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Marius Iulian Mihailescu and Stefania Loredana Nita
Pro Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
with C++23
Creating and Programming Advanced Algorithms
2nd ed.
Marius Iulian Mihailescu
Bucharest, Romania

Stefania Loredana Nita

Bucharest, Romania

ISBN 978-1-4842-9449-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9450-5

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9450-5

© Marius Iulian Mihailescu and Stefania Loredana Nita 2021, 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress
Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(https://github.com/Apress). For more detailed information, please
visit http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Table of Contents
Part I: Foundations
Chapter 1:​Getting Started in Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
Book Structure
Internet Resources
Forums and Newsgroups
Security Protocols and Standards
Cryptography Tools and Resources
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2:​Cryptography Fundamentals
Information Security and Cryptography
Cryptography Goals
Cryptographic Primitives
Background of Mathematical Functions
One-to-One, One-Way, and Trapdoor One-Way Functions
Permutations
Inclusion
Concepts and Basic Terminology
Domains and Codomains Used for Encryption
Encryption and Decryption Transformations
The Participants in the Communication Process
Digital Signatures
Signing Process
Verification Process
 Public-Key Cryptography
Hash Functions
Case Studies
Caesar Cipher Implementation in C++23
Vigenére Cipher Implementation in C++23
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3:​Mathematical Background and Its Applicability
Probabilities
Conditional Probability
Random Variables
Birthday Problem
Information Theory
Entropy
Number Theory
Integers
Algorithms inℤ
Integers Modulo n
Algorithms ℤm
The Legendre and Jacobi Symbols
Finite Fields
Basic Notions
Polynomials and the Euclidean Algorithm
Case Study 1:​Computing the Probability of an Event That Takes
Place
Case Study 2:​Computing the Probability Distribution
 Case Study 3:​Computing the Mean of the Probability
Distribution
Case Study 4:​Computing the Variance
Case Study 5:​Computing the Standard Deviation
Case Study 6:​Birthday Paradox
Case Study 7:​(Extended) Euclidean Algorithm
Case Study 8: Computing the Multiplicative Inverse Under
Modulo q
Case Study 9:​Chinese Remainder Theorem
Case Study 10:​The Legendre Symbol
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4:​Large Integer Arithmetic
A Bit of History
What About Cryptography?​
Algorithms Used for Large Integer Arithmetic
Subtraction (Subtraction Modulo)
Multiplication
Big Integers
Review of Large Integer Libraries
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5:​Floating-Point Arithmetic
Why Floating-Point Arithmetic?​
Displaying Floating-Point Numbers
The Range of Floating Points
Floating-Point Precision
 Next Level for Floating-Point Arithmetic
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6:​New Features in C++23
Headers
The <expected> Header
The <generator> Header
The <flat_​map> Header
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7:​Secure Coding Guidelines
Secure Coding Checklist
CERT Coding Standards
Identifiers
Noncompliant Code Examples and Compliant Solutions
Exceptions
Risk Assessment
Automated Detection
Related Guidelines
Rules
Rule 01.​Declarations and Initializations (DCL)
Rule 02.​Expressions (EXP)
Rule 03.​Integers (INT)
Rule 05.​Characters and Strings (STR)
Rule 06.​Memory Management (MEM)
Rule 07.​Input/​Output (FIO)
 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8:​Cryptography Libraries in C/​C++23
Overview of Cryptography Libraries
Hash Functions
Public-Key Cryptography
Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC)
OpenSSL
Configuration and Installing OpenSSL
Botan
CrypTool
Conclusion
References
Part II: Pro Cryptography
Chapter 9:​Elliptic-Curve Cryptography
Theoretical Fundamentals
Weierstrass Equation
Group Law
Practical Implementation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10:​Lattice-based Cryptography
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lattice-based Cryptography
Applications of Lattice-based Cryptography
Security of Lattice-based Cryptography
Lattice-based Cryptography and Quantum Computing
 Mathematical Background
Example
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11:​Searchable Encryption
Components
Entities
Types
Security Characteristics
An Example
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12:​Homomorphic Encryption
Full Homomorphic Encryption
A Practical Example of Using FHE
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13:​Ring Learning with Errors Cryptography
Mathematical Background
Learning with Errors (LWE)
Ring Learning with Errors (RLWE)
Practical Implementation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14:​Chaos-based Cryptography
Security Analysis
 Chaotic Maps for Plaintexts and Image Encryption
Rössler Attractor
Complex Numbers:​A Short Overview
Practical Implementation
Secure Random Number Generator Using Chaos Rössler
Attractor
Encrypt and Decrypt Using Chaos and Fractals
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15:​Big Data Cryptography
Verifiable Computation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16:​Cloud Computing Cryptography
A Practical Example
Conclusion
References
Part III: Pro Cryptanalysis
Chapter 17:​Starting with Cryptanalysis
Part III:​Structure
Cryptanalysis Terms
A Bit of Cryptanalysis History
Understanding Cryptanalysis Techniques
Analyzing Cryptographic Algorithms
Cracking Cryptographic Systems
Understanding Cryptographic Systems
 Understanding Cryptographic Keys
Understanding Cryptographic Weaknesses
Analyzing Cryptographic Keys
Penetration Tools and Frameworks
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18:​Cryptanalysis Attacks and Techniques
Standards
FIPS 140-2, FIPS 140-3, and ISO 15408
Validation of Cryptographic Systems
Cryptanalysis Operations
Classification of Cryptanalytics Attacks
Attacks on Cipher Algorithms
Attacks on Cryptographic Keys
Attacks on Authentication Protocols
Conclusion
References
Chapter 19:​Differential and Linear Cryptanalysis
Differential Cryptanalysis
Linear Cryptanalysis
Performing Linear Cryptanalysis
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20:​Integral Cryptanalysis
Basic Notions
Theorem 20-1 [1, Theorem 1, p.​114]
 Theorem 20-2 [1, Theorem 2, p.​114]
Practical Approach
Conclusion
References
Chapter 21:​Brute-Force and Buffer Overflow Attacks
Brute-Force Attack
Buffer Overflow Attack
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22:​Text Characterization​
Chi-Squared Statistic
Cryptanalysis Using Monogram, Bigram, and Trigram
Frequency Counts
Counting Monograms
Counting Bigrams
Counting Trigrams
Conclusion
References
Chapter 23:​Implementation and Practical Approach of
Cryptanalysis Methods
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Ciphertext-Only Attack (COA)
Known-Plaintext Attack (KPA)
Chosen-Plaintext Attack (CPA)
 Chosen-Ciphertext Attack (CCA)
Conclusion
References
Index
About the Authors
Marius Iulian Mihailescu, PhD
is an associate professor at the Faculty of Engineering and Informatics,
Spiru Haret University in Bucharest, Romania. He is also the CEO of
Dapyx Solution Ltd., a company based in Bucharest specializing in
information security and cryptography-related research projects. He is
a lead guest editor for applied cryptography journals and a reviewer for
multiple publications with information security and cryptography
profiles. He authored and co-authored more articles in conference
proceedings, 25 articles, and books. For more than six years, he has
been a lecturer at well-known national and international universities
(the University of Bucharest, Titu Maiorescu University, and Kadir Has
University in Istanbul, Turkey). He has taught courses on programming
languages (C#, Java, C++, Haskell) and object-oriented system analysis
and design with UML, graphs, databases, cryptography, and information
security. He served three years as an IT officer at Royal Caribbean
Cruises Ltd., dealing with IT infrastructure, data security, and satellite
communications systems. He received his PhD in 2014, and his thesis
was on applied cryptography over biometrics data. He holds two MSc in
information security and software engineering.

Stefania Loredana Nita, PhD

is a lecturer at the Ferdinand I Military Technical Academy in
Bucharest, Romania, and a software developer at the Institute of for
Computers in Bucharest. Her PhD thesis was on advanced
cryptographic schemes using searchable encryption and homomorphic
encryption. She has been an assistant lecturer at the University of
Bucharest, teaching courses on advanced programming techniques,
simulation methods, and operating systems. She has authored several
whitepapers and journal articles, as well as books on the Haskell
programming language. Stefania is a lead guest editor for information
security and cryptography issues, such as advanced cryptography and
its future: searchable and homomorphic encryption. She has a master’s
degree in software engineering and bachelor’s degrees in computer
science and mathematics.
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone
has more than 25 years of experience in
security, web/mobile development,
cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT
passions are security and Android. He
has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP,
Java, VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for
more than 20 years. He has a master’s
degree in computing science from the
University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a CISO, CSO,
security executive, IoT executive, project
manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect,
PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years. His technical skills include security, Android, cloud,
Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web and mobile development,
MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python, Pro Rails,
Django CMS, Jekyll, Scratch, and more.
He worked as visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the
Networking Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto
University). He holds four international patents (PKI, SIP, SAML, and
Proxy areas). He is currently working for Cognizant as head of
cybersecurity and CISO to help internally and externally with clients in
information and cyber security areas, like strategy, planning, processes,
policies, procedures, governance, awareness, and so forth. In June 2017,
he became a permanent member of the ISACA Finland Board. Massimo
has reviewed more than 45 IT books for different publishing companies
and is the co-author of Pro Spring Security: Securing Spring Framework
5 and Boot 2-based Java Applications (Apress, 2019), Beginning EJB in
Java EE 8 (Apress, 2018), Pro JPA 2 in Java EE 8 (Apress, 2018), and Pro
Android Games (Apress, 2015).
Part I
Foundations
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
M. I. Mihailescu, S. L. Nita, Pro Cryptography and Cryptanalysis with C++23
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9450-5_1
1. Getting Started in Cryptography and
Cryptanalysis
Marius Iulian Mihailescu1 and Stefania Loredana Nita1
(1) Bucharest, Romania

Cryptography and cryptanalysis are two fascinating and highly

technical disciplines that have played a critical role in modern
communication and security. Cryptography is the practice of protecting
data using encryption algorithms, while cryptanalysis is trying to break
those algorithms. Whether you have just become interested in these
topics or have been studying them for some time, this step-by-step
guide helps you get started in the world of cryptography and
cryptanalysis. From understanding the basics of cryptography to
exploring advanced techniques, this guide provides you with all the
necessary information to become an expert in the field. Along the way,
you learn about the history of cryptography, common algorithms and
techniques used in encryption, and the tools and resources available to
help you grow your knowledge. Therefore, let’s get started!
Cryptography is the practice of protecting data by using encryption
algorithms. The word cryptography comes from the Greek words
kryptos, which means hidden, and graphein, which means written. As
such, it has been around for a very long time, but it wasn’t until the
invention of the telegraph that it started to play a larger role in society.
The telegraph was a critical piece of infrastructure in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, and it needed a way to secure messages. As a
result, cryptography became more standardized and public knowledge.
The first standardized cipher was the Vigenère cipher, invented in 1553
but not publicly known until 1863. The next major cipher was the one-
time pad, invented in 1917 and the first known completely unbreakable
cipher. The next major advancement in cryptography came with the
invention of the computer and the rise of digital communications. Since
then, there have been many advances in cryptography, including the
invention of the RSA algorithm, which is widely used today.
Knowledge is one of the most important aspects to consider when
designing and implementing complex systems, such as companies,
organizations, and military operations. Information falling into the
wrong hands can be a tragedy and result in a huge loss of business or
disastrous outcomes. To guarantee communication security,
cryptography can encode information so that no one can decode it
without legal rights. Many ciphers have been broken when a flaw or
weakness has been found in their design or enough computing power
has been applied to break an encoded message. Cryptology consists of
cryptography and cryptanalysis, as you see later.
With the rapid evolution of electronic communication, the number
of issues raised by information security is significantly increasing every
day. Messages that are shared over publicly accessible computer
networks around the world must be secured and preserved and have
the proper security mechanisms to protect against abuse. The business
requirements in electronic devices and their communication consist of
having digital signatures that can be legally recognized. Modern
cryptography provides solutions to all these problems.
The idea of this book started from an experience that has been
achieved through three directions: (1) cryptography courses for
students (graduate and undergraduate) in computer science at the
University of Bucharest and Titu Maiorescu University; (2) industry
experience achieved in national and international companies; (3)
ethical hacking best practices; and (4) security audit.
This book aims to present the most advanced cryptography and
cryptanalysis techniques and their implementations using C++20. Most
implementations are in C++20, using the latest programming language
features and improvements (see Chapter 5).
The book is an advanced and exhaustive work, comprehensively
covering all the most important topics in information security,
cryptography, and cryptanalysis. The content of the book can be used in
a wide spectrum of areas by multiple professionals, such as security
experts with their audits, military experts and personnel, ethical
hackers, teachers in academia, researchers, software developers, and
software engineers when security and cryptographic solutions need to
be implemented in a real business software environment, student
courses (undergraduate and graduate levels, master’s degree,
professional and academic doctoral degree), business analysts and many
more.
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
It is very important to understand the meanings of the main concepts
involved in a secure communication process and to see their
boundaries.
Cryptology is the science or art of secret writing; the main goal is to
protect and defend the secrecy and confidentiality of information
with the help of cryptographic algorithms.
Cryptography is the defensive side of cryptology; the main objective
is to create and design cryptographic systems and their rules. When
you look at cryptography, you can see a special kind of art: protecting
the information by transforming it into an unreadable format called
ciphertext.
Cryptanalysis is the offensive side of cryptology; its main objective is
to study cryptographic systems with the scope of providing the
necessary characteristics in such a way as to fulfill the function for
which they have been designed. Cryptanalysis can analyze the
cryptographic systems of third parties through the cryptograms
realized with them so that it breaks them to obtain useful
information for their business purpose. Cryptanalysts, code breakers,
and ethical hackers deal with cryptanalysis.
Cryptographic primitives represent well-established or low-level
cryptographic algorithms for building cryptographic protocols;
examples include hash functions and encryption functions.
This book provides a deep examination of all three sides from the
practical side of view with references to the theoretical background by
illustrating how a theoretical algorithm should be analyzed for
implementation.
There are many different algorithms and techniques in modern
cryptography. Here are a few of the more common ones.
Symmetric-key algorithms use both sides of a communication to
generate a shared secret key and then use that key to encrypt and
decrypt messages. The most prominent example is AES, which is
used by the US government and many businesses worldwide.
Asymmetric-key algorithms use two different keys to encrypt and
decrypt messages. The most common example is RSA, which secures
websites and applications like Gmail.
Hash algorithms are commonly used to create digital signatures for
data and are sometimes used for message authentication. The most
well-known example is probably the SHA family of hash algorithms.
Trapdoor function algorithms generate digital signatures and are
sometimes used to implement public-key encryption. The most
common example is probably the RSA function.
One-time pad algorithms are the only unbreakable ciphers
requiring truly random keys. The most widely used OTP algorithm is
the Vernam cipher, which was the basis for the encryption used by
the US military in World War II.
Book Structure
The book is divided into 23 chapters divided into three parts: Part I
(Chapters 1–8) covers foundational topics, Part II (Chapters 9–17)
covers cryptography, and Part III (Chapters 18–23) covers
cryptanalysis.
Part I includes topics from beginner to advanced level and from
theoretical to practice. Chapter 2 discusses the basic concepts of
cryptography. Chapter 3 covers a collection of key elements regarding
complexity theory, probability theory, information theory, number
theory, abstract algebra, and finite fields and how they can be
implemented using C++20, showing their interaction with
cryptography and cryptanalysis algorithms.
Chapters 4 and 5 focus on integer arithmetic and floating-point
arithmetic processing. The chapter is vital, and other chapters and
algorithm implementations depend on these chapters’ content. Number
representations and working with them on the computer’s memory can
represent a difficult task.
Chapter 6 discusses the newest features and enhancements of
C++23. It presents how the new features and enhancements are
important in developing cryptography and cryptanalysis algorithms
and methods. It goes through three-way comparison, lambdas in
unevaluated contexts, string literals, atomic smart pointers, <version>
headers, ranges, coroutines, modules, and so forth.
Chapter 7 presents the most important guidelines for securing the
coding process, keeping an important balance between security and
usability based on the most expected scenarios based on trusted code.
Important topics include securing state data, security and user input,
security-neutral code, and library codes that expose protected
resources.
Chapter 8 covers the libraries and frameworks that are developed in
C++/C++23.
Part II covers the most important modern cryptographic primitives.
Chapters 9–16 discuss advanced cryptography topics by showing
implementations and how to approach this kind of advanced topic from
a mathematical background to a real-life environment.
 Chapter 9 discusses the basics of one of the most important
branches of cryptography: elliptic-curve cryptography.
Chapter 10 introduces the Lattice Cryptography Library and hot its
works for implementation, pointing out the importance of
postquantum cryptography. Implementations of key exchange protocols
proposed by Alkim, Ducas, Poppelmann, and Schwabe [1] are discussed.
The discussion continues by instantiating Chris Peikert’s key exchange
protocol [2]. The implementation is based on modern techniques for
computing, known as the number theoretic transform (NTT). The
implementations apply errorless fast convolution functions over
successions of integer numbers.
Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 present two important cryptographic
primitives, homomorphic and searchable encryption. For searchable
encryption (SE), Chapter 11 presents a framework using C++23 for SE,
showing the advantages and disadvantages of removing the most
common patterns from encrypted data. Chapter 12 discuss how to use
the SEAL library in practical examples. The SEAL library contains one of
the most important homomorphic encryption schemes: BGV
(Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan) [3].
Chapter 13 identifies the issues generated during implementing
(ring) learning with error cryptography mechanisms. It gives an
example of implementing the lattice-based key exchange protocol, a
library used only for experiments.
Chapter 14 is based on the new concepts behind chaos-based
cryptography and how it can be translated into practice. The chapter
generates some new outputs, and its contribution is important for
advancing cryptography as it is a new topic that didn’t get the proper
attention until now.
Chapter 15 discusses new methods and their implementations for
securing big data environments, big data analytics, access control
methods (key management for access control), attributed-based access
control, secure search, secure data processing, functional encryption,
and multiparty computation.
Chapter 16 points out the security issues about the applications
running in a cloud environment and how they can be resolved during
the design and implementation phase.
 Part III deals with advanced cryptanalysis topics and shows how to
pass the barrier between theory and practice and how to think about
cryptanalysis in terms of practice by eliminating the most vulnerable
and critical points of a system or software application in a network or
distributed environment.
Chapter 17 introduces you to cryptanalysis by presenting the most
important characteristics of cryptanalysis. Chapter 18 starts by
showing the important criteria and standards used in cryptanalysis,
how the tests of cryptographic systems are made, the process of
selecting the cryptographic modules, the cryptanalysis operations, and
classifications of cryptanalysis attacks.
Chapter 19 and Chapter 20 show how to implement and design
linear, differential, and integral cryptanalysis. These chapters focus on
techniques and strategies, and their primary role is to show how to
implement scripts for attacking linear and differential attacks.
Chapter 21 presents the most important attacks and how they can
be designed and implemented using C++23. You study the behavior of
the software applications when they are exposed to different attacks,
and you see how to exploit the source code. This chapter also discusses
software obfuscation and why it is a critical aspect that needs to be
considered by the personnel involved in implementing the software
process. Additionally, you learn how this analysis can be applied to
machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms that can be used
to predict future attacks over software applications that are running in
a distributed or cloud environment.
Chapter 22 goes through the text characterization method and its
implementation. It discusses chi-squared statistics; identifying
unknown ciphers; index of coincidence; monogram, bigram, and
trigram frequency counts; quad ram statistics as a fitness measure;
unicity distance; and word statistics as a fitness measure.
Chapter 23 presents the advantages and disadvantages of
implementing cryptanalysis methods, why they should have a special
place when applications are developed in distributed environments,
and how the data should be protected against such cryptanalysis
methods.
As you become more advanced in your study of cryptography, you
want to explore analysis techniques like frequency analysis, letter
analysis, and statistics that can help you break ciphers that are not
completely unbreakable. Sometimes, it is even possible to find flaws in
algorithms and protocols that can be exploited for malicious purposes.
For instance, cryptography is used in WEP and WPA/WPA2 networks to
encrypt data. It has been discovered that cracking the WEP takes less
than 10 minutes and that WPA/WPA2 is relatively easy to crack.
Internet Resources
The Internet has many resources that are very useful in keeping up
with progress in the field.
Bill’s Security Site (https://asecuritysite.com/). This
website contains various implementations of cryptographic
algorithms. Bill Buchanan, a professor at the School of Computing at
Edinburgh Napier University, created and updated the website.
Books by William Stallings [4] [Stallings, 2010 #1] – Cryptography
and Network Security
(http://williamstallings.com/Cryptography/). The site
contains a significant set of tools and resources and provides regular
updates, keeping up with the most important advances in
cryptography.
Schneier on Security (www.schneier.com/). The website
contains sections with books, essays, accurate news, talks, and
academic resources.

Forums and Newsgroups

Usenet newsgroups (deprecated but very useful information can still be
found) is dedicated to some of the important aspects of cryptography
and network security. The following are the most important.
sci.crypt.research is among the best groups for finding information
about research ideas. It is a moderated newsgroup whose main
purpose is to address research topics; most topics are related to the
technical aspects of cryptology.
sci.crypt is a group where you can find general discussions about
cryptology and related topics.
sci.crypt.random-numbers discusses random number generators.
alt.security discusses general security topics.
comp.security.misc discusses general computer security topics.
comp.security.firewalls features discussions on firewalls and other
related products.
comp.security.announce covers CERT news and announcements.
comp.risks discusses public risks from computers and users.
 comp.virus features moderated discussions on computer viruses.
Additionally, several forums deal with cryptography topics and
news that are available on the Internet. The following are the most
important.
Reddit Cryptography News and Discussions [5] is a forum group
featuring general information and news about different topics related
to cryptography and information security.
Security forums [6] contain vast topics and discussions about
computer security and cryptography.
TechnGenix – Security [7] is one of the most updated forums
featuring cryptography and information security news. The group is
maintained by world-leading security professionals in the field.
Wilders Security Forums [8] features discussions and news about
the vulnerabilities of software applications due to bad
implementations of cryptographic solutions.
Security Focus [9] is a forum with a series of discussions about
vulnerabilities raised by the implementations of cryptographic
algorithms.
Security InfoWatch [10] discusses data and information loss.
TechRepublic – Security [11] discusses practical aspects and
methodologies for designing and implementing software
applications.
Information Security Forum [12] is a world-leading information
security and cryptography forum. It features conferences, hands-on
and practical tutorials, solving solutions to security and
cryptographic issues.
Security Protocols and Standards
The following are specific standards for cryptography. They specify
which algorithms should be used and how they should be implemented.
There are many different cryptography standards, but the following are
the most important.
Suite B is a set of algorithms and protocols used by the US
government. It contains both symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
ISO/IEC 17799 is an international standard for information security.
It contains a set of guidelines for cryptography.
BSI TR-02102-1 - BSI – Technical Guideline. Cryptographic
Mechanisms: Recommendations and Key Lengths1 (Part 1)
evaluates the security of a few different cryptographic mechanisms,
providing some longer-term guidance in choosing appropriate
cryptographic algorithms. However, there is no guarantee of
completeness, so the BSI may not necessarily consider schemes that
are not included to be secure.
BSI TR-02102-2. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths, Part 2 – Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS)2
is a technical guideline with recommendations for using the TLS
encryption protocol. In particular, the confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity of the sent information can be secured by its use for
secure information transfer in data networks.
BSI TR-02102-3. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths, Part 3 – Use of Internet Protocol Security
(IPsec) and Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)3 is a technical
guideline with recommendations for using IPsec and IKEv2. In
particular, the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of the sent
information can be secured by its use for secure information transfer
in data networks.
BSI TR-02102-4. Cryptographic Mechanisms: Recommendations
and Key Lengths Part 4 – Use of Secure Shell (SSH) NIST Special
Publication 800-184 is a technical guideline with recommendations
for using the Secure Shell cryptographic technology (SSH). Within an
 insecure network, this protocol can be used to create a secure
channel.
Federal Information Processing Standard 140-2 is a FIPS
standard that specifies cryptographic algorithms and protocols.
Many cryptographic techniques and implementations described in
this book follow the following standards. Standards have been
developed and designed to cover the management practices and the
entire architecture of the security mechanisms, strategies, and services.
The following are the most important standards covered in this
book.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
represents the US federal agency that deals with standards, science,
and technologies related to the US government. Except for the
national goal, NIST Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS)
and Special Publications (SP) have a very important worldwide
impact.
The Internet Society (ISOC) represents one of the most important
professional membership societies with organizational and
individual members worldwide. ISOC provides leadership in the
issues that are addressed and that confront the future perspective of
the Internet and applications developed using security and
cryptographic mechanisms with respect to the responsible groups,
such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) represents
one of the most powerful organizations within the United Nations
System. It coordinates and administers global telecom networks and
services with governments and the private sector. ITU-T represents
one of the three sectors of ITU. The mission of ITU-T consists of the
production of standards that cover all the fields of
telecommunications. The standards proposed by ITU-T are known as
recommendations.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
represents a worldwide federation that contains national standards
bodies from over 140 countries. ISO is a nongovernmental
organization to promote the development of standardization and
activities related to activities with a view that it facilitates the
 international exchange of services to develop cooperation with
intellectual, scientific, and technological activity. The results of ISO
are as international agreements published as international
standards.
From securing communication and storage of information,
cryptography algorithms and protocols can be seen as guidelines and
protocols used to ensure the secure communication and storage of
information. The following are some widely used cryptography
algorithms and protocols.
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric-key
encryption algorithm for encrypting electronic data.
RSA is an asymmetric-key encryption algorithm used for secure data
transmission.
Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key
cryptography based on the mathematics of elliptic curves.
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and TLS are protocols for securing
network communications.
IPSec is a protocol for securing Internet communications at the
network layer.
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a data encryption and decryption
program that provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for
data communication.
These are just a few examples, and many other cryptography
standards are used today.
Cryptography Tools and Resources
There are numerous tools and resources to help you learn more about
cryptography. Here are a few worth checking out.
Cracking Crypto challenges provide a fun way to test your skills and
are great for beginners. There are challenges in both cryptography
and cryptanalysis, so you can pick whichever interests you more.
Dark Reading is a website that publishes news articles on all aspects
of information security. Their cryptography section regularly
publishes articles on the latest developments in cryptography.
There are many great cryptography books. If you prefer reading to
online tutorials, there are plenty of worthy books to choose from.
Coursera, Pluralsight, and Udemy offer online cryptography
courses. These courses vary in length and difficulty and can help
advance your knowledge. The following are some of the most
interesting courses.
Coursera
Cryptography I by Dan Boneh, Stanford University
www.coursera.org/learn/crypto
Cryptography II by Dan Boneh
Stanford University
www.coursera.org/learn/crypto2
Introduction to Applied Cryptography Specialization by William
Bahn
www.coursera.org/specializations/introducti
on-applied-cryptography
Pluralsight
Cryptography: The Big Picture
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-big-picture/table-of-contents
Cryptography: Executive Briefing
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-executive-briefing/table-of-
contents
Cryptography Application
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/cryptography-application/table-of-contents
Securing Data with Asymmetric Cryptography
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/asymmetric-cryptography-securing-data/table-
of-contents
Practical Encryption and Cryptography Using Python
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/practical-encryption-and-cryptography-using-
python/table-of-contents
Building Secure Applications with Cryptography in.NET
https://app.pluralsight.com/library/courses
/dotnet-cryptography-secure-
applications/table-of-contents
Conclusion
The era in which we are living has an unimaginable evolution and
incredible technologies that enable the instant flow of information at
any time and place. The secret consists of the convergence process of
the computer with the networks, a key force that forces the evolution
and development of these incredible technologies from behind.
Cryptography and cryptanalysis are fascinating disciplines that have
played a critical role in modern communication and security. This step-
by-step work help you get started in the world of cryptography and
cryptanalysis by providing you with all the necessary information to
become an expert in programming and how to approach cryptographic
algorithms. From understanding the basics of programming
cryptography algorithms to exploring advanced techniques, this work
helps you explore the fascinating technical disciplines that have played
a critical role in modern communication and security.
This first chapter discussed the objectives of the book and its
benefits. It covered the mission of the book, addressing the practical
aspects of cryptography and information security and its main
intention in using the current work. The increasing process of using
systems that build using advanced information technologies has been
shown to deeply impact our lives every day. All technologies are
proving to be pervasive and ubiquitous.
The book represents the first practical step of translating the most
important theoretical cryptography algorithms and mechanisms to
practice through one of the most powerful programming languages
(C++20).
This chapter accomplished the following.
Each concept was explained to eliminate the confusion between
cryptography, cryptanalysis, and cryptology.
It discussed the book’s structure. A roadmap introduced the
dependencies of each chapter. Each chapter has been presented in
detail, pointing out the main objective.
A list of newsgroups, websites, and USENETs resources provides
sources covering the latest news in cryptography and information
security.
 It introduced the most significant standards used in cryptography
and information security.

References
[1]. Alkim, E., Ducas, L., Pö ppelmann, T., and Schwabe, P. (2016). Postquantum key
exchange—a new hope. In 25th {USENIX} Security Symposium ({USENIX}
Security 16) (pp. 327–343).
[2].
Peikert, C. (2014, October). Lattice cryptography for the Internet. In
international workshop on postquantum cryptography (pp. 197–219). Springer,
Cham.
[3].
Brakerski, Z., Gentry, C., and Vaikuntanathan V. (2011). Fully Homomorphic
Encryption without Bootstrapping Cryptology ePrint Archive, Paper 2011/277,
https://eprint.iacr.org/2011/277.
[4].
Stallings, W., Cryptography and Network Security - Principles and Practice. 5
ed. 2010: Pearson. 744.
[5].
Reddit. Cryptography News and Discussions. Available from:
https://www.reddit.com/r/crypto/.
[6].
Forums, Security.; Available from: http://www.security-
forums.com/index.php?
sid=acc302c71bb3ea3a7d631a357223e261.
[7].
TechGenix, Security. Available from: http://techgenix.com/security/.
[8].
Wilders Security Forums. Available from:
https://www.wilderssecurity.com/.
[9].
Security Focus. Available from: https://www.securityfocus.com/.
[10].
Security InfoWatch. Available from:
https://forums.securityinfowatch.com/ .
[11].
TechRepublic – Security. Available from:
https://www.techrepublic.com/forums/security/.
[12].
Information Security Forum. Available from:
https://www.securityforum.org/.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Sulphur). (See
PL. CVI pp. 182 and PL. CV
183.)
This is a form
which is known
to be very
strongly
polymorphic,
having quite as
many varieties
and races as
Lycæna
pseudargiolus,
for instance. C.
keewaydin is a
large winter
form, which has
the wings strongly washed with orange; PL. CVII
there is a small winter form called C.
ariadne, which is also laved with orange,
though not so strongly. There is another
form called C. eriphyle, which belongs to
the summer brood, which has no orange
on the wings, but is plain yellow; and there
are still other forms. Expanse 1.60-2.15
inches.
The Orange Sulphur has a wide range,
extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
and from Canada to the northern portions
of the Gulf States, though not invading the
hotter parts of these states.

Genus TERIAS Swainson

(The Yellows).
 Small butterflies, generally some shade of orange or yellow, with
wings more delicate in structure than most of the genera belonging
to the Pierinæ. Both wings generally rounded, but in a few species
produced at the apex of the fore wing and at the end of the second
median nervule of the hind wing. Eggs spindle-shaped, much
swollen at the middle. Larva cylindrical, with a very small head, and
the three first segments larger than those after them giving the body
a humped appearance in front. Chrysalis compressed laterally, with
the wing-cases forming a deep keel on the ventral side, more
pronounced than in any other American genus, except Catopsilia.
This is a very large genus represented by many species in the
tropical and subtropical regions of both the eastern and western
hemispheres. Many of the species are dimorphic or polymorphic,
and there is a vast deal of confusion as to their classification.
(1) Terias nicippe (Cramer), Plate CVIII,
PL. CVIII Fig. 1, ♂ ; Fig. 2, ♀ (The Small Orange).
(See Plate on p. 184.)
The species is subject to considerable
variation. Rare in New England, but
common south of latitude 40° as far as the
Rocky Mountains; also reported from
Southern California, where it is rare.
Expanse 1.50-2.00 inches.
(2) Terias mexicana Boisduval, Plate
CVIII, Fig. 3, ♂ (The Mexican Yellow).
(See Plate on p. 184.)
Easily recognizable by our figure.
Expanse 1.75-1.85 inch. Found in Texas
and Arizona, thence southward.
(3) Terias lisa (Boisduval & Leconte), Plate CIX, Fig. 1, ♂ (The
Little Sulphur). (See Plate on p. 184.)
Allied to the three following species, but may be told apart at once
by the solid black outer borders of the wings and the absence of the
black band on the hind margin of the fore
wing. Expanse 1.25-1.60 inch. PL. CIX
Ranges from New England to
Honduras, east of the Rockies.
(4) Terias elathea (Cramer), Plate CIX,
Fig. 2, ♂ (The Florida Yellow). (See Plate
on p. 184.)
May be told from the next two species
by the white hind wings. Expanse 1.25-
1.40 inch.
Found in Florida, Mexico, and the
Antilles.
(5) Terias delia (Cramer), Plate CX, Fig.
1, ♂ ; Fig. 2, ♀ (The Gulf Yellow). (See
Plate on p. 185.)
Almost exactly like the preceding PL. CX
species, but the hind wings are yellow
above and red below, and the apex of the
fore wing is red below. Expanse 1.25-1.50
inch.
Common in the Gulf States.
This species and the one preceding and
following are very closely related but
perfectly distinct. They are apt to puzzle
the beginner, but by comparison he will
soon learn to discriminate them.
(6) Terias jucunda (Boisduval &
Leconte), Plate CX, Fig. 3, ♂ (The Fairy
Yellow).
Separable from the preceding species by the black border
surrounding the hind wing, and the pale under surface. Expanse
1.60-1.75 inch.
 Found in the Gulf States.
(7) Terias proterpia (Fabricius), Plate CX, Fig. 4, ♂ (The Cadmium
Orange).
Our figure will enable the student to immediately recognize it.
Expanse 1.50-1.75 inch.
Found in Texas, Arizona, and Mexico.
 Subfamily PARNASSIINÆ
(The Parnassians).
This peculiar group of butterflies is classed with the Papilionidæ
because the internal vein of the hind wings is always wanting, a
characteristic of all papilionine genera. The caterpillars are not
provided with osmateria, or offensive scent-organs, and pupation
takes place upon the ground among loosely scattered leaves which
are interwoven by the larva with a few loose strands of silk. The
insects are mainly inhabitants of the mountain regions of the
northern hemisphere.

Genus PARNASSIUS Latreille

(The Parnassians).

What has been said of the family will

PL. CXI suffice to characterize the genus.
(1) Parnassius smintheus Doubleday &
Hewitson, Plate CXI, Fig. 1, ♂ ; Fig. 2, ♀
(The Colorado Parnassian).
This is a somewhat variable species,
but may easily be recognized by the
figures we give. Expanse ♂, 2.00-2.50; ♀,
2.25-3.00 inches.
Ranges from New Mexico and Colorado
west to California and north to Montana.
The caterpillar feeds upon Sedum and
Saxifraga.
 Subfamily PAPILIONINÆ
(The Swallow-tails).
Large butterflies. As shown on Plate B, Fig. 10, the hind wings
lack the internal vein, its place being held by the submedian vein.
There is great diversity of form in this group. Many species are
tailed, as are the three occurring in Europe, and the name common
in England has come in popular phrase to be loosely applied to the
whole genus.
There are many hundreds of species and varietal forms, most of
which occur in the tropics of the eastern and western hemispheres.
There are only three species found in all Europe; there are about
thirty found in the United States and Canada.

Genus PAPILIO Linnæus

(The Swallow-tails).

This great genus has been subdivided for purposes of

classification into a number of smaller groups or subgenera, which
are useful when dealing with the whole assemblage of species, but
which in a manual like this, dealing with only a few forms, may
consistently be overlooked.
(1) Papilio ajax Linnæus. Winter form walshi Edwards, Plate CXII,
♂ ; summer form marcellus Boisduval, Plate CXIII, ♂ (The Papaw
Butterfly).
The species is more or less polymorphic. Plate CXII represents
the form which emerges in the spring of the year from chrysalids
which have overwintered; Plate CXIII shows the form which appears
in the second brood and in which the tails are twice as long as in the
first. There are other forms. Expanse 2.50-3.25 inches.
The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of the Papaw ( Asimina
triloba) and wherever this plant grows the insect may be found. It
 ranges from
PL. CXIII New England PL. CXII
and Ontario to
Florida and far
westward
through the
valley of the
Mississippi.
(2) Papilio
turnus Linnæus,
Plate CXIV, ♂ ;
Plate CXV, P.
glaucus
Linnæus, dark
dimorphic ♀ ,
under side (The
Tiger Swallow-
PL. CXIV tail). PL. CXV
In the Middle
States and
southward a
large proportion
of the females
are black,
belonging to the
form glaucus; in
Ontario and
northward and
westward to
Alaska the
females are
yellow, like the
males. The
Alaskan form is very small, dwarfed by the cold and poor feeding.
The figure on Plate CXIV is that of a male from Alaska of the natural
size; a specimen taken in Pennsylvania would be nearly twice as
large. The metropolis of the species is the Appalachian uplift; but it
ranges northwestward to Alaska and south to the Gulf States.
Expanse 3.00-5.00 inches.
The caterpillars are partial to the foliage of wild cherry trees, but
are found on a great variety of plants.
The dark female form reveals its relationship to the paler form by
the stripes on the under side. On the upper side the insect shown on
Plate CXV is very black and shows no stripes at all. I possess
females with yellow wings on one side and black on the other. The
identity of the forms named by Linnæus turnus and glaucus could
not be more forcibly shown than by these specimens, in which the
two are united by the vital force which called them into being.
PL. CXVI

(3) Papilio rutulus Boisduval, Plate CXVI, ♂ (The Pacific Tiger).

Closely resembling P. turnus, which it replaces on the Pacific
Coast in Washington and southward. The female is never dimorphic;
the marginal light spots on the under side of the fore wings run
together forming a continuous band, and are not separate as in P.
turnus. Expanse 3.50-4.25 inches.
The larva feeds on alder and willows.
(4) Papilio eurymedon Boisduval, Plate CXVII, ♂ (The White-
striped Tiger).
 Belonging to the same group as the two preceding species, but
distinguished by the pale creamy white color of the ground-color of
the wings, and by the fact that the submarginal spots on the under
side of the fore wings form, as in P. rutulus, a continuous band.
Expanse 3.50-4.00 inches.
The caterpillar feeds on Rhamnus californicus and other plants.
The insect ranges from Mexico to British Columbia and eastward to
Colorado.
(5) Papilio daunus Boisduval, Plate CXVIII, ♂ (The Two-tailed
Swallow-tail).
This fine insect is even larger than P. turnus, which it somewhat
resembles, but from which it can at once be distinguished by the two
tails on the hind wings, followed by a lobe at the anal angle. Expanse
4.00-5.25 inches.
Found in the region of the Rocky Mountains from Idaho south to
Mexico, but not found west of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges
in California.
(6) Papilio pilumnus Boisduval, Plate
CXIX, ♂ (The Three-tailed Swallow-tail). PL. CXIX
Easily recognized from our figure. The
lobe at the anal angle is so much
produced as to give the hind wing the
appearance of having three tails. Expanse
3.80-4.30 inches.
A Mexican species which occasionally
is found in Arizona. It is one of the most
beautiful species of the group to which it
belongs and is rare in collections.
(7) Papilio cresphontes Cramer, Plate
CXX, ♀ (The Giant Swallow-tail).
One of the largest and most showy
species of the genus found in our territory.
The caterpillar feeds upon Ptelea, Xanthoxylon, and Citrus. It has a
 wide range from southern Ontario to
PL. CXX Florida and through the Mississippi Valley
to Mexico. Expanse 3.75-5.50 inches.
(8) Papilio
Troilus PL. CXXI
Linnæus, Plate
CXXI, ♂ (The
Spice-bush
Swallow-tail).
The
caterpillar,
which is green,
with two big
eye-spots on
the back a little
behind the
head, lives on the foliage of the sassafras
and spice-wood, where it folds together a
leaf, in which it conceals itself from view
during the daytime, coming out to feed at
night. The insect is found throughout the eastern United States and
the Mississippi Valley, wherever its food-plant occurs. Expanse 3.75-
4.25 inches.
PL. CXXII
 (9) Papilio palamedes Drury, Plate CXXII, ♂ (The Magnolia
Swallow-tail). (See next page.)
The upper side of this fine insect is well shown on our plate; the
under side is prevalently yellow. The larva feeds on the foliage of
Magnolia glauca and the Lauraceæ. Expanse 3.50-4.50 inches.
Ranges from southern Virginia near the coast to the extreme
southern end of Florida and westward to southern Missouri and
eastern Texas.
(10) Papilio polyxenes Fabricius, Plate CXXIII, ♂ (The Eastern
Swallow-tail). (See next page.)
This butterfly and the three which follow belong to a group of the
genus which in England is represented by P. machaon of the fens of
Cambridgeshire and Norfolk. There are many species evidently
derived in past time from common stock, which are found in
America, and the writer believes that the original centre of dispersion
was this continent, and that the English Swallow-tail represents the
most western range of the migration, which probably began in
Tertiary times, when the horse, the camel, and other North American
animals passed over into Asia and became subsequently extinct in
the land of their origin. P. machaon still exists in Alaska as the variety
P. aliaska Scudder.
P. polyxenes, more commonly known by its later name P. asterius,
or P. asterias, is found all over the Atlantic States and the Mississippi
Valley. The caterpillar feeds upon umbelliferous plants, and is very
partial to fennel. Expanse 2.75-3.25 inches.
(11) Papilio brevicauda Saunders, Plate CXXIV, ♀ (The
Newfoundland Swallow-tail).
There are two forms, one found on Anticosti, in which the spots on
the upper side of the wings are bright yellow, the other in which they
are more or less red in color. The latter form is common in
Newfoundland, and is shown in the Plate. Closely related to P.
polyxenes, but with shorter tails. Expanse 2.75-3.00 inches.
(12) Papilio indra Reakirt, Plate CXXV, ♂ (The Mountain Swallow-
tail).
 The resemblance to P. polyxenes is
marked, but it will be observed that the PL. CXXV
tails have undergone even greater
reduction in length than in P. brevicauda,
and that the band of yellow spots
traversing the wings has been reduced in
width. Expanse 2.50-2.75 inches.
Found on the high mountains of
Colorado, Nevada, and California.
(13) Papilio
PL. CXXVI zelicaon
Boisduval, Plate
CXXVI, ♂ (The
Western
Swallow-tail).
In many
respects like P. polyxenes, but having the
median bands of yellow greatly widened,
until on the hind wing the band covers
almost the entire basal half of the wing.
Expanse 2.75-3.25 inches.
Ranges from Vancouver Island to
Arizona and eastward as far as Colorado.
(Note. The name zolicaon, often given
by authors, must be replaced by the
original name zelicaon.)
(14) Papilio philenor Linnæus, Plate CXXVII, ♂ (The Pipe-vine
Swallow-tail).
The caterpillar feeds upon the foliage of Aristolochia sipho, or the
“Dutchman’s Pipe,” a plant extensively grown about verandas and
porches, and native to the Allegheny Mountains. It also eats the
leaves of Aristolochia serpentaria, a smaller plant of the same
genus. The wings have an expanse of 3.75-4.25 inches.
 The range is from Massachusetts to
California and south into Mexico. PL. CXXVII
(15) Papilio
PL. CXXVIII polydamas
Linnæus, Plate
CXXVIII, ♂ (The
Reef Butterfly).
(See Plate on p.
198.)
This is the
sole
representant in
our fauna of a
great group of
splendid
butterflies
peculiar to the tropics of the New World,
which are true papilionids, but without
tails, their wings generally of some shade of green, and wonderfully
adorned with spots of other colors, generally yellow or crimson. It
may easily be recognized from our figure. Expanse 3.00-3.50 inches.
It is found in the extreme southern part of Florida and on the
adjoining reefs. It also has a wide range through the Antilles, Mexico,
and Central America.
 Family HESPERIIDÆ
(The Skippers).
Generally quite small butterflies, with stout thorax. Both sexes
have six feet adapted to walking. Tibiæ of hind legs, with few
exceptions, have spurs. Lower radial of hind wing in many genera
wanting, being represented by a fold in the wing. Eggs
hemispherical, flat on base. Larvæ cylindrical tapering from the
middle before and behind, with large globular heads, smooth.
Chrysalids generally formed on the ground or among leaves and
rubbish lightly tacked together with a few strands of silk, in which the
cremaster is caught.
A large family, most numerously represented in the tropics of both
the Old and New Worlds. About three thousand species are known,
of which over one hundred occur within our limits.
 Subfamily PYRRHOPYGINÆ
(The Red-tailed Skippers).
Rather large butterflies when compared with others in the family.
The antennæ terminate in a long, thick, blunt club, forming a regular
curve, looking in outline like the handle of an old-fashioned walking-
stick. Most of the species are red at the end of the abdomen.
Confined to the New World. Only one genus and species of this
family occurs within our borders.

Genus PYRRHOPYGE Hübner

(1) Pyrrhopyge araxes Hewitson, Plate

CXXIX, Fig. 1, ♂. PL. CXXIX
Upper side correctly shown in our
figure. Below the wings are prevalently
yellow. Expanse 2.25-2.50 inches.
Found in Texas, Arizona, and
southward.
 Subfamily HESPERIINÆ
(The Hesperids).
Fore wing generally provided with a costal fold, but never marked
with a sexual brand or raised patch of scales on the disk. The hind
wing may be provided with a lengthy tail or simply lobed at the anal
angle. Antennæ terminating in a fine point, which in some genera is
bent backward at right angles to the shaft.

Genus EUDAMUS Swainson

(The Long-tailed Skippers).

Hind wings more or less produced at the anal angle in the form of
a long tail. There are a number of species found in Central and
South America.
(1) Eudamus proteus (Linnæus), Plate CXXIX, Fig. 2, ♀ (The
Long-tailed Skipper). (See p. 199.)
The caterpillar feeds upon Wistaria and various leguminous plants.
Common in Florida, the American tropics, and occasionally found as
far north as New York.

Genus EPARGYREUS Hübner

(1) Epargyreus tityrus (Fabricius), Plate CXXX, Fig. 1, ♂; Fig. 2, ♀,

under side (The Silver-spotted Skipper).
A very common and beautiful insect. Expanse 1.75-2.00 inches.
The caterpillar usually feeds upon Robinia and Wistaria. Has a
wide range from Quebec to Vancouver Island and south to the
Isthmus of Panama.
 PL. CXXX

Genus THORYBES Scudder

(The Dusky-wings).

(1) Thorybes pylades Scudder, Plate

CXXXI, Fig. 1, ♀ (The Northern Dusky- PL. CXXXI
wing).
Below wings dark brown shading into
gray outwardly; hind wings crossed by
irregular brown bands; spots of upper side
reappearing below. Expanse 1.60 inch.
Common in New England, thence
westward and southward.
(2) Thorybes bathyllus (Smith & Abbot),
Plate CXXXI, Fig. 2 (The Southern Dusky-
wing).
Distinguished from preceding species
by the larger spots on fore wing.
Ranges from Connecticut to Texas.
 Genus ACHALARUS Scudder

(1) Achalarus lycidas (Smith & Abbot),

PL. CXXXII Plate CXXXII, Fig. 1, ♀ (The Hoary-edge).
Upper side strongly recalls E. tityrus but
the hoary edge of the hind wings and the
absence of the silvery spots found in
tityrus at once separate the two. Expanse
1.65-1.95 inch.
Rare in southern New England,
common in Southern States as far west as
Texas.
(2) Achalarus cellus (Boisduval &
Leconte), Plate CXXXII, Fig. 2, ♂ (The
Golden-banded Skipper).
On upper side as shown in our figure;
on under side hind wings banded as in E.
proteus, no silver spots. Expanse 2.00 inches.
Found in the Virginias and southward to Arizona and Mexico.

Genus HESPERIA Fabricius

(1) Hesperia tessellata Scudder, Plate CXXXIII, Fig. 1, ♂ (The

Tessellated Skipper).
Paler on under side than on upper side, with spots enlarged.
Expanse 1.00-1.35 inch.
Ranges from Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the
Pacific.
(2) Hesperia centaureæ Rambur, Plate CXXXIII, Fig. 2, ♂ (The
Grizzled Skipper).
Below darker than preceding species, white circle at end of cell
surrounding black spot, thus forming an eye-like spot; hind wings
below brown scaled with green, crossed
by three bands of quadrate spots. PL. CXXXIII
Expanse 1.15 inch.
Found in northern Europe and Asia and
from Alaska to Labrador; extending south
on the high mountains both in the West
and in the Carolinas.
(3) Hesperia xanthus Edwards, Plate
CXXXIII, Fig. 3, ♂ (The Checkerling).
Resembling H. tessellata, but much
smaller and darker at base of wings, spots
more crowded. Expanse 1.00 inch.
Found in Colorado and Rocky
Mountains to west and south.

Genus PHOLISORA Scudder

(The Sooty-wing).

(1) Pholisora catullus (Fabricius), Plate

PL. CXXXIV CXXXIV, Fig. 1, ♀ (The Common Sooty-
wing).
Easily recognizable by means of our
figure. Expanse 0.80-1.15 inch.
The caterpillar feeds on “lamb’s-quarter”
( Chenopodium).
Ranges over all temperate North
America.
(2) Pholisora hayhursti (Edwards), Plate
CXXXIV, Fig. 2, ♀ (Hayhurst’s Sooty-
wing).
Easily distinguished from preceding by
white color of under side of abdomen as
well as by the different arrangement of spots on fore wing. Expanse
0.90-1.15 inch.
Ranges from Pennsylvania to the Gulf as far as the Rocky
Mountains.
(3) Pholisora lybia Scudder, Plate CXXXIV, Fig. 3, ♂ (The Mohave
Sooty-wing).
Distinguished from the two preceding by the white fringes of the
wings and by the markings of the upper side. Expanse 0.80-1.40
inch.
Found from western Texas to Nevada and Arizona.
(4) Pholisora alpheus (Edwards), Plate CXXXIV, Fig. 4, ♂ (New
Mexican Sooty-wing).
More checkered on the upper side than the other species, tip of
fore wing white. Expanse 0.95-1.00 inch.
Ranges from New Mexico to Arizona.

Genus THANAOS Boisduval

(The Dusky-wings).

(1) Thanaos brizo Boisduval & Leconte, Plate CXXXV, Fig. 1, ♀

(The Sleepy Dusky-wing).
The two rows of light yellow spots on the outer margin of the hind
wings appear more distinctly on the under side. Expanse 1.25-1.60
inch.
Larva feeds on oaks and other plants. Ranges from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, from New England to Florida and Arizona.
(2) Thanaos icelus Lintner, Plate CXXXV, Fig. 2, ♂ (The Dreamy
Dusky-wing).
Under side paler than upper, marked with many small, indistinct
yellow spots, not forming well-defined bands as in preceding
species. Expanse 1.00-1.20 inch.
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