementations of cryptographic
algorithms. Bill Buchanan, a professor at the School of Computing at
Edinburgh Napier University, created and updated the website.
Books by William Stallings [4] [Stallings, 2010 #1] – Cryptography
and Network Security
(http://williamstallings.com/Cryptography/). The site
contains a significant set of tools and resources and provides regular
updates, keeping up with the most important advances in
cryptography.
Schneier on Security (www.schneier.com/). The website
contains sections with books, essays, accurate news, talks, and
academic resources.

Forums and Newsgroups

Usenet newsgroups (deprecated but very useful information can still be
found) is dedicated to some of the important aspects of cryptography
and network security. The following are the most important.
sci.crypt.research is among the best groups for finding information
about research ideas. It is a moderated newsgroup whose main
purpose is to address research topics; most topics are related to the
technical aspects of cryptology.
sci.crypt is a group where you can find general discussions about
cryptology and related topics.
sci.crypt.random-numbers discusses random number generators.
 alt.security discusses general security topics.
comp.security.misc discusses general computer security topics.
comp.security.firewalls features discussions on firewalls and other
related products.
comp.security.announce covers CERT news and announcements.
comp.risks discusses public risks from computers and users.
comp.virus features moderated discussions on computer viruses.
Additionally, several forums deal with cryptography topics and
news that are available on the Internet. The following are the most
important.
Reddit Cryptography News and Discussions [5] is a forum group
featuring general information and news about different topics related
to cryptography and information security.
Security forums [6] contain vast topics and discussions about
computer security and cryptography.
TechnGenix – Security [7] is one of the most updated forums
featuring cryptography and information security news. The group is
maintained by world-leading security professionals in the field.
Wilders Security Forums [8] features discussions and news about
the vulnerabilities of software applications due to bad
implementations of cryptographic solutions.
Security Focus [9] is a forum with a series of discussions about
vulnerabilities raised by the implementations of cryptographic
algorithms.
Security InfoWatch [10] discusses data and information loss.
TechRepublic – Security [11] discusses practical aspects and
methodologies for designing and implementing software
applications.
Information Security Forum [12] is a world-leading information
security and cryptography forum. It features conferences, hands-on
and practical tutorials, solving solutions to security and
cryptographic issues.

Security Protocols and Standards

The following are specific standards for cryptography. They specify
which algorithms should be used and how they should be implemented.
There are many different cryptography standards, but the following are
the most important.
Suite B is a set of algorithms and protocols used by the US
government. It contains both symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
ISO/IEC 17799 is an international standard for information security.
It contains a set of guidelines for cryptography.
BSI TR-02102-1 - BSI – Technical Guideline. Cryptographic
Mechanisms: Recommendations and Key Lengths1 (Part 1)
evaluates the security of a few different cryptographic mechanisms,
providing some longer-term guidance in choosing appropriate
cryptographic algorithms. However, there is no guarantee of
completeness, so the BSI may not necessarily consider schemes that
are not included to be secure.
BSI TR-02102-2. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths, Part 2 – Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS)2
is a technical guideline with recommendations for using the TLS
encryption protocol. In particular, the confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity of the sent information can be secured by its use for
secure information transfer in data networks.
BSI TR-02102-3. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths, Part 3 – Use of Internet Protocol Security
(IPsec) and Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)3 is a technical
guideline with recommendations for using IPsec and IKEv2. In
particular, the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of the sent
information can be secured by its use for secure information transfer
in data networks.
BSI TR-02102-4. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths Part 4 – Use of Secure Shell (SSH) NIST Special
Publication 800-184 is a technical guideline with recommendations
for using the Secure Shell cryptographic technology (SSH). Within an
insecure network, this protocol can be used to create a secure
channel.
Federal Information Processing Standard 140-2 is a FIPS
standard that specifies cryptographic algorithms and protocols.
Many cryptographic techniques and implementations described in
this book follow the following standards. Standards have been
developed and designed to cover the management practices and the
entire architecture of the security mechanisms, strategies, and services.
The following are the most important standards covered in this
book.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
represents the US federal agency that deals with standards, science,
and technologies related to the US government. Except for the
national goal, NIST Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS)
and Special Publications (SP) have a very important worldwide
impact.
The Internet Society (ISOC) represents one of the most important
professional membership societies with organizational and
individual members worldwide. ISOC provides leadership in the
issues that are addressed and that confront the future perspective of
the Internet and applications developed using security and
cryptographic mechanisms with respect to the responsible groups,
such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) represents
one of the most powerful organizations within the United Nations
System. It coordinates and administers global telecom networks and
services with governments and the private sector. ITU-T represents
one of the three sectors of ITU. The mission of ITU-T consists of the
production of standards that cover all the fields of
telecommunications. The standards proposed by ITU-T are known as
recommendations.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
represents a worldwide federation that contains national standards
bodies from over 140 countries. ISO is a nongovernmental
organization to promote the development of standardization and
activities related to activities with a view that it facilitates the
international exchange of services to develop cooperation with
intellectual, scientific, and technological activity. The results of ISO
are as international agreements published as international
standards.
 From securing communication and storage of information,
cryptography algorithms and protocols can be seen as guidelines and
protocols used to ensure the secure communication and storage of
information. The following are some widely used cryptography
algorithms and protocols.
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric-key
encryption algorithm for encrypting electronic data.
RSA is an asymmetric-key encryption algorithm used for secure data
transmission.
Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key
cryptography based on the mathematics of elliptic curves.
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and TLS are protocols for securing
network communications.
IPSec is a protocol for securing Internet communications at the
network layer.
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a data encryption and decryption
program that provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for
data communication.
These are just a few examples, and many other cryptography
standards are used today.

Cryptography Tools and Resources

There are numerous tools and resources to help you learn more about
cryptography. Here are a few worth checking out.
Cracking Crypto challenges provide a fun way to test your skills and
are great for beginners. There are challenges in both cryptography
and cryptanalysis, so you can pick whichever interests you more.
Dark Reading is a website that publishes news articles on all aspects
of information security. Their cryptography section regularly
publishes articles on the latest developments in cryptography.
There are many great cryptography books. If you prefer reading to
online tutorials, there are plenty of worthy books to choose from.
Coursera, Pluralsight, and Udemy offer online cryptography
courses. These courses vary in length and difficulty and can help
advance your knowledge. The following are some of the most
interesting courses.
Coursera
Cryptography I by Dan Boneh, Stanford University
www.coursera.org/learn/crypto
Cryptography II by Dan Boneh
Stanford University
www.coursera.org/learn/crypto2
Introduction to Applied Cryptography Specialization by William
Bahn
www.coursera.org/specializations/introducti
on-applied-cryptography
Pluralsight
Cryptography: The Big Picture
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-big-picture/table-of-contents
Cryptography: Executive Briefing
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-executive-briefing/table-of-
contents
Cryptography Application
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-application/table-of-contents
Securing Data with Asymmetric Cryptography
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/asymmetric-cryptography-securing-data/table-
of-contents
Practical Encryption and Cryptography Using Python
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/practical-encryption-and-cryptography-using-
python/table-of-contents
Building Secure Applications with Cryptography in.NET
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/dotnet-cryptography-secure-
 applications/table-of-contents

Conclusion
The era in which we are living has an unimaginable evolution and
incredible technologies that enable the instant flow of information at
any time and place. The secret consists of the convergence process of
the computer with the networks, a key force that forces the evolution
and development of these incredible technologies from behind.
Cryptography and cryptanalysis are fascinating disciplines that have
played a critical role in modern communication and security. This step-
by-step work help you get started in the world of cryptography and
cryptanalysis by providing you with all the necessary information to
become an expert in programming and how to approach cryptographic
algorithms. From understanding the basics of programming
cryptography algorithms to exploring advanced techniques, this work
helps you explore the fascinating technical disciplines that have played
a critical role in modern communication and security.
This first chapter discussed the objectives of the book and its
benefits. It covered the mission of the book, addressing the practical
aspects of cryptography and information security and its main
intention in using the current work. The increasing process of using
systems that build using advanced information technologies has been
shown to deeply impact our lives every day. All technologies are
proving to be pervasive and ubiquitous.
The book represents the first practical step of translating the most
important theoretical cryptography algorithms and mechanisms to
practice through one of the most powerful programming languages
(C++20).
This chapter accomplished the following.
Each concept was explained to eliminate the confusion between
cryptography, cryptanalysis, and cryptology.
It discussed the book’s structure. A roadmap introduced the
dependencies of each chapter. Each chapter has been presented in
detail, pointing out the main objective.
A list of newsgroups, websites, and USENETs resources provides
sources covering the latest news in cryptography and information
 security.
It introduced the most significant standards used in cryptography
and information security.

References
[1]. Alkim, E., Ducas, L., Pö ppelmann, T., and Schwabe, P. (2016). Postquantum key
exchange—a new hope. In 25th {USENIX} Security Symposium ({USENIX}
Security 16) (pp. 327–343).
[2].
Peikert, C. (2014, October). Lattice cryptography for the Internet. In
international workshop on postquantum cryptography (pp. 197–219). Springer,
Cham.
[3].
Brakerski, Z., Gentry, C., and Vaikuntanathan V. (2011). Fully Homomorphic
Encryption without Bootstrapping Cryptology ePrint Archive, Paper 2011/277,
https://eprint.iacr.org/2011/277.
[4].
Stallings, W., Cryptography and Network Security - Principles and Practice. 5
ed. 2010: Pearson. 744.
[5].
Reddit. Cryptography News and Discussions. Available from:
https://www.reddit.com/r/crypto/.
[6].
Forums, Security.; Available from: http://www.security-
forums.com/index.php?
sid=acc302c71bb3ea3a7d631a357223e261.
[7].
TechGenix, Security. Available from: http://techgenix.com/security/.
[8].
Wilders Security Forums. Available from:
https://www.wilderssecurity.com/.
[9].
Security Focus. Available from: https://www.securityfocus.com/.
[10].
Security InfoWatch. Available from:
https://forums.securityinfowatch.com/ .
[11].
TechRepublic – Security. Available from:
https://www.techrepublic.com/forums/security/.
[12].
Information Security Forum. Available from:
https://www.securityforum.org/.
Footnotes
1 See
https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publicati
ons/TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-1.pdf?
__blob=publicationFile&v=6

2 See
https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publicati
ons/TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-2.pdf?
__blob=publicationFile&v=5

3 See
https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publicati
ons/TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-3.pdf?
__blob=publicationFile&v=5

4 See
https://www.bsi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publicati
ons/TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-4.pdf?
__blob=publicationFile&v=5
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023
M. I. Mihailescu, S. L. Nita, Pro Cryptography and Cryptanalysis with C++23
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9450-5_2

2. Cryptography Fundamentals
Marius Iulian Mihailescu1 and Stefania Loredana Nita1
(1) Bucharest, Romania

Cryptographic history is incredibly long and fascinating. The Code Book: The Secrets Behind Codebreaking [1]
is a comprehensive reference that provides a nontechnical history of cryptography. In the book, the story of
cryptography begins in approximately 2000 BC, when the Egyptians used it for the first (known) time. It
presents the main aspects of cryptography and hiding information for each period that is covered and
describes the great contribution that cryptography had in both world wars. The art of cryptography often
correlates with diplomacy, military, and government because its purpose is to keep sensitive data, such as
strategies or secrets regarding national security, safe.
A crucial development in modern cryptography is the working paper “New Directions in Cryptography”
[2] proposed by Diffie and Hellman in 1976. The paper introduced a notion that changed how cryptography
was seen until then, namely, public-key cryptography. Another important contribution of this paper is an
innovative way of exchanging keys. The security of the presented technique is based on the hardness
assumption (basically, through the hardness assumption, we refer to a problem that cannot be solved
efficiently) of the discrete logarithm problem. Even though the authors did not propose a practical
implementation for their public-key encryption scheme, the idea was presented very clearly and started to
draw attention in the international cryptography community.
The first implementation of a public-key encryption scheme was made in 1978 by Rivest, Shamir, and
Adleman, who proposed and implemented their encryption scheme, currently known as RSA [3]. The
hardness assumption in the RSA is the factoring of large integers. By looking in parallel between integer
factorization for RSA and Shor’s algorithm, we can note that Shor’s algorithm runs in polynomial time for
quantum computers. This represents a significant challenge for any cryptographer using the hardness
assumption for factoring large integers. The increasing applications and interest in the factoring problem led
to new techniques. Important advances in this area were made in 1980, but none of the proposed techniques
improved the security of the RSA.
Another important class of practical public-key encryption schemes was designed by ElGamal [4] in
1985. These are based on the hardness assumption of the discrete logarithm problem.
Other crucial contributions to public-key cryptography are the digital signature, for which the
international standard ISO/IEC 9796 was adopted in 1991 [5]. The basis of the standard is the RSA public-
key encryption scheme. A powerful scheme for digital signatures based on the discrete logarithm hardness
assumption is the Digital Signature Standard, adopted by the United States government in 1994.
Currently, the trends in cryptography include designing and developing new public key schemes, adding
improvements to the existing cryptographic mechanisms, and elaborating security proofs.
The book’s objective is to provide a view of the latest updates of the principles, techniques, algorithms,
and implementations of the most important aspects of cryptography in practice. It focuses on the practical
and applied aspects of cryptography. You are warned about the difficult subjects and those that present
issues and are guided to a proper bibliography in which best practices and solutions are found. Most of the
aspects presented in the book are followed by implementations. This objective also serves to not obscure the
real nature of cryptography. The book represents strong material for both implementers and researchers.
The book describes the algorithms and software systems with their interactions.

Information Security and Cryptography

This book refers to the term and concept of information as to quantity. To go through the introduction to
cryptography and to show its applicability by presenting algorithms and implementation technologies (such
as C++), first, we need to have a basis for the issues that occur often in information security. When a
particular transaction occurs, all parties involved must be sure (or ensure) that specific objectives related to
information security are met. A list of these security objectives is given in Table 2-1.
Several protocols and security mechanisms have been proposed to defy the issues regarding information
security when the information is sent in physical format (for example, documents). The objectives regarding
information security may be accomplished by applying mathematical algorithms or work protocols to
information that needs to be protected and additionally following specific procedures and laws. An example
of physical document protection is sealed envelopes (the mechanism of protection) that cover the letter (the
information that needs to be protected) delivered by an authorized mail service (the trusted party). In this
example, the protection mechanism has its limitations. But the technical framework has rigorous rules,
through which any entity that opens the envelope and does not have this right needs to be punished. There
are situations in which the physical paper contains the information that needs to be protected, and has
special characteristics that certify the originality of the data/information. For example, to refrain from
forging banknotes, paper currency has special ink and matter.

Table 2-1 Security Objectives

Security Objective Description

privacy/confidentiality The information is kept secret from unauthorized entities.
signature A technique that binds a signature by an entity (for example, a document).
authorization The action of authorizing an entity to do or be something to send the information between
the sender and the receiver.
message authentication The process/characteristic through which the origin of the data is authenticated; another
meaning is corroboration of the information source.
data integrity The information is kept unaltered through techniques that keep away unauthorized
entities or unknown means.
entity The action of validating the identity of an entity, which may be a computer, person, credit
authentication/identification card, and so on.
validation The action of making available a (limited) quantity of time for authorization for using or
manipulating the data or resources.
certification The process of confirming the information by a trusted party.
or
Acknowledgment of information by a trusted certification.
access control The action of restricting access to resources to authorized parties.
timestamping Metadata stamps the time of creation or the existence of information.
witnessing The action of validating the creation/existence of the information made by an entity that
is not the creator of the data.
receipt The action of confirming the receiving of the information.
ownership The action of giving an entity the legal rights to use or transfer a particular
information/resource.
confirmation The action of validating the fact that certain services have been accomplished.
revocation The action of withdrawing certification or authorization.
nonrepudiation The process of restraining the negation of other previous commitments or actions.
anonymity The action of making anonym an entity’s identity involved in a particular action/process.

From a conceptual point of view, how the information is manipulated did not change substantially. We
consider storing, registering, interpreting, and recording data. However, a manipulation that changed
significantly is copying and modifying the information. An important concept in information security is the
signature, which represents the foundation for more processes, such as nonrepudiation, data origin
authentication, identification, and witnessing.
The requirements introduced by legal and technical skills should be followed to achieve the security of
information in electronic communication. On the other hand, the preceding protection objectives are not
guaranteed to be fulfilled accordingly. The technical part of information security is assured by cryptography.
Cryptography represents the field that studies the mathematical techniques and tools that are connected
to information security, such as confidentiality, integrity (data), authentication (entity), and the origin of
authentication. Cryptography not only provides information security but also provides a specific set of
techniques.

Cryptography Goals
From the security objectives presented in Table 2-1, the following represent a basis from which the others
can be derived.
privacy/confidentiality (Definitions 2.5 and 2.8)
data integrity (Definition 2.9)
authentication (Definition 2.7)
nonrepudiation (Definition 2.6)
The following explains each of the four objectives in detail.
Confidentiality represents a service that protects information content from unauthorized entities and
access. Confidentiality is assured through different techniques, from mathematical algorithms to physical
protection, that scramble the data into an incomprehensible form.
Data integrity represents a service that prevents unauthorized alteration of the information. Authorized
entities should be able to discover and identify unauthorized manipulation of data.
Authentication represents a service that has an important role when data or application is authenticated,
and it implies identification. The authentication process is applied on both extremities that use the data
(for example, the sender and the receiver). The rule is that each involved party should identify itself in the
communication process. It is very important that both parties that are involved in the communication
process declare to each other their identity (the parties could be represented by a person or a system). At
the same time, some characteristics of the data should accompany the data itself; for example, its origin,
content, or the time of creation/sending. From this point of view, cryptography branches authentication
into two categories: authentication of the entity and authentication of the data origin. Data origin
authentication leads to data integrity.
Nonrepudiation represents a service that prevents the denials of previous actions made by an entity.
When a conflict occurs because an entity denies its previous actions, it is resolved by an existing sinew
showing the actions made over data.
One of the main goals of cryptography is to fulfill the four objectives on both sides—theory and practice.

Cryptographic Primitives
The book presents several fundamental cryptographic tools called primitives. Examples of primitives are
encryption schemes (Definitions 2.5 and 2.8), hash functions (Definition 2.9), and schemes for digital
signatures (Definition 2.6). Figure 2-1 presents a schematic description of these primitives and their
relationship. Many cryptographic primitives are used in the book, and practical implementations are
provided every time. Before using them in real-life applications, the primitives should be evaluated to check
if the following criteria are fulfilled.
Level of security. It is slightly difficult to quantify the level of security. However, it can be quantified as
the number of operations to accomplish the desired objective. The level of security is usually defined
based on the superior bound given by the volume of work necessary to defeat the objective.
Functionality. To accomplish security objectives, in many situations, primitives are combined. You need
to be sure that they work properly.
Operation methods. When primitives are used, they need different inputs and have different ways of
working, resulting in different characteristics. In these situations, the primitives provide very different
functionalities that depend on the mode of operation.
Performance. This concept is related to the efficiency that a primitive can achieve in a specific mode of
operation.
Ease of implementation. This concept is merely a process rather than a criterion, which refers to the
primitive being used in practice.
Figure 2-1 Cryptographic primitive taxonomy
The application and the available resources give importance to each of the criteria shown in Figure 2-1.
Cryptography may be seen as an art practiced by professionals and specialists who proposed and
developed ad hoc techniques whose purpose was to fulfill important information security requirements. In
the last few decades, cryptography has transitioned from an art to a science and discipline. There are
dedicated conferences and events in many cryptography and information security fields. In addition, there
are international professional associations, such as the International Association for Cryptologic Research
(IACR), whose aim is to bring and promote the best research results in the area.
The current book is about cryptography and cryptanalysis: implementing algorithms and mechanisms
using C++ with respect to standards.

Background of Mathematical Functions

A monograph on abstract mathematics is not a goal of this book. Getting familiar with some fundamental
mathematical concepts is necessary and proves to be very useful in practical implementations. One of the
most important concepts that are fundamental to cryptography is represented by a function in the
mathematical sense. A function is also known in the literature as transformation or mapping.

One-to-One, One-Way, and Trapdoor One-Way Functions

Let’s consider a set that has in its composition a distinct set of objects that are known as elements of that
specific set. The following example represents a set A that has the elements a, b, c, which is denoted as
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
And larded thighs on loaded altars laid,
Hear, and my just revenge propitious aid!
Pierce the proud Greeks, and with thy
shafts attest
How much thy power is injured in thy
priest.—
He prayed; and Phœbus, hearing, urged
his flight,
With fury kindled, from Olympus' height;
His quiver o'er his ample shoulders threw,
His bow twanged, and his arrows rattled as
they flew.
Black as a stormy night, he ranged around
The tents, and compassed the devoted
ground;
Then with full force his deadly bow he bent,
And feathered fates among the mules and
sumpters sent,
The essay of rage; on faithful dogs the
next;
And last, in human hearts his arrows fixed.
The God nine days the Greeks at rovers
killed,
Nine days the camp with funeral fires was
filled;
The tenth, Achilles, by the queen's
command,
Who bears heaven's awful sceptre in her
hand,
A council summoned; for the goddess
grieved
Her favoured host should perish unrelieved.
The kings, assembled, soon their chief
inclose;
Then from his seat the goddess-born arose,
And thus undaunted spoke:—What now
remains,
But that once more we tempt the watery
plains,
And, wandering homeward, seek our safety
hence,
In flight at least, if we can find defence?
Such woes at once encompass us about,
The plague within the camp, the sword
without.
Consult, O king, the prophets of the event;
}
And whence these ills, and what the God's
intent, }
Let them by dreams explore, for dreams
from Jove are sent.}
What want of offered victims, what offence
In fact committed could the Sun incense,
To deal his deadly shafts? What may
remove
His settled hate, and reconcile his love?
That he may look propitious on our toils,
And hungry graves no more be glutted with
our spoils.
Thus to the king of men the hero spoke,
Then Calchas the desired occasion took;
Calchas, the sacred seer, who had in view
Things present and the past, and things to
come foreknew;
Supreme of augurs, who, by Phœbus
taught,
The Grecian powers to Troy's destruction
brought.
Skilled in the secret causes of their woes,
The reverend priest in graceful act arose,
And thus bespoke Pelides:—Care of Jove,
Favoured of all the immortal powers above,
Wouldst thou the seeds deep sown of
mischief know,
And why, provoked, Apollo bends his bow,
Plight first thy faith, inviolably true,
To save me from those ills that may ensue.
For I shall tell ungrateful truths to those,
Whose boundless powers of life and death
dispose;
And sovereigns, ever jealous of their state,
Forgive not those whom once they mark for
hate:
Even though the offence they seemingly
digest,
Revenge, like embers raked within their
breast,
Bursts forth in flames, whose unresisted
power
Will seize the unwary wretch, and soon
devour.
Such, and no less, is he, on whom depends
The sum of things, and whom my tongue of
force offends.
Secure me then from his foreseen intent,
That what his wrath may doom, thy valour
may prevent.—
To this the stern Achilles made reply:—
Be bold, (and on my plighted faith rely,)
To speak what Phœbus has inspired thy
soul
For common good, and speak without
controul.
His godhead I invoke; by him I swear,
That while my nostrils draw this vital air,
None shall presume to violate those bands,
}
Or touch thy person with unhallowed
hands; }
Even not the king of men, that all
commands.}
At this, resuming heart, the prophet said:
—
Nor hecatomb unslain, nor vows unpaid,
On Greeks accursed this dire contagion
bring;
Or call for vengeance from the bowyer king;
But he the tyrant, whom none dares resist,
Affronts the godhead in his injured priest;
He keeps the damsel captive in his chain,
And presents are refused, and prayers
preferred in vain.
For this the avenging power employs his
darts,
And empties all his quiver in our hearts;
Thus will persist, relentless in his ire,
Till the fair slave be rendered to her sire,
And ransom-free restored to his abode,
With sacrifice to reconcile the God;
Then he, perhaps, atoned by prayer, may
cease
His vengeance justly vowed, and give the
peace.—
Thus having said, he sate:—Thus
answered then,
Upstarting from his throne, the king of men,
His breast with fury filled, his eyes with fire,
Which rolling round, he shot in sparkles on
the sire:
Augur of ill, whose tongue was never found
Without a priestly curse, or boding sound!
For not one blessed event foretold to me
Passed through that mouth, or passed
unwillingly;
And now thou dost with lies the throne
invade,
By practice hardened in thy slandering
trade;
Obtending heaven, for whate'er ills befall,
And sputtering under specious names thy
gall.
Now Phœbus is provoked, his rites and laws
Are in his priest profaned, and I the cause;
Since I detain a slave, my sovereign prize,
And sacred gold, your idol-god, despise.
I love her well; and well her merits claim,
To stand preferred before my Grecian
dame:
Not Clytemnestra's self in beauty's bloom
More charmed, or better plied the various
loom:
Mine is the maid, and brought in happy
hour,
With every household-grace adorned, to
bless my nuptial bower.
Yet shall she be restored, since public good
}
For private interest ought not to be
withstood,}
To save the effusion of my people's blood. }
But right requires, if I resign my own,
I should not suffer for your sakes alone;
Alone excluded from the prize I gained,
And by your common suffrage have
obtained.
The slave without a ransom shall be sent,
It rests for you to make the equivalent.
 To this the fierce Thessalian prince
replied:—
O first in power, but passing all in pride,
Griping, and still tenacious of thy hold,
Would'st thou the Grecian chiefs, though
largely souled,
Should give the prizes they had gained
before,
And with their loss thy sacrilege restore?
Whate'er by force of arms the soldier got,
Is each his own, by dividend of lot;
Which to resume were both unjust and
base,
Not to be borne but by a servile race.
But this we can; if Saturn's son bestows
The sack of Troy, which he by promise
owes,
Then shall the conquering Greeks thy loss
restore,
And with large interest make the advantage
more.
To this Atrides answered:—Though thy
boast
Assumes the foremost name of all our host,
Pretend not, mighty man, that what is
mine,
Controuled by thee, I tamely should resign.
Shall I release the prize I gained by right,
In taken towns, and many a bloody fight,
While thou detain'st Briseis in thy bands,
By priestly glossing on the God's
commands?
Resolve on this, (a short alternative,)
Quit mine, or, in exchange, another give;
Else I, assure thy soul, by sovereign right
Will seize thy captive in thy own despite;
Or from stout Ajax, or Ulysses, bear
What other prize my fancy shall prefer:
Then softly murmur, or aloud complain,
Rage as you please, you shall resist in vain.
But more of this, in proper time and place;
To things of greater moment let us pass.
A ship to sail the sacred seas prepare, }
Proud in her trim, and put on board the fair,
}
With sacrifice and gifts, and all the pomp of
prayer.}
The crew well chosen, the command shall
be }
In Ajax; or if other I decree, }
In Creta's king, or Ithacus, or, if I please, in
thee:}
Most fit thyself to see performed the intent,
}
For which my prisoner from my sight is
sent, }
(Thanks to thy pious care,) that Phœbus
may relent.}
At this Achilles rolled his furious eyes,
Fixed on the king askant, and thus replies:
—
O, impudent, regardful of thy own,
Whose thoughts are centered on thyself
alone,
Advanced to sovereign sway for better ends
Than thus like abject slaves to treat thy
friends!
What Greek is he, that, urged by thy
command,
Against the Trojan troops will lift his hand?
Not I; nor such enforced respect I owe,
Nor Pergamus I hate, nor Priam is my foe.
What wrong from Troy remote could I
sustain,}
To leave my fruitful soil and happy reign, }
And plough the surges of the stormy main?
}
Thee, frontless man, we followed from afar,
Thy instruments of death, and tools of war.
Thine is the triumph; ours the toil alone;
We bear thee on our backs, and mount
thee on the throne.
For thee we fall in fight; for thee redress
Thy baffled[65] brother,—not the wrongs of
Greece.
And now thou threaten'st, with unjust
decree,
To punish thy affronting heaven on me;
To seize the prize which I so dearly bought,
By common suffrage given, confirmed by
lot.
Mean match to thine; for, still above the
rest,
Thy hooked rapacious hands usurp the
best;
Though mine are first in fight, to force the
prey,
And last sustain the labours of the day.
Nor grudge I thee the much the Grecians
give,
Nor murmuring take the little I receive;
Yet even this little, thou, who wouldst
ingross
The whole, insatiate, enviest as thy loss.
Know, then, for Phthia fixed is my return; }
Better at home my ill-paid pains to mourn,
}
Than from an equal here sustain the public
scorn.}
The king, whose brows with shining gold
were bound,
Who saw his throne with sceptered slaves
encompassed round,
Thus answered stern:—Go, at thy pleasure,
go;
We need not such a friend, nor fear we
such a foe.
There will not want to follow me in fight;
Jove will assist, and Jove assert my right:
But thou of all the kings (his care below)
Art least at my command, and most my foe.
Debates, dissensions, uproars are thy joy;
Provoked without offence, and practised to
destroy.
Strength is of brutes, and not thy boast
alone;
At least 'tis lent from heaven, and not thy
own.
Fly then, ill-mannered, to thy native land,
And there thy ant-born Myrmidons
command.
But mark this menace; since I must resign
My black-eyed maid, to please the Powers
divine;
A well-rigged vessel in the port attends,
Manned at my charge, commanded by my
friends;
The ship shall waft her to her wished
abode,
Full fraught with holy bribes to the far-
shooting God.
This thus dispatched, I owe myself the
care,
My fame and injured honour to repair;
From thy own tent, proud man, in thy
despite,
This hand shall ravish thy pretended right.
Briseis shall be mine, and thou shalt see }
What odds of awful power I have on thee, }
That others at thy cost may learn the
difference of degree.—}
At this the impatient hero sourly smiled;
His heart impetuous in his bosom boiled,
And, jostled by two tides of equal sway,
Stood for a while suspended in his way.
Betwixt his reason and his rage untamed,
One whispered soft, and one aloud
reclaimed;
That only counselled to the safer side,
This to the sword his ready hand applied.
Unpunished to support the affront was
hard,
Nor easy was the attempt to force the
guard;
But soon the thirst of vengeance fired his
blood,
Half shone his faulchion, and half sheathed
it stood.
In that nice moment, Pallas, from above,
Commissioned by the imperial wife of Jove,
Descended swift; (the white-armed Queen
was loath
The fight should follow, for she favoured
both;)
Just as in act he stood, in clouds enshrined,
Her hand she fastened on his hair behind;
Then backward by his yellow curls she
drew;
To him, and him alone, confessed in view.
Tamed by superior force, he turned his
eyes,
Aghast at first, and stupid with surprise;
But by her sparkling eyes, and ardent look,
The virgin-warrior known, he thus bespoke.
Com'st thou, Celestial, to behold my
wrongs?
To view the vengeance which to crimes
belongs?
Thus he.—The blue-eyed Goddess thus
rejoined:
I come to calm thy turbulence of mind,
If reason will resume her sovereign sway,
And, sent by Juno, her commands obey.
Equal she loves you both, and I protect;
Then give thy guardian Gods their due
respect,
And cease contention; be thy words severe,
Sharp as he merits; but the sword forbear.
An hour unhoped already wings her way,
When he his dire affront shall dearly pay;
When the proud king shall sue, with treble
gain,
To quit thy loss, and conquer thy disdain.
But thou, secure of my unfailing word,
Compose thy swelling soul, and sheath the
sword.—
The youth thus answered mild:—
Auspicious maid,
Heaven's will be mine, and your commands
obeyed.
The Gods are just, and when, subduing
sense,
We serve their Powers, provide the
recompence.—
He said; with surly faith believed her word,
And in the sheath, reluctant, plunged the
sword.
Her message done, she mounts the blessed
abodes,
And mixed among the senate of the Gods.
At her departure his disdain returned;
The fire she fanned with greater fury
burned,
Rumbling within till thus it found a vent:—
Dastard and drunkard, mean and insolent!
Tongue-valiant hero, vaunter of thy might,
In threats the foremost, but the lag in fight!
When didst thou thrust amid the mingled
preace,
Content to bide the war aloof in peace?
Arms are the trade of each plebeian soul;
'Tis death to fight, but kingly to controul;
Lord-like at ease, with arbitrary power,
To peel the chiefs, the people to devour.
These, traitor, are thy talents; safer far
Than to contend in fields, and toils of war.
Nor couldst thou thus have dared the
common hate,
Were not their souls as abject as their state.
But, by this sceptre solemnly I swear,
(Which never more green leaf or growing
branch shall bear;
Torn from the tree, and given by Jove to
those
Who laws dispense, and mighty wrongs
oppose,)
That when the Grecians want my wonted
aid,
No gift shall bribe it, and no prayer
persuade.
When Hector comes, the homicide, to wield
His conquering arms, with corpse to strew
the field,
Then shalt thou mourn thy pride, and late
confess
My wrong, repented when 'tis past redress.
—
He said; and with disdain, in open view,
Against the ground his golden sceptre
threw,
Then sate; with boiling rage Atrides burned,
And foam betwixt his gnashing grinders
churned.
But from his seat the Pylian prince arose,
With reasoning mild, their madness to
compose;
Words, sweet as honey, from his mouth
distilled;
Two centuries already he fulfilled,
And now began the third; unbroken yet,
Once famed for courage, still in council
great.
What worse, he said, can Argos undergo,
What can more gratify the Phrygian foe,
Than these distempered heats, if both the
lights
Of Greece their private interest disunites?
Believe a friend, with thrice your years
increased,
And let these youthful passions be
repressed.
I flourished long before your birth; and
then}
Lived equal with a race of braver men, }
Than these dim eyes shall e'er behold
again. }
Ceneus and Dryas, and, excelling them,
Great Theseus, and the force of greater
Polypheme.
With these I went, a brother of the war,
Their dangers to divide, their fame to
share;
Nor idle stood with unassisting hands,
When savage beasts, and men's more
savage bands,
Their virtuous toil subdued: yet those I
swayed,
With powerful speech; I spoke, and they
obeyed.
If such as those my counsels could reclaim,
Think not, young warriors, your diminished
name
Shall lose of lustre, by subjecting rage
To the cool dictates of experienced age.
Thou, king of men, stretch not thy
sovereign sway
Beyond the bounds free subjects can obey;
But let Pelides in his prize rejoice,
Atchieved in arms, allowed by public voice.
Nor thou, brave champion, with his power
contend,
Before whose throne even kings their
lowered sceptres bend;
The head of action he, and thou the hand,
Matchless thy force, but mightier his
command.
Thou first, O king, release the rights of
sway;
Power, self-restrained, the people best obey.
Sanctions of law from thee derive their
source;
Command thyself, whom no commands can
force.
The son of Thetis, rampire of our host,
Is worth our care to keep, nor shall my
prayers be lost.
Thus Nestor said, and ceased.—Atrides
broke
His silence next, but pondered ere he
spoke:—
Wise are thy words, and glad I would obey,
But this proud man affects imperial sway,
Controuling kings, and trampling on our
state;
His will is law, and what he wills is fate.
The Gods have given him strength; but
whence the style
Of lawless power assumed, or licence to
revile?
Achilles cut him short, and thus replied:—
My worth, allowed in words, is, in effect,
denied;
For who but a poltroon, possessed with
fear,
Such haughty insolence can tamely bear?
Command thy slaves; my freeborn soul
disdains
A tyrant's curb, and, restiff, breaks the
reins.
Take this along, that no dispute shall rise
(Though mine the woman) for my ravished
prize;
But, she excepted, as unworthy strife,
Dare not, I charge thee dare not, on thy
life,
Touch aught of mine beside, by lot my due,
But stand aloof, and think profane to view;
This faulchion else, not hitherto withstood,
These hostile fields shall fatten with thy
blood.—
He said, and rose the first; the council
broke,
And all their grave consults dissolved in
smoke.
The royal youth retired, on vengeance bent;
Patroclus followed silent to his tent.
Meantime, the king with gifts a vessel
stores,
Supplies the banks with twenty chosen
oars;
And next, to reconcile the shooter God,
Within her hollow sides the sacrifice he
stowed;
Chryseis last was set on board, whose hand
}
Ulysses took, entrusted with command; }
They plow the liquid seas, and leave the
lessening land.}
Atrides then, his outward zeal to boast,
Bade purify the sin-polluted host.
With perfect hecatombs the God they
graced,
Whose offered entrails in the main were
cast;
Black bulls and bearded goats on altars lie,
And clouds of savoury stench involve the
sky.
These pomps the royal hypocrite designed
For show, but harboured vengeance in his
mind;
Till holy malice, longing for a vent,
At length discovered his concealed intent,
Talthybius, and Eurybates the just,
Heralds of arms, and ministers of trust,
He called, and thus bespoke:—Haste hence
your way,
And from the Goddess-born demand his
prey.
If yielded, bring the captive; if denied,
The king (so tell him) shall chastise his
pride;
And with armed multitudes in person come
To vindicate his power, and justify his
doom.—
This hard command unwilling they obey,
}
And o'er the barren shore pursue their way,
}
Where quartered in their camp the fierce
Thessalians lay.}
Their sovereign seated on his chair they
find,}
His pensive cheek upon his hand reclined, }
And anxious thoughts revolving in his mind.
}
With gloomy looks he saw them entering in
}
Without salute; nor durst they first begin,}
Fearful of rash offence and death foreseen.}
He soon, the cause divining, cleared his
brow,
And thus did liberty of speech allow:
Interpreters of Gods and men, be bold;
Awful your character, and uncontrouled:
Howe'er unpleasing be the news you bring,
I blame not you, but your imperious king.
You come, I know, my captive to demand;
Patroclus, give her to the herald's hand.
But you authentic witnesses I bring
Before the Gods, and your ungrateful king,
Of this my manifest, that never more
This hand shall combat on the crooked
shore:
No; let the Grecian powers, oppressed in
fight,
Unpitied perish in their tyrant's sight.
Blind of the future, and by rage misled,
He pulls his crimes upon his people's head;
Forced from the field in trenches to
contend,
And his insulted camp from foes defend.—
He said, and soon, obeying his intent,
Patroclus brought Briseis from her tent,
Then to the entrusted messengers
resigned:
She wept, and often cast her eyes behind.
Forced from the man she loved, they led
her thence,
Along the shore, a prisoner to their prince.
Sole on the barren sands the suffering
chief
Roared out for anguish, and indulged his
grief;
Cast on his kindred seas a stormy look,
And his upbraided mother thus bespoke:
Unhappy parent of a short-lived son,—
Since Jove in pity by thy prayers was won
To grace my small remains of breath with
fame,
Why loads he this embittered life with
shame,
Suffering his king of men to force my slave,
Whom, well deserved in war, the Grecians
gave?—
Set by old Ocean's side the Goddess
heard,
Then from the sacred deep her head she
reared;
Rose like a morning mist, and thus begun
To sooth the sorrows of her plaintive son:—
Why cries my care, and why conceals his
smart?
Let thy afflicted parent share her part.—
Then, sighing from the bottom of his
breast,
To the Sea-Goddess thus the Goddess-born
addressed:
Thou know'st my pain, which telling but
recals;
By force of arms we razed the Theban
walls;
The ransacked city, taken by our toils,
We left, and hither brought the golden
spoils:
Equal we shared them; but before the rest,
The proud prerogative had seized the best.
Chryseis was the greedy tyrant's prize,
Chryseis, rosy-cheeked, with charming
eyes.
Her sire, Apollo's priest, arrived to buy,
With proffered gifts of price, his daughter's
liberty.
Suppliant before the Grecian chiefs he
stood,
Awful, and armed with ensigns of his God;
Bare was his hoary head; one holy hand
Held forth his laurel-crown, and one his
sceptre of command.
His suit was common, but, above the rest,
To both the brother-princes was addressed.
With shouts of loud acclaim the Greeks
agree
To take the gifts, to set the prisoner free.
Not so the tyrant, who with scorn the priest
Received, and with opprobrious words
dismissed.
The good old man, forlorn of human aid,
For vengeance to his heavenly patron
prayed:
The Godhead gave a favourable ear,
And granted all to him he held so dear;
In an ill hour his piercing shafts he sped,
And heaps on heaps of slaughtered Greeks
lay dead,
While round the camp he ranged: at length
arose
A seer, who well divined, and durst disclose
The source of all our ills: I took the word;
And urged the sacred slave to be restored,
The God appeased: the swelling monarch
stormed,
And then the vengeance vowed he since
performed.
The Greeks, 'tis true, their ruin, to prevent,
Have to the royal priest his daughter sent;
But from their haughty king his heralds
came,
And seized, by his command, my captive
dame,
By common suffrage given;—but thou be
won,
If in thy power, to avenge thy injured son!
Ascend the skies, and supplicating move
Thy just complaint to cloud-compelling
Jove.
If thou by either word or deed hast wrought
A kind remembrance in his grateful thought,
Urge him by that; for often hast thou said
Thy power was once not useless in his aid,
When he, who high above the highest
reigns,
Surprised by traitor Gods, was bound in
chains;
When Juno, Pallas, with ambition fired,
And his blue brother of the seas conspired,
Thou freed'st the sovereign from unworthy
bands,
Thou brought'st Briareus with his hundred
hands,
(So called in heaven, but mortal men below
By his terrestrial name, Ægeon, know;
Twice stronger than his sire, who sate
above
Assessor to the throne of thundering Jove.)
The Gods, dismayed at his approach,
withdrew,
Nor durst their unaccomplished crime
pursue.
That action to his grateful mind recal,
Embrace his knees, and at his footstool fall;
That now, if ever, he will aid our foes;
Let Troy's triumphant troops the camp
inclose;
Ours, beaten to the shore, the siege
forsake,
And what their king deserves, with him
partake;
That the proud tyrant, at his proper cost,
May learn the value of the man he lost.—
To whom the Mother-goddess thus
replied,
Sighed ere she spoke, and while she spoke
she cried,—
Ah wretched me! by fates averse decreed
To bring thee forth with pain, with care to
breed!
Did envious heaven not otherwise ordain, }
Safe in thy hollow ships thou should'st
remain,}
Nor ever tempt the fatal field again; }
But now thy planet sheds his poisonous
rays,
And short and full of sorrow are thy days.
For what remains, to heaven I will ascend,
And at the Thunderer's throne thy suit
commend.
Till then, secure in ships, abstain from fight;
Indulge thy grief in tears, and vent thy
spite.
For yesterday the court of heaven with Jove
Removed; 'tis dead vacation now above.
Twelve days the Gods their solemn revels
keep,
And quaff with blameless Ethiops in the
deep.
Returned from thence, to heaven my flight I
take,
Knock at the brazen gates, and Providence
awake;
Embrace his knees, and suppliant to the
sire,
Doubt not I will obtain the grant of thy
desire.—
She said, and, parting, left him on the
place,
Swoln with disdain, resenting his disgrace:
Revengeful thoughts revolving in his mind,
He wept for anger, and for love he pined.
Meantime, with prosperous gales Ulysses
brought
The slave, and ship, with sacrifices fraught,
To Chrysa's port; where, entering with the
tide,
He dropped his anchors, and his oars he
plyed,
Furled every sail, and, drawing down the
mast,
His vessel moored, and made with haulsers
fast.
Descending on the plain, ashore they bring
The hecatomb to please the shooter king.
The dame before an altar's holy fire
Ulysses led, and thus bespoke her sire:
Reverenced be thou, and be thy God
adored!
The king of men thy daughter has restored,
And sent by me with presents and with
prayer.
He recommends him to thy pious care,
That Phœbus at thy suit his wrath may
cease,
And give the penitent offenders peace.—
He said; and gave her to her father's
hands,
Who glad received her, free from servile
bands.
This done, in order they, with sober grace,
Their gifts around the well-built altar place.
Then washed, and took the cakes, while
Chryses stood
With hands upheld, and thus invoked his
God.
God of the silver bow, whose eyes survey
}
The sacred Cilla! thou, whose awful sway }
Chrysa the blessed, and Tenedos obey! }
Now hear, as thou before my prayer hast
heard,
Against the Grecians, and their prince,
preferred.
Once thou hast honoured, honour once
again
Thy priest, nor let his second vows be vain;
But from the afflicted host and humbled
prince
Avert thy wrath, and cease thy pestilence!—
Apollo heard, and, conquering his disdain,
Unbent his bow, and Greece respired again.
Now when the solemn rites of prayer
were past,
Their salted cakes on crackling flames they
cast;
Then, turning back, the sacrifice they sped,
The fatted oxen slew, and flayed the dead;
Chopped off their nervous thighs, and next
prepared
To involve the lean in cauls, and mend with
lard.
Sweet-breads and collops were with
skewers pricked
About the sides, imbibing what they
decked.
The priest with holy hands was seen to tine
The cloven wood, and pour the ruddy wine.
The youth approached the fire, and, as it
burned,
On five sharp broachers ranked, the roast
they turned;
These morsels stayed their stomachs, then
the rest
They cut in legs and fillets for the feast;
Which drawn and served, their hunger they
appease
With savoury meat, and set their minds at
ease.
Now when the rage of eating was
repelled,
The boys with generous wine the goblets
filled:
The first libations to the gods they pour,
And then with songs indulge the genial
hour.
Holy debauch! Till day to night they bring,
With hymns and pæans to the bowyer king.
At sun-set to their ship they make return,
And snore secure on decks till rosy morn.
The skies with dawning day were purpled
o'er;
Awaked, with labouring oars they leave the
shore;
The Power appeased, with wind sufficed the
sail,
The bellying canvas strutted with the gale;
The waves indignant roar with surly pride,
And press against the sides, and, beaten
off, divide.
They cut the foamy way, with force impelled
Superior, till the Trojan port they held;
Then, hauling on the strand, their galley
moor,
And pitch their tents along the crooked
shore.
Meantime the goddess-born in secret
pined,
Nor visited the camp, nor in the council
joined;
But, keeping close, his gnawing heart he
fed
With hopes of vengeance on the tyrant's
head;
And wished for bloody wars and mortal
wounds,
And of the Greeks oppressed in fight to
hear the dying sounds.
Now when twelve days complete had run
their race,
The gods bethought them of the cares
belonging to their place.
Jove at their head ascending from the sea,
A shoal of puny Powers attend his way.
Then Thetis, not unmindful of her son,
Emerging from the deep to beg her boon,
Pursued their track, and wakened from his
rest,
Before the sovereign stood, a morning
guest.
Him in the circle, but apart, she found;
The rest at awful distance stood around.
She bowed, and, ere she durst her suit
begin,
One hand embraced his knees, one prop'd
his chin;
Then thus.—If I, celestial sire, in aught
Have served thy will, or gratified thy
thought,
One glimpse of glory to my issue give,
Graced for the little time he has to live!
Dishonoured by the king of men he stands;
His rightful prize is ravished from his hands.
But thou, O father, in my son's defence,
Assume thy power, assert thy providence.