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C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-1

Chapter 8
Arrays and Strings
A Guide to this Instructor’s Manual:

We have designed this Instructor’s Manual to supplement and enhance your teaching
experience through classroom activities and a cohesive chapter summary.

This document is organized chronologically, using the same headings that you see in the
textbook. Under the headings you will find: lecture notes that summarize the section, Teacher
Tips, Classroom Activities, and Lab Activities. Pay special attention to teaching tips and
activities geared towards quizzing your students and enhancing their critical thinking skills.

In addition to this Instructor’s Manual, our Instructor’s Resources also contain PowerPoint
Presentations, Test Banks, and other supplements to aid in your teaching experience.

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a
license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
The next few chapters will introduce and focus on structured data types. Chapter 8
discusses the array data type in detail. Students will become familiar with declaring and
manipulating arrays, as well as using arrays as parameters. They will also learn about
the limitations of arrays. Students will examine character arrays and learn how to
process them using string functions. Finally, this chapter examines more complex array
types, including parallel and multidimensional arrays.

Objectives
In this chapter, the student will:
• Learn the reasons for arrays
• Explore how to declare and manipulate data into arrays
• Understand the meaning of ‘‘array index out of bounds’’
• Learn how to declare and initialize arrays
• Become familiar with the restrictions on array processing
• Discover how to pass an array as a parameter to a function
• Learn how to search an array
• Learn how to sort an array
• Become aware of auto declarations
• Learn about range-based for loops
• Learn about C-strings
• Examine the use of string functions to process C-strings
• Discover how to input data into—and output data from—a C-string
• Learn about parallel arrays
• Discover how to manipulate data in a two-dimensional array
• Learn about multidimensional arrays

Teaching Tips
Introduction
1. Review the concept of a simple data type, and introduce the concept of a structured data
type.

2. Describe the need for an array when processing items that are the same data type and
represent the same conceptual item.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-3

Arrays
1. Define the array data type and describe its uses. In particular, discuss the syntax of one-
dimensional arrays. Illustrate with Example 8-1.

Introduce your students to arrays by emphasizing that an array can only store
elements that are all of the same data type; in other words, they are not an all-
Teaching
purpose storage container. Point out that they will learn about more complex data
Tip
types later in the text – such as containers that hold generic data types or
complex data types with multiple variables and operations.

Accessing Array Components

1. Discuss the syntax involved in accessing array components. Review the use of the array
subscripting operator with the code snippets in this section.

Students might be confused when looking at code that performs arithmetic

operations on elements that are accessed by the array subscripting operator. Note
Teaching that students have already had experience with the array subscripting operator
Tip when they manipulated characters in a string. Stress that the operations that are
allowed on the values stored in an array can also be performed when accessing
the element with the array subscripting operator.

Processing One-Dimensional Arrays

1. Describe some common operations typically performed on arrays, such as initialization,

input/output, and finding the largest/smallest element.

2. Explain how to process an array using a for loop. Step through Example 8-3 to
illustrate how a for loop can be used to perform the operations described above.

Array Index Out of Bounds

1. Explain the consequences of using an array index that is out of bounds.

Discuss some common coding errors that can result in an out of bounds array
Teaching
index. Stress that it is the programmer’s responsibility to verify that a program is
Tip
not attempting to access an array outside of its limits.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-4

Array Initialization During Declaration

1. Describe the syntax involved with initializing an array during its declaration.

Partial Initialization of Arrays During Declaration

1. Explain how to partially initialize an array. Note that the non-initialized elements are
initialized to a default value; for example, elements of data type int are initialized to
zero.

Discuss situations where it might be useful to partially initialize arrays, e.g.,

Teaching
when you have some information available before execution time that will be
Tip
necessary for proper processing.

Some Restrictions on Array Processing

1. Emphasize that C++ does not allow aggregate operations on arrays. Explain that
therefore, arrays must be processed one element at a time, which is usually done with a
loop.

Arrays as Parameters to Functions

1. Explain that C++ arrays are passed by reference only. Illustrate how this is
accomplished using Example 8-5.

2. Mention the usefulness of passing an additional parameter that specifies how many
elements a function should process.

Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters

1. Discuss the use of constant arrays as parameters when the contents of the array should
not be modified. Use Example 8-6 to illustrate parameter passing using both non-
constant and constant arrays.

Explain in more detail why C++ only allows arrays to be passed as reference
parameters. Discuss issues such as memory management. Ask your students if
Teaching
there are any disadvantages to this approach. For example, how would they
Tip
handle a situation in which they would like an array to be modifiable in the
calling function but not in the called function?

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-5

Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory

1. Explain that the base address of an array is the address of the first element. Using
Figure 8-7, discuss how arrays are stored in memory.

2. Explain how the base address is used when passing arrays as parameters.

Students may find that the details of manipulating memory are complicated. Note
Teaching that C and C++ programmers are more accustomed to manipulating memory than
Tip programmers in some other programming languages, particularly with respect to
arrays.

Functions Cannot Return a Value of the Type Array

1. Note that functions cannot return a value of the type array. Illustrate how arrays are
processed in a function while being returned using Example 8-7.

Ask students why they think C++ does not allow functions to return a value of
Teaching
the type array. Relate this requirement to the requirement of passing arrays as
Tip
reference parameters.

Integral Data Type and Array Indices

1. Explain that C++ allows any integral type to be used as an array index. Therefore,
although the int type is most often associated with array indices, the enum type can
also be used effectively with array indices. Demonstrate with an example from this
section.

Other Ways to Declare Arrays

1. Discuss the use of a constant value to declare the size of an array. Also, describe how a
typedef statement can be used to declare an array.

Discuss the advantages of using a named constant for sizing an array. Stress that
Teaching
changing the size of an array is much easier and less error-prone when only one
Tip
value needs to be modified at the beginning of the program.

Quick Quiz 1
1. Define an array.
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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-6

Answer: An array is a collection of fixed number components all of the same data type.

2. The ____________________ value specifies the position of an element of a component

in an array.
Answer: index

3. True or False: In C++, the array index starts at 1.

Answer: False

4. Define an aggregate operation as it relates to arrays.

Answer: An aggregate operation on an array is any operation that manipulates the entire
array as a single unit.

Searching an Array for a Specific Item

1. Introduce the sequential (or linear) search algorithm using the example in Figure 8-8.
Review the seqSearch() function on Page 543 and in Example 8-8.

Sorting

1. Introduce the selection sort algorithm. Use Figures 8-9 through 8-11 to illustrate this
algorithm. Review the code in Example 8-9.

Auto Declaration and Range-Based for Loops

1. Explain that C++11 allows auto declaration, which allows you to declare and initialize a
variable without specifying its type.

2. Review the example of finding the sum of the elements of a list.

C-strings (Character Arrays)

1. Define a character array.

2. Define a C++ C-string. Explain the similarities and differences between a character
array and a C-string. In particular, note the use of the null character to terminate C-
strings.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-7

Spend some additional time discussing the differences and similarities between
C-strings and character arrays. Students may wonder why C-strings are necessary
Teaching
at all. Explain that the C-string was originally a part of the C programming
Tip
language. Also, reiterate that the string data type is provided in the C++
library, but that it is not part of the language.

3. Discuss some common C-string functions, as listed in Table 8-1.

String Comparison

1. Explain how C-strings are compared. Demonstrate how the strcmp function works
using Example 8-10.

Reading and Writing Strings

1. Emphasize that although aggregate functions are not allowed on most C-string
operations (just as with the array type), the exception to this rule is input/output
operations.

String Input

1. Provide an example of how to input a C-string into a variable. Then discuss how to
input a C-string with blanks using the get function.

Teaching Note that the get function is overloaded to provide aggregate input operations
Tip for C-strings.

String Output

1. Briefly illustrate how to output C-strings using an output stream variable.

Specifying Input/Output Files at Execution Time

1. Discuss how a program can allow a user to specify an input or output file at execution
time. Note the syntax involved in using a character array to retrieve the filename.

string Type and Input/Output Files

1. Review the differences between strings and C-strings and explain how to convert a
string into a C-string using the c_str method.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-8

Note that the use of c_str function is required to convert strings into a null-
Teaching terminated form. This is because the open function is compatible with C-strings,
Tip not with the programmer-defined string type. Mention that this is an example
of maintaining compatibility with the C language and older C++ compilers.

Quick Quiz 2
1. Define a character array.
Answer: an array whose components are of type char

2. How is the null character represented in C++?

Answer: '\0'

3. The header file ____________________ provides functions for manipulating C-strings.

Answer: <cstring>
cstring

4. True or False: C++ does not allow any aggregate operations on C-strings.
Answer: False

Parallel Arrays
1. Define parallel arrays and describe situations in which parallel arrays are useful.
Illustrate with the code snippet in this section.

Two- and Multidimensional Arrays

1. Explain the concept of two-dimensional arrays by comparing them to tables. Use Figure
8-12 to illustrate.

2. Discuss the syntax for declaring a two-dimensional array, and use Figure 8-13 to
demonstrate this.

Provide some more examples of how a two-dimensional array resembles a table.

Teaching Point out one difference: all of the elements in both the rows and columns must
Tip be of the same data type in a two-dimensional array. This is not a requirement in
conventional tables.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-9

Accessing Array Components

1. Give some examples of how to access elements in a two-dimensional array. Use Figure
8-14 to illustrate.

Two-Dimensional Array Initialization During Declaration

1. Explain the syntax involved in initializing a two-dimensional array during declaration.

2. Use the example presented in the book along with Figure 8-15 to illustrate this.

Two-Dimensional Arrays and Enumeration Types

1. Explain how to use enumeration types as indices in a two-dimensional array. Discuss

situations in which this might be useful, using Figures 8-16 and 8-17.

Teaching Note that the enum type for indices in a two-dimensional array may be different
Tip for rows and columns.

2. Explain how to process a two-dimensional array using nested loops.

3. Define row and column processing. Use the code snippets in this section to illustrate
two-dimensional array processing of an entire array, a row of an array, and a column of
an array.

Verify that your students understand array processing using nested loops because
Teaching
the operations that are discussed in the following sections all rely on this
Tip
processing algorithm.

Initialization

1. Explain how to initialize specific rows of an array, as well as how to initialize an entire
array.

Print

1. Describe how to use a nested loop to print out the components of an array.

Input

1. Explain how to input data into specific components of an array and into an entire array.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-10

Sum by Row

1. Describe how to use nested loops to find the sum of the components in each row of a
two-dimensional array.

Sum by Column

1. Describe how to use nested loops to find the sum of the components in each column of
a two-dimensional array.

Largest Element in Each Row and Each Column

1. Use the code snippets in this section to discuss how to determine the largest element in
each row and column.

Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions

1. Discuss how a two-dimensional array is stored in memory using row order form.

2. Explain how to pass two-dimensional arrays as parameters using Example 8-11.

Emphasize why the second dimension of an array must have a size value when
Teaching
passing the array as a parameter. Ask your students if they think there are any
Tip
advantages to specifying the first dimension as well.

Arrays of Strings

1. Explain how using an array to store strings has many useful applications.

2. Note that strings can be stored in arrays either as a string type or as a character array.

Arrays of Strings and the string Type

1. Describe how to perform operations on an array of strings.

Arrays of Strings and C-Strings (Character Arrays)

1. Using Figures 8-19 and 8-20, explain how a two-dimensional array of strings can be
created using character arrays.

2. Describe the operations available for an array of character arrays.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-11

Teaching Ask your students if they prefer using arrays of strings or arrays of character
Tip arrays. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

Another Way to Declare a Two-Dimensional Array

1. Explain how to declare a two-dimensional array with the typedef statement.

Multidimensional Arrays

1. Define n-dimensional arrays. Discuss the general syntax for declaring an array of n
dimensions.

2. Describe how to process n-dimensional arrays with nested loops.

3. Encourage students to walk through the Programming Examples at the end of this
chapter with a partner to consolidate their understanding of arrays.

Quick Quiz 3
1. Define a two-dimensional array.
Answer: A collection of a fixed number of components arranged in rows and columns,
wherein all components are of the same type.

2. True or False: To access a component of a two-dimensional array, you need a pair of

indices.
Answer: True

3. You can output the contents of a two-dimensional array by using ____ loops.
Answer: nested

4. When storing a two-dimensional array in computer memory, C++ uses the ____ form.
Answer: row order

Class Discussion Topics

1. What are some possible reasons for not permitting aggregate processing on arrays in
C++?

2. What are some ways to prevent out of bounds errors when reading input into C-strings?

3. Discuss some useful applications for n-dimensional arrays, such as graphical 3-D or
biotechnology applications.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-12

Additional Projects
1. Ask your students to write a program that keeps track of important birthdays. They may
implement it with a one-dimensional array with enumeration type indices, with a two-
dimensional array, or with parallel arrays. The user inputs the name and date
information in a menu-driven function. The data is displayed in a tabular format at the
end of the program execution.

2. Ask your students to write a program that lists European, Middle-Eastern, or Asian
countries and their capitals. The program retrieves this information from an input file
that the user specifies during program execution. The data can be stored in a one-
dimensional array with enumeration type indices, a two-dimensional array, or a parallel
array. The data is displayed in a tabular format at the end of the program execution.

Additional Resources
1. Arrays:
www.cplusplus.com

2. Introduction to C++ Arrays:

http://www.functionx.com

3. C Strings:
www.cprogramming.com

Key Terms
 Aggregate operation: any operation on an array that manipulates the entire array as a
single unit
 Array: a collection of a fixed number of elements (called components) in which all of
the elements must be of the same data type
 Array index in bounds: the index is in bounds if it is >= 0 and <= ARRAY_SIZE –
1
 Array index out of bounds: the index is out of bounds if it is < 0 or >
ARRAY_SIZE – 1
 Array subscripting operator [ ]: used to access the array element at the position
number contained within the square brackets
 Base address: the memory address of the first component in an array
 Character array: an array whose components are of the type char
 Column processing: processing of a particular column of a two-dimensional array
 Dynamic arrays: arrays that are created during program execution using pointers
 Finding the sum and average of an array: code that finds the sum and average of the
values in the array

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Seventh Edition 8-13

 Index: any expression whose value is a nonnegative integer and which is used for
accessing an array component
 Initializing: the process of using a loop to initialize every component of the array
 n-dimensional array: a collection of a fixed number of components arranged in n
dimensions (n >= 1)
 One-dimensional array: an array in which the components are arranged in a list form
 Parallel arrays: two (or more) arrays with corresponding components holding related
information
 Row order form: refers to the manner in which a two-dimensional array is stored; the
first row is stored first, followed by the second row, followed by the third row, and so
on
 Row processing: processing of a particular row of a two-dimensional array
 Selection sort: a search method in which the array is searched for the smallest value,
which is swapped with the value at the top of the array; then repeated for the next
smallest value, and so on
 Sequential or linear search: searches an array sequentially starting with the first
element; continues until the item is found or there are no more elements
 Simple data type: signifies that a variable can store only one value at a time
 Structured data type: each data item is a collection of other data items
 Two-dimensional array: a collection of a fixed number of components arranged in
rows and columns (that is, in two dimensions), wherein all components are of the same
type

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Deccan Recovered by the Andhras, a.d. 138.On
Nahapána’s death his territory,
which in the absence of a son had probably passed to his son-in-law
Ushavadáta, seems to have been wrested from him by his Ándhra
neighbours, as one of the attributes of Gautamíputra Śátakarṇi is
exterminator of the dynasty of Khakharáta (or Kshaharáta). That North
Konkan, South Gujarát, and Káthiáváḍa were taken and incorporated with
Ándhra territory appears from Gautamíputra’s Násik inscription (No. 26)
where Suráshṭra and Aparánta are mentioned as parts of his dominions.
These Ándhra
Chapter V.
conquests seem to have been shortlived.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Chashṭana appears to have eventually taken Káthiáváḍa and as much of
South Gujarát as belonged to Nahapána probably as far south as the
Narbada. Meváḍ, Málwa, North and South Gujarát and Káthiáváḍa would
then be subject to him and justify the title Mahákshatrapa on his later coins.

The Mevas or Meḍas.The bulk of Chashṭana’s army seems to have consisted of

the Mevas or Meḍas from whose early conquests and settlements in Central
Rájputána the province seems to have received its present name Meváḍa. If
this supposition be correct an inference may be drawn regarding the origin
of Chashṭana. The Mathurá inscription of Nandasiriká, daughter of
Kshatrapa Rájavula and mother of Kharaosti Yuvarája, mentions with
respect a Mahákshatrapa Kuzulko Patika who is called in the inscription
Mevaki that is of the Meva tribe. The inscription shows a relation between
the Kharaostis (to which tribe we have taken Kshaharáta Nahapána to
belong) and Mevaki Patika perhaps in the nature of subordinate and
overlord. It proves at least that the Kharaostis held Patika in great honour
and respect.

The Taxila plate shows that Patika was governor of Taxila during his
father’s lifetime. After his father’s death when he became Mahákshatrapa,
Patika’s capital was Nagaraka in the Jallálábád or Kábul valley. The
conquest of those parts by the great Kushán or Indo-Skythian king
Kanishka (a.d. 78) seems to have driven Patika’s immediate successors
southwards to Sindh where they may have established a kingdom. The
Skythian kingdom mentioned by the author of the Periplus as stretching in
his time as far south as the mouths of the Indus may be a relic of this
kingdom. Some time after their establishment in Sindh Patika’s successors
may have sent Chashṭana, either a younger member of the reigning house or
a military officer, with an army of Mevas through Umarkot and the Great
Ran to Central Rájputána, an expedition which ended in the settlement of
the Mevas and the change of the country’s name to Meváḍa. Probably it
was on account of their previous ancestral connection that Nahapána sent
Ushavadáta to help Chashṭana in Meváḍa when besieged by his Málava
neighbours. That Ushavadáta went to bathe and make gifts38 at Pushkara
proves that the scene of the Uttamabhadras’ siege by the Málayas was in
Meváḍa not far from Pushkara.

Chashṭana is followed by an unbroken chain of successors all of the dynasty

of which Chashṭana was the founder. As the coins of Chashṭana’s
successors bear dates and as each coin gives the name of the king and of his
father they supply a complete chronological list of the Kshatrapa dynasty.

Kshatrapa III. Jayadáman, a.d. 140–143.Of

Chashṭana’s son and successor
Jayadáman the coins are rare. Of three specimens found in Káthiáváḍa two
are of silver and one of copper. Both the silver coins were found in
Junágaḍh39 but they are doubtful specimens as the legend is not complete.
Like Chashṭana’s
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
coins they have a bust on the obverse and
Kshatrapa III. Jayadáman, a.d. 140–143.
round the bust an incomplete and undecipherable Greek legend. The reverse
has the sun and the moon and between them the arched symbol with the
zigzag under-line. All round the symbols on the margin within a dotted line
is the legend in Baktro-Páli and Devanágarí. Only three letters रञो छ ञ of
the Baktro-Páli legend can be made out. Of the Nágarí legend seven letters
राज्ञो क्षत्रपस ज Rájno Kshatrapasa Ja can be made out. The remaining four
letters Dr. Bhagvánlál read यदामस Yadámasa.40 The copper coin which is
very small and square has on the obverse in a circle a standing humped bull
looking to the right and fronting an erect trident with an axe. In style the
bull is much like the bull on the square hemidrachmæ of Apollodotus
(b.c. 110–100). Round the bull within a dotted circle is the legend in Greek.
It is unfortunate the legend is incomplete as the remaining letters which are
in the Skythian-Greek style are clearer than the letters on any Kshatrapa
coin hitherto found. The letters that are preserved are S T R X Y. The
reverse has the usual moon and sun and between them the arched symbol
without the zigzag under-line. All round within a dotted circle is the Nágarí
legend:

राज्ञो क्षत्र [पस] जयदामस.

Rájno Kshatra(pasa) Jayadámasa.

Of the king Kshatrapa Jayadáman.

Though the name is not given in any of these coins, the fact that Chashṭana
was Jayadáman’s father has been determined from the genealogy in the
Gunda inscription of Rudrasiṃha I. the seventh Kshatrapa,41 in the Jasdhan
inscription of Rudrasena I. the eighth Kshatrapa,42 and in the Junágaḍh
cave inscription43 of Rudradáman’s son Rudrasiṃha. All these inscriptions
and the coins of his son Rudradáman call Jayadáman Kshatrapa not
Mahákshatrapa. This would seem to show either that he was a Kshatrapa or
governor of Káthiáváḍa under his father or that his father’s territory and his
rank as Mahákshatrapa suffered some reduction.44 The extreme rarity of his
coins suggests that Jayadáman’s reign was very short. It is worthy of note
that while Zamotika and Chashṭana are foreign names, the names of
Jayadáman and all his successors with one exception45 are purely Indian.

Kshatrapa IV. Rudradáman, a.d. 143–158.Jayadáman was succeeded by his son

Rudradáman who was probably the greatest of the Western Kshatrapas. His
beautiful silver coins, in style much like those of Chashṭana, are frequently
found in Káthiáváḍa. On the obverse is his bust in the same style of dress as
Chashṭana’s and
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
round the bust is the Greek legend
Kshatrapa IV. Rudradáman, a.d. 143–158.
incomplete and undecipherable. The reverse has the usual sun and moon
and the arched symbol with the zigzag under-line. The old Nágarí legend
fills the whole outer circle. None of Rudradáman’s coins shows a trace of
the Baktro-Páli legend. The Nágarí legend reads:

राज्ञो क्षत्रपस जयदामपुत्रस राज्ञो महक्षत्रपस रुद्रदामस.

Rájno Kshatrapasa Jayadámaputrasa

Rájno Mahákshatrapasa Rudradámasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Rudradáman son of the king the Kshatrapa
Jayadáman.

None of Rudradáman’s copper coins have been found. Except Jayadáman

none of the Kshatrapas seem to have stamped their names on any but silver
coins.46

An inscription on the Girnár rock gives us more information regarding

Rudradáman than is available for any of the other Kshatrapas. The
inscription records the construction of a new dam on the Sudarśana lake
close to the inscription rock in place of a dam built in the time of the
Maurya king Chandragupta (b.c. 300) and added to in the time of his
grandson the great Aśoka (b.c. 240) which had suddenly burst in a storm.
The new dam is recorded to have been made under the orders of Suvishákha
son of Kulaipa a Pahlava by tribe, who was ‘appointed by the king to
protect the whole of Ánarta and Suráshṭra.’ Pahlava seems to be the name of
the ancient Persians and Parthians47 and the name Suvishákha as Dr. Bhau
Dáji suggests may be a Sanskritised form of Syávaxa.48 One of the Kárle
inscriptions gives a similar name Sovasaka apparently a corrupt Indian form
of the original Persian from which the Sanskritised Suvishákha must have
been formed. Sovasaka it will be noted is mentioned in the Kárle inscription
as an inhabitant of Abulámá, apparently the old trade mart of Obollah at the
head of the Persian Gulf. This trade connection between the Persian Gulf
and the Western Indian seaboard must have led to the settlement from very
early times of the Pahlavas who gradually became converted to Buddhism,
and, like the Pársis their modern enterprising representatives, seem to have
advanced in trade and political influence. Subsequently the Pahlavas
attained such influence that about the fifth century a dynasty of Pallava
kings reigned in the Dekhan, Hindu in religion and name, even tracing their
origin to the great ancient sage Bháradvája.49

Sudarśana Lake, a.d. 150.The

statement in Rudradáman’s Sudarśana lake
inscription, that Ánarta and Suráshṭra were under his Pahlava governor,
seems to show
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
that Rudradáman’s capital was not in
Kshatrapa IV. Rudradáman, a.d. 143–158.
Gujarát or Káthiáváḍa. Probably like his grandfather Chashṭana
Rudradáman held his capital at Ujjain. The poetic eulogies of Rudradáman
appear to contain a certain share of fact. One of the epithets ‘he who
himself has earned the title Mahákshatrapa’ indicates that Rudradáman had
regained the title of Mahákshatrapa which belonged to his grandfather
Chashṭana but not to his father Jayadáman. Another portion of the
inscription claims for him the overlordship of Ákarávanti,50 Anúpa,51
Ánarta, Suráshṭra, Śvabhra,52 Maru,53 Kachchha,54 Sindhu-Sauvíra,55
Kukura,56 Aparánta,57 and Nisháda;58 that is roughly the country from
Bhilsa in the east to Sindh in the west and from about Ábu in the north to
the North Konkan in the south including the peninsulas of Cutch and
Káthiáváḍa. The inscription also mentions two wars waged by Rudradáman,
one with the Yaudheyas the other with Śátakarṇi lord of Dakshinápatha. Of
the Yaudheyas the inscription says that they had become arrogant and
untractable in consequence of their having proclaimed their assumption of
the title of Heroes among all Kshatriyas. Rudradáman is described as
having exterminated them. These Yaudheyas were known as a warlike race
from the earliest times and are mentioned as warriors by Páṇini.59

The Yaudheyas.Like the Málavas these Yaudheyas appear to have had a

democratic constitution. Several round copper coins of the Yaudheyas of
about the third century a.d. have been found in various parts of the North-
West Provinces from Mathurá to Saháranpur. These coins
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
 which are adapted from the type of Kanishka’s coins60 have on
The Yaudheyas.
the obverse a standing robed male figure extending the protecting right
hand of mercy. On the reverse is the figure of a standing Kártikasvámi and
round the figure the legend in Gupta characters of about the third century:

यौधेय गणस्य

Yaudheya Gaṇasya.

Of the Yaudheya tribe.61

That the Girnár inscription describes Rudradáman as the exterminator of

‘the Yaudheyas’ and not of any king of the Yaudheyas confirms the view
that their constitution was tribal or democratic.62

The style of the Yaudheya coins being an adaptation of the Kanishka type
and their being found from Mathurá to Saháranpur where Kanishka ruled is
a proof that the Yaudheyas wrested from the successors of Kanishka the
greater part of the North-West Provinces. This is not to be understood to be
the Yaudheyas’ first conquest in India. They are known to be a very old
tribe who after a temporary suppression by Kanishka must have again risen
to power with the decline of Kushán rule under Kanishka’s successors
Huvishka (a.d. 100–123) or Vasudeva (a.d. 123–150 ?) the latter of whom
was a contemporary of Rudradáman.63 It is probably to this increase of
Yaudheya power that Rudradáman’s inscription refers as making them
arrogant and intractable. Their forcible extermination is not to be
understood literally but in the Indian hyperbolic fashion.

The remark regarding the conquest of Śátakarṇi lord of Dakshinápatha is as

follows: ‘He who has obtained glory because he did not destroy Śátakarṇi,
the lord of the Dekhan, on account of there being no distance in
relationship, though he twice really conquered him.’64 As Śátakarṇi is a
dynastic name applied to several of the Ándhra kings, the question arises
Which of the Śátakarṇis did Rudradáman twice defeat? Of the two Western
India kings mentioned by Ptolemy one Tiastanes with his capital at Ozene
or Ujjain65 has been identified with Chashṭana; the other Siri Ptolemaios or
Polemaios, with his royal seat at Baithana or Paithan,66 has been identified
with the Pulumáyi Vásishṭhíputra of the Násik cave inscriptions. These
statements of
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Ptolemy seem to imply that Chashṭana and
Kshatrapa IV. Rudradáman, a.d. 143–158.
Pulumáyi were contemporary kings reigning at Ujjain and Paithan. The
evidence of their coins also shows that if not contemporaries Chashṭana and
Pulumáyi were not separated by any long interval. We know from the Násik
inscriptions and the Puráṇas that Pulumáyi was the successor of
Gautamíputra Śátakarṇi and as Gautamíputra Śátakarṇi is mentioned as the
exterminator of the Kshaharáta race (and the period of this extermination
has already been shown to be almost immediately after Nahapána’s death),
there is no objection to the view that Chashṭana, who was the next
Kshatrapa after Nahapána, and Pulumáyi, who was the successor of
Gautamíputra, were contemporaries. We have no positive evidence to
determine who was the immediate successor of Pulumáyi, but the only king
whose inscriptions are found in any number after Pulumáyi is Gautamíputra
Yajña Śrí Śátakarṇi. His Kanheri inscription recording gifts made in his
reign and his coin found among the relics of the Sopára stúpa built also in
his reign prove that he held the North Konkan. The Sopára coin gives the
name of the father of Yajñaśrí. Unfortunately the coin is much worn. Still
the remains of the letters constituting the name are sufficient to show they
must be read चतुरपन Chaturapana.67 A king named Chaturapana is
mentioned in one of the Nánághát inscriptions where like Pulumáyi he is
called Vásishṭhíputra and where the year 13 of his reign is referred to.68
The letters of this inscription are almost coeval with those in Pulumáyi’s
inscriptions. The facts that he was called Vásishṭhíputra and that he reigned
at least thirteen years make it probable that Chaturapana was the brother
and successor of Pulumáyi. Yajñaśrí would thus be the nephew and second
in succession to Pulumáyi and the contemporary of Rudradáman the
grandson of Chashṭana, whom we have taken to be a contemporary of
Pulumáyi. A further proof of this is afforded by Yajñaśrí’s silver coin found
in the Sopára stúpa. All other Ándhra coins hitherto found are adapted from
contemporary coins of Ujjain and the Central Provinces, the latter probably
of the Śungas. But Gautamíputra Yajñaśrí Śátakarṇi’s Sopára coin is the
first silver coin struck on the type of Kshatrapa coins; it is in fact a clear
adaptation of the type of the coins of Rudradáman himself which proves
that the two kings were contemporaries and rivals. An idea of the ‘not
distant relationship’ between Rudradáman and Yajñaśrí Śátakarṇi mentioned
in Rudradáman’s Girnár inscription, may be formed from a Kanheri
inscription recording a gift by a minister named Satoraka which mentions
that the queen of Vásishṭhíputra Śátakarṇi was born in the Kárdamaka
dynasty and was connected apparently on the maternal side with a
Mahákshatrapa whose name is lost. If the proper name of the lost
Vásishṭhíputra be Chaturapana, his son Yajñaśrí Śátakarṇi would, through
his mother being a Mahákshatrapa’s granddaughter, be a relative of
Rudradáman.

Rudradáman’s other epithets seem to belong to the usual stock of

Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Indian court epithets. He is said ‘to have
Kshatrapa IV. Rudradáman, a.d. 143–158.
gained great fame by studying to the end, by remembering understanding
and applying the great sciences such as grammar, polity, music, and logic’.
Another epithet describes him as having ‘obtained numerous garlands at the
Svayamvaras of kings’ daughters,’ apparently meaning that he was chosen
as husband by princesses at several svayamvaras or choice-marriages a
practice which seems to have been still in vogue in Rudradáman’s time. As
a test of the civilized character of his rule it may be noted that he is
described as ‘he who took, and kept to the end of his life, the vow to stop
killing men except in battle.’ Another epithet tells us that the embankment
was built and the lake reconstructed by ‘expending a great amount of
money from his own treasury, without oppressing the people of the town
and of the province by (exacting) taxes, forced labour, acts of affection
(benevolences) and the like.’

As the Kshatrapa year 60 (a.d. 138) has been taken to be the date of close
of Chashṭana’s reign, and as five years may be allowed for the short reign69
of Jayadáman, the beginning of the reign of Rudradáman may be supposed
to have been about the year 65 (a.d. 143). This Girnár inscription gives 72
as the year in which Rudradáman was then reigning and it is fair to suppose
that he reigned probably up to 80. The conclusion is that Rudradáman ruled
from a.d. 143 to 158.70

Kshatrapa V. Dámázaḍa or Dámájaḍaśrí, a.d. 158–168.Rudradáman was succeeded

by his son Dámázaḍa or Dámájaḍaśrí regarding whom all the information
available is obtained from six coins obtained by Dr. Bhagvánlál.71 The
workmanship of all six coins is good, after the type of Rudradáman’s coins.
On the obverse is a bust in the same style as Rudradáman’s and round the
bust is an illegible Greek legend. Like Rudradáman’s coins these have no
dates, a proof of their antiquity, as all later Kshatrapa coins have dates in
Nágarí numerals. The reverse has the usual sun and moon and between
them the arched symbol with the zigzag under-line. Around them in three
specimens is the following legend in old Nágarí:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रदामपुत्रस72 राज्ञः क्षत्रपस दामाय्सडस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudradámaputrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Dámáysaḍasa.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Dámázaḍa73 son of the king the Kshatrapa
Rudradáman.

Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Kshatrapa V. Dámázaḍa or Dámájaḍaśrí, a.d. 158–168. The legend on the other three is:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रदाम्नः पुत्रस राज्ञः क्षत्रपस दामाजडश्रियः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudradámnaḥputrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Dámájaḍaśriyaḥ.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Dámájaḍaśrí son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Rudradáma.
Dámázaḍa and Dámájaḍaśrí seem to be two forms of the same name,
Dámázaḍa with य्स for Ζ being the name first struck, and Dámájaḍaśrí, with
the ordinary ज for Ζ, and with Śrí added to adorn the name and make it
more euphonic, being the later form. It will be noted that, except by his son
Jivadáman, Dámázaḍa or Dámájaḍaśrí is not called a Mahákshatrapa but
simply a Kshatrapa. His coins are very rare. The six mentioned are the only
specimens known and are all from one find. He may therefore be supposed
to have reigned as heir-apparent during the life-time of Rudradáman, or it is
possible that he may have suffered loss of territory and power. His reign
seems to have been short and may have terminated about 90 that is a.d. 168
or a little later.

Kshatrapa VI. Jivadáman, a.d. 178.Dámázaḍa or Dámájaḍaśrí was succeeded by

his son Jivadáman. All available information regarding Jivadáman is from
four rare coins obtained by Pandit Bhagvánlál, which for purposes of
description, he has named A, B, C, and D.74 Coin A bears date 100 in
Nágarí numerals, the earliest date found on Kshatrapa coins. On the obverse
is a bust in the usual Kshatrapa style with a plump young face of good
workmanship. Round the bust is first the date 100 in Nágarí numerals and
after the date the Greek legend in letters which though clear cannot be made
out. In these and in all later Kshatrapa coins merely the form of the Greek
legend remains; the letters are imitations of Greek by men who could not
read the original. On the reverse is the usual arched symbol between the sun
and the moon, the sun being twelve-rayed as in the older Kshatrapa coins.
Within the dotted circle in the margin is the following legend in old Nágarí:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामाश्रियः पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस जीवदाम्नः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámaśriyaḥputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Jivadámnaḥ.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Jivadáman son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Dámaśrí.

Coin B has the bust on the obverse with a face apparently older than the
face in A. Unfortunately the die has slipped and the date has not been
struck. Most of the Greek legend is very clear but as in coin A the result is
meaningless. The letters are K I U I U Z K N S Y L perhaps meant for
Kuzulka. On the reverse are the usual three symbols, except
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Kshatrapa VI. Jivadáman, a.d. 178. that the sun has seven instead of twelve rays.
The legend is:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामजडस पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस जीवदमस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámajaḍasaputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Jivadámasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Jivadáman son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Dámajaḍa.

Coin C though struck from a different die is closely like B both on the
obverse and the reverse. Neither the Greek legend nor the date is clear,
though enough remains of the lower parts of the numerals to suggest the
date 118. Coin D is in obverse closely like C. The date 118 is clear. On the
reverse the legend and the symbols have been twice struck. The same
legend occurs twice, the second striking having obliterated the last letters of
the legend which contained the name of the king whose coin it is:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामजडस पुत्रस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámajaḍasaputrasa.

Of the son of the king the great Kshatrapa Dámájaḍa.

In these four specimens Dámaśrí or Dámájaḍa is styled Mahákshatrapa,

while in his own coins he is simply called Kshatrapa. The explanation
perhaps is that the known coins of Dámaśrí or Dámajaḍa belong to the early
part of his reign when he was subordinate to his father, and that he
afterwards gained the title of Mahákshatrapa. Some such explanation is
necessary as the distinction between the titles Kshatrapa and Mahákshatrapa
is always carefully preserved in the earlier Kshatrapa coins. Except towards
the close of the dynasty no ruler called Kshatrapa on his own coins is ever
styled Mahákshatrapa on the coins of his son unless the father gained the
more important title during his lifetime.

The dates and the difference in the style of die used in coining A and in
coining B, C, and D are worth noting as the earliest coin has the date 100
and C and D the third and fourth coins have 118. If Jivadáman’s reign lasted
eighteen years his coins would be common instead of very rare. But we find
between 102 and 118 numerous coins of Rudrasiṃha son of Rudradáman
and paternal uncle of Jivadáman. These facts and the difference between the
style of A and the style of B, C, and D which are apparently imitated from
the coins of Rudrasiṃha and have a face much older than the face in A, tend
to show that soon after his accession Jivadáman was deposed by his uncle
Rudrasiṃha, on whose death or defeat in 118, Jivadáman again rose to
power.

Kshatrapa VII. Rudrasiṃha I. a.d. 181–196.Rudrasiṃha the seventh Kshatrapa was

the brother of Dámajaḍaśrí. Large numbers of his coins have been found. Of
thirty obtained by Dr. Bhagvánlál, twenty have the following clearly cut
dates: 103, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, and 118. As the
earliest year is 103 and the latest 118 it is probable that Rudrasiṃha
deposed his nephew Jivadáman shortly after Jivadáman’s accession.
Rudrasiṃha appears to have ruled fifteen years when power again passed to
his nephew Jivadáman.
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Kshatrapa VII. Rudrasiṃha I. a.d. 181–196.

The coins of Rudrasiṃha are of a beautiful type of good workmanship and

with clear legends. The legend in old Nágarí character reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रदामपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसिंहस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudradámaputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Rudrasiṃhasa.
 Of the king the great Kshatrapa Rudrasiṃha son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Rudradáma.

Rudrasiṃha had also a copper coinage of which specimens are recorded

from Málwa but not from Káthiáváḍa. Pandit Bhagvánlál had one specimen
from Ujjain which has a bull on the obverse with the Greek legend round it
and the date 117. The reverse seems to have held the entire legend of which
only five letters रुद्रसिंहस (Rudrasiṃhasa) remain. This coin has been spoilt
in cleaning.

To Rudrasiṃha’s reign belongs the Gunda inscription carved on a stone

found at the bottom of an unused well in the village of Gunda in Hálár in
North Káthiáváḍa.75 It is in six well preserved lines of old Nágarí letters of
the Kshatrapa type. The writing records the digging and building of a well
for public use on the borders of a village named Rasopadra by the
commander-in-chief Rudrabhúti an Ábhíra son of Senápati Bápaka. The
date is given both in words and in numerals as 103, ‘in the year’ of the king
the Kshatrapa Svámi Rudrasiṃha, apparently meaning in the year 103
during the reign of Rudrasiṃha. The genealogy given in the inscription is: 1
Chashṭana; 2 Jayadáman; 3 Rudradáman; 4 Rudrasiṃha, the order of
succession being clearly defined by the text, which says that the fourth was
the great grandson of the first, the grandson of the second, and the son of
the third. It will be noted that Dámájaḍaśrí and Jivadáman the fifth and
sixth Kshatrapas have been passed over in this genealogy probably because
the inscription did not intend to give a complete genealogy but only to show
the descent of Rudrasiṃha in the direct line.

Kshatrapa VIII. Rudrasena, a.d. 203–220.The

eighth Kshatrapa was Rudrasena,
son of Rudrasiṃha, as is clearly mentioned in the legends on his coins. His
coins like his father’s are found in large numbers. Of forty in Dr.
Bhagvánlál’s collection twenty-seven bear the following eleven76 dates,
125, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 140, 142. The coins are of the
usual Kshatrapa type closely like Rudrasiṃha’s coins. The Nágarí legend
reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्त्रपस रुद्रसिंहस पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनस

 Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasiṃhasa putrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa
Rudrasenasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Rudrasena son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Rudrasiṃha.

Two copper coins square and smaller than the copper coins of
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Rudrasiṃha have been found in Ujjain77
Kshatrapa VIII. Rudrasena, a.d. 203–220.
though none are recorded from Káthiáváḍa. On their obverse these copper
coins have a facing bull and on the back the usual symbols and below them
the year 140, but no legend. Their date and their Kshatrapa style show that
they are coins of Rudrasena.

Besides coins two inscriptions one at Muliyásar the other at Jasdan give
information regarding Rudrasena. The Muliyásar inscription, now in the
library at Dwárka ten miles south-west of Muliyásar, records the erection of
an upright slab by the sons of one Vánijaka. This inscription bears date 122,
the fifth of the dark half of Vaishákha in the year 122 during the reign of
Rudrasiṃha.78 The Jasdan inscription, on a stone about five miles from
Jasdan, belongs to the reign of this Kshatrapa. It is in six lines of old
Kshatrapa Nágarí characters shallow and dim with occasional engraver’s
mistakes, but on the whole well-preserved. The writing records the building
of a pond by several brothers (names not given) of the Mánasasa gotra sons
of Pranáthaka and grandsons of Khara. The date is the 5th of the dark half
of Bhádrapada ‘in the year’ 126.79 The genealogy is in the following order:

Mahákshatrapa Chashṭana.
Kshatrapa Jayadáman.
Mahákshatrapa Rudradáman.
Mahákshatrapa Rudrasiṃha.
Mahákshatrapa Rudrasena.

Each of them is called Svámi Lord and Bhadramukha Luckyfaced.80 As

Rudrasena’s reign began at least as early as 122, the second reign of
Jivadáman is narrowed to four years or even less. As the latest date is 142
Rudrasena’s reign must have lasted about twenty years.

Kshatrapa IX. Pṛithivísena a.d. 222.After

Rudrasena the next evidence on record
is a coin of his son Pṛithivísena found near Amreli. Its workmanship is the
same as that of Rudrasena’s coins. It is dated 144 that is two years later than
the last date on Rudrasena’s coins. The legend runs:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनस पुत्रस राज्ञः क्षत्रपस पृथिवीसेनस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasenasa putrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Pṛithivísenasa.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Pṛithivísena son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Rudrasena.

As this is the only known specimen of Pṛithivísena’s coinage; as the earliest

coin of Pṛithivísena’s uncle the tenth Kshatrapa Saṅghadáman is dated 144;
and also as Pṛithivísena is called only Kshatrapa he seems to have reigned
for a short time perhaps as Kshatrapa of Suráshṭra or Káthiáváḍa and to
have been ousted by his uncle Saṅghadáman.

Kshatrapa X. Saṅghadáman, a.d. 222–226.Rudrasena

was succeeded by his
brother the Mahákshatrapa Saṅghadáman. His coins are very rare. Only two
specimens have been
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
obtained, of which one was in the Pandit’s
Kshatrapa X. Saṅghadáman, a.d. 222–226.
collection the other in the collection of Mr. Vajeshankar Gavrishankar.81
They are dated 145 and 144. The legend in both reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसिंहस पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस सण्घदाम्न [ः ]

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasiṃhasa putrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Saṅghadámna.
 Of the king the great Kshatrapa Saṅghadáman son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Rudrasiṃha.

These two coins seem to belong to the beginning of Saṅghadáman’s reign.

As the earliest coins of his successor Dámasena are dated 148
Saṅghadáman’s reign seems not to have lasted over four years.82
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Kshatrapa XI. Dámasena, a.d. 226–236.

Kshatrapa XI. Dámasena, a.d. 226–236.Saṅghadámanwas succeeded by his

brother Dámasena, whose coins are fairly common, of good workmanship,
and clear lettering. Of twenty-three specimens eleven have the following
dates: 148, 150, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158. The legend runs:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसिंहस पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनस.

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasiṃhasa putrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Dámasenasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Dámasena son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Rudrasiṃha.

Dámasena seems to have reigned ten years (148–158) as coins of his son
Víradáman are found dated 158.

Kshatrapa XII. Dámájaḍaśrí II. a.d. 236.Dámájaḍaśrí

the twelfth Kshatrapa is
styled son of Rudrasena probably the eighth Kshatrapa. Dámájaḍaśrí’s coins
are rare.83 The legend runs:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनपुत्रस रज्ञः क्षत्रपस दामाजडश्रियः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasenaputrasa Rajñaḥ Kshatrapas

Dámájaḍaśriyaḥ.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Dámájaḍaśrí son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Rudrasena.
Five specimens, the only specimens on record, are dated 154.84 As 154 falls
in the reign of Dámasena it seems probable that Dámájaḍaśrí was either a
minor or a viceroy or perhaps a ruler claiming independence, as about this
time the authority of the main dynasty seems to have been much disputed.
Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.

After Dámasena we find coins of three of his sons Víradáman Yaśadáman

and Vijayasena. Víradáman’s coins are dated 158 and 163, Yaśadáman’s 160
and 161, and Vijayasena’s earliest 160. Of the three brothers Víradáman
who is styled simply Kshatrapa probably held only a part of his father’s
dominions. The second brother Yaśadáman, who at first was a simple
Kshatrapa, in 161 claims to be Mahákshatrapa. The third brother
Vijayasena, who as early as 160, is styled Mahákshatrapa, probably
defeated Yaśadáman and secured the supreme rule.

Kshatrapa XIII. Víradáman, a.d. 236–238.Víradáman’s

coins are fairly common.
Of twenty-six in Pandit Bhagvánlál’s collection, nineteen were found with a
large number of his brother Vijayasena’s coins. The legend reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनस पुत्रस राज्ञो क्षत्रपस वीरदाम्नः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámasenasa putrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Víradámnaḥ.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Víradáman son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Dámasena.

Of the twenty-six ten are clearly dated, six with 158 and four with 160.

Kshatrapa XIV. Yaśadáman, a.d. 239.Yaśadáman’s coins are rare. Pandit

Bhagvánlál’s collection contained seven.85 The bust on the obverse is a
good imitation of the bust on his father’s coins. Still it is of inferior
workmanship, and starts the practice which later Kshatrapas continued of
copying their predecessor’s image. On only two of the seven specimens are
the dates clear, 160 and 161. The legend on the coin dated 160 is:

ज्ञो से
 राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनस पुत्रस राज्ञः क्षत्रपस यशदाम्नः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámasenasa putrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Yaśadámnaḥ.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Yaśadáman son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Dámasena.

On the coin dated 161 the legend runs:

राज्ञो महक्षत्रपस दामसेनस पुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्स्हत्रपस यशदाम्नः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámasenasa putrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Yaśadámnaḥ.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Yaśadáman son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Dámasena.

Kshatrapa XV. Vijayasena, a.d. 238–249.Vijayasena’s

coins are common. As many
as 167 were in the Pandit’s collection. Almost all are of good workmanship,
well preserved, and clearly lettered. On fifty-four of them the following
dates can be clearly read, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170,
and 171. This would give Vijayasena a reign of at least eleven years from
160 to 171 (a.d. 238–249). The legend reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस विजयसेनस

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámasenaputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Vijayasenasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Vijayasena son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Dámasena.

Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.
Kshatrapa XVI. Dámájaḍaśrí, a.d. 250–255.
In two good specimens of Vijayasena’s coins with traces of the date 166 he
is styled Kshatrapa. This the Pandit could not explain.86

Kshatrapa XVI. Dámájaḍaśrí, a.d. 250–255.Vijayasena

was succeeded by his
brother Dámájaḍaśrí III. called Mahákshatrapa on his coins. His coins
which are comparatively uncommon are inferior in workmanship to the
coins of Vijayasena. Of seven in the Pandit’s collection three are dated 174,
175, and 176.

After Dámájaḍaśrí come coins of Rudrasena II. son of Víradáman, the

earliest of them bearing date 178. As the latest coins of Vijayasena are dated
171, 173 may be taken as the year of Dámájaḍaśrí’s succession. The end of
his reign falls between 176 and 178, its probable length is about five years.
The legend on his coins reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस दामाजडश्रियः

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Dámasenaputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa

Dádmájaḍaśriyaḥ.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Dámájaḍaśrí son of the king the great
Kshatrapa Dámasena.

Kshatrapa XVII. Rudrasena II. a.d. 256–272.Dámájaḍaśrí

III. was succeeded by
Rudrasena II. son of Dámájaḍaśrí’s brother Víradáman the thirteenth
Kshatrapa. Rudrasena II.’s coins like Vijayasena’s are found in great
abundance. They are of inferior workmanship and inferior silver. Of eighty-
four in Dr. Bhagvánlál’s collection eleven bore the following clear dates:
178, 180, 183, 185, 186, 188, and 190. The earliest of 178 probably belongs
to the beginning of Rudrasena’s reign as the date 176 occurs on the latest
coins of his predecessor. The earliest coins of his son and successor
Viśvasiṃha are dated 198. As Viśvasiṃha’s coins are of bad workmanship
with doubtful legend and date we may take the end of Rudrasena II.’s reign
to be somewhere between 190 and 198 or about 194. This date would give
Rudrasena a reign of about sixteen years, a length of rule supported by the
large number of his coins. The legend reads:

ज्ञो वी ज्ञो से
 राज्ञो क्षत्रपस वीरदामपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनस

Rájño Kshatrapasa Víradámaputrasa Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasenasa.

Of the king the great Kshatrapa Rudrasena son of the king the Kshatrapa
Víradáma.

Kshatrapa XVIII. Viśvasiṃha, a.d. 272–278.Rudrasenawas succeeded by his son

Viśvasiṃha. In style and abundance Viśvasiṃha’s coins are on a par with
his father’s. They are carelessly struck with a bad die and in most the
legend is faulty often omitting the date. Of fifty-six in the Pandit’s
collection only four bear legible dates, one with 198, two with 200, and one
with 201. The date 201 must be of the end of Viśvasiṃha’s reign as a coin
of his brother Bharttṛidáman is dated 200. It may therefore be held that
Viśvasiṃha reigned for the six years ending 200 (a.d. 272–278). The legend
reads:

राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनपुत्रस राज्ञः क्षत्रपस विश्वसिंहस.

Rájño Mahákshatrapasa Rudrasenaputrasa Rájñaḥ Kshatrapasa

Viśvasiṃhasa.

Of the king the Kshatrapa Viśvasiṃha son of the king the great Kshatrapa
Rudrasena.

Chapter V.
Western Kshatrapas, a.d. 70–398.

It is not known whether Viśvasiṃha’s loss of title was due to his being
subordinate to some overlord, or whether during his reign the Kshatrapas
suffered defeat and loss of territory. The probable explanation seems to be
that he began his reign in a subordinate position and afterwards rose to
supreme rule.

Kshatrapa XIX. Bharttṛidáman, a.d. 278–294.Viśvasiṃha was succeeded by his

brother Bharttṛidáman.87 His coins which are found in large numbers are in