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Applied Numerical Methods
with MATLAB® for Engineers and Scientists
Fourth Edition

Steven C. Chapra
Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering
Tufts University
APPLIED NUMERICAL METHODS WITH MATLAB® FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS,
FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2012, 2008, and
2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not
limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chapra, Steven C., author.
Applied numerical methods with MATLAB for engineers and scientists /
Steven C. Chapra, Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering, Tufts University.
Fourth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
LCCN 2016038044 | ISBN 9780073397962 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0073397962 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Numerical analysis—Data processing—Textbooks. | Engineering
mathematics—Textbooks. | MATLAB—Textbooks.
LCC QA297 .C4185 2018 | DDC 518—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038044
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
To
My brothers,
John and Bob Chapra

and

Fred Berger (1947–2015)

who I miss as a good friend, a good man.
and a comrade in bringing the light of engineering
to some of world’s darker corners.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Steve Chapra teaches in the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department at Tufts
University, where he holds the Louis Berger Chair in Computing and Engineering. His other
books include Numerical Methods for Engineers and Surface Water-Quality Modeling.
Steve received engineering degrees from Manhattan College and the University of
Michigan. Before joining the faculty at Tufts, he worked for the Environmental Protection
Agency and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and taught at Texas
A&M University and the University of Colorado. His general research interests focus on
surface water-quality modeling and advanced computer applications in environmental
engineering.
He has received a number of awards for his scholarly contributions, including the
Rudolph Hering Medal, the Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award, and the Chandler-
Misener Award. He has also been recognized as the outstanding teacher at Texas A&M
University (1986 Tenneco Award), the University of Colorado (1992 Hutchinson Award),
and Tufts University (2011 Professor of the Year Award).
Steve was originally drawn to environmental engineering and science because of his
love of the outdoors. He is an avid fly fisherman and hiker. An unapologetic nerd, his love
affair with computing began when he was first introduced to Fortran programming as an
undergraduate in 1966. Today, he feels truly blessed to be able to meld his love of math-
ematics, science, and computing with his passion for the natural environment. In addition,
he gets the bonus of sharing it with others through his teaching and writing!
Beyond his professional interests, he enjoys art, music (especially classical music,
jazz, and bluegrass), and reading history. Despite unfounded rumors to the contrary, he
never has, and never will, voluntarily bungee jump or sky dive.
If you would like to contact Steve, or learn more about him, visit his home page at
http://engineering.tufts.edu/cee/people/chapra/ or e-mail him at steven.chapra@tufts.edu.

iv
 CONTENTS

About the Author iv

Preface xiv

Part One Modeling, Computers, and Error Analysis 1

1.1 Motivation 1
1.2 Part Organization 2

CHAPTER 1
Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Methods,
and Problem Solving 4
1.1 A Simple Mathematical Model 5
1.2 Conservation Laws in Engineering and Science 12
1.3 Numerical Methods Covered in This Book 13
1.4 Case Study: It’s a Real Drag 17
Problems 20

CHAPTER 2
MATLAB Fundamentals 27
2.1 The MATLAB Environment 28
2.2 Assignment 29
2.3 Mathematical Operations 36
2.4 Use of Built-In Functions 39
2.5 Graphics 42
2.6 Other Resources 46
2.7 Case Study: Exploratory Data Analysis 46
Problems 49

CHAPTER 3
Programming with MATLAB 53
3.1 M-Files 54
3.2 Input-Output 61
v
vi CONTENTS

3.3 Structured Programming 65

3.4 Nesting and Indentation 79
3.5 Passing Functions to M-Files 81
3.6 Case Study: Bungee Jumper Velocity 87
Problems 91

CHAPTER 4
Roundoff and Truncation Errors 99
4.1 Errors 100
4.2 Roundoff Errors 106
4.3 Truncation Errors 114
4.4 Total Numerical Error 125
4.5 Blunders, Model Errors, and Data Uncertainty 130
Problems 131

Part Two Roots and Optimization 135

2.1 Overview 135
2.2 Part Organization 136

CHAPTER 5
Roots: Bracketing Methods 138
5.1 Roots in Engineering and Science 139
5.2 Graphical Methods 140
5.3 Bracketing Methods and Initial Guesses 141
5.4 Bisection 146
5.5 False Position 152
5.6 Case Study: Greenhouse Gases and Rainwater 156
Problems 159

CHAPTER 6
Roots: Open Methods 164
6.1 Simple Fixed-Point Iteration 165
6.2 Newton-Raphson 169
6.3 Secant Methods 174
6.4 Brent’s Method 176
6.5 MATLAB Function: fzero 181
6.6 Polynomials 183
6.7 Case Study: Pipe Friction 186
Problems 191
 CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER 7
Optimization 198
7.1 Introduction and Background 199
7.2 One-Dimensional Optimization 202
7.3 Multidimensional Optimization 211
7.4 Case Study: Equilibrium and Minimum Potential Energy 213
Problems 215

Part Three Linear Systems 223

3.1 Overview 223
3.2 Part Organization 225

CHAPTER 8
Linear Algebraic Equations and Matrices 227
8.1 Matrix Algebra Overview 229
8.2 Solving Linear Algebraic Equations with MATLAB 238
8.3 Case Study: Currents and Voltages in Circuits 240
Problems 244

CHAPTER 9
Gauss Elimination 248
9.1 Solving Small Numbers of Equations 249
9.2 Naive Gauss Elimination 254
9.3 Pivoting 261
9.4 Tridiagonal Systems 264
9.5 Case Study: Model of a Heated Rod 266
Problems 270

CHAPTER 10
LU Factorization 274
10.1 Overview of LU Factorization 275
10.2 Gauss Elimination as LU Factorization 276
10.3 Cholesky Factorization 283
10.4 MATLAB Left Division 286
Problems 287
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11
Matrix Inverse and Condition 288
11.1 The Matrix Inverse 288
11.2 Error Analysis and System Condition 292
11.3 Case Study: Indoor Air Pollution 297
Problems 300

CHAPTER 12
Iterative Methods 305
12.1 Linear Systems: Gauss-Seidel 305
12.2 Nonlinear Systems 312
12.3 Case Study: Chemical Reactions 320
Problems 323

CHAPTER 13
Eigenvalues 326
13.1 Mathematical Background 328
13.2 Physical Background 331
13.3 The Power Method 333
13.4 MATLAB Function: eig 336
13.5 Case Study: Eigenvalues and Earthquakes 337
Problems 340

Part Four Curve Fitting 343

4.1 Overview 343
4.2 Part Organization 345

CHAPTER 14
Linear Regression 346
14.1 Statistics Review 348
14.2 Random Numbers and Simulation 353
14.3 Linear Least-Squares Regression 358
14.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Relationships 366
14.5 Computer Applications 370
14.6 Case Study: Enzyme Kinetics 373
Problems 378
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 15
General Linear Least-Squares and Nonlinear Regression 385
15.1 Polynomial Regression 385
15.2 Multiple Linear Regression 389
15.3 General Linear Least Squares 391
15.4 QR Factorization and the Backslash Operator 394
15.5 Nonlinear Regression 395
15.6 Case Study: Fitting Experimental Data 397
Problems 399

CHAPTER 16
Fourier Analysis 404
16.1 Curve Fitting with Sinusoidal Functions 405
16.2 Continuous Fourier Series 411
16.3 Frequency and Time Domains 414
16.4 Fourier Integral and Transform 415
16.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 418
16.6 The Power Spectrum 423
16.7 Case Study: Sunspots 425
Problems 426

CHAPTER 17
Polynomial Interpolation 429
17.1 Introduction to Interpolation 430
17.2 Newton Interpolating Polynomial 433
17.3 Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial 441
17.4 Inverse Interpolation 444
17.5 Extrapolation and Oscillations 445
Problems 449

CHAPTER 18
Splines and Piecewise Interpolation 453
18.1 Introduction to Splines 453
18.2 Linear Splines 455
18.3 Quadratic Splines 459
18.4 Cubic Splines 462
18.5 Piecewise Interpolation in MATLAB 468
18.6 Multidimensional Interpolation 473
18.7 Case Study: Heat Transfer 476
Problems 480
x CONTENTS

Part Five Integration and Differentiation 485

5.1 Overview 485
5.2 Part Organization 486

CHAPTER 19
Numerical Integration Formulas 488
19.1 Introduction and Background 489
19.2 Newton-Cotes Formulas 492
19.3 The Trapezoidal Rule 494
19.4 Simpson’s Rules 501
19.5 Higher-Order Newton-Cotes Formulas 507
19.6 Integration with Unequal Segments 508
19.7 Open Methods 512
19.8 Multiple Integrals 512
19.9 Case Study: Computing Work with Numerical Integration 515
Problems 518

CHAPTER 20
Numerical Integration of Functions 524
20.1 Introduction 524
20.2 Romberg Integration 525
20.3 Gauss Quadrature 530
20.4 Adaptive Quadrature 537
20.5 Case Study: Root-Mean-Square Current 540
Problems 544

CHAPTER 21
Numerical Differentiation 548
21.1 Introduction and Background 549
21.2 High-Accuracy Differentiation Formulas 552
21.3 Richardson Extrapolation 555
21.4 Derivatives of Unequally Spaced Data 557
21.5 Derivatives and Integrals for Data with Errors 558
21.6 Partial Derivatives 559
21.7 Numerical Differentiation with MATLAB 560
21.8 Case Study: Visualizing Fields 565
Problems 567
 CONTENTS xi

Part six Ordinary Differential Equations 573

6.1 Overview 573
6.2 Part Organization 577

CHAPTER 22
Initial-Value Problems 579
22.1 Overview 581
22.2 Euler’s Method 581
22.3 Improvements of Euler’s Method 587
22.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 593
22.5 Systems of Equations 598
22.6 Case Study: Predator-Prey Models and Chaos 604
Problems 609

CHAPTER 23
Adaptive Methods and Stiff Systems 615
23.1 Adaptive Runge-Kutta Methods 615
23.2 Multistep Methods 624
23.3 Stiffness 628
23.4 MATLAB Application: Bungee Jumper with Cord 634
23.5 Case Study: Pliny’s Intermittent Fountain 635
Problems 640

CHAPTER 24
Boundary-Value Problems 646
24.1 Introduction and Background 647
24.2 The Shooting Method 651
24.3 Finite-Difference Methods 658
24.4 MATLAB Function: bvp4c 665
Problems 668

APPENDIX A: MATLAB BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS 674

APPENDIX B: MATLAB M-FILE FUNCTIONS 676
APPENDIX C: INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK 677
BIBLIOGRAPHY 685
INDEX 687
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 PREFACE

This book is designed to support a one-semester course in numerical methods. It has been
written for students who want to learn and apply numerical methods in order to solve prob-
lems in engineering and science. As such, the methods are motivated by problems rather
than by mathematics. That said, sufficient theory is provided so that students come away
with insight into the techniques and their shortcomings.
MATLAB® provides a great environment for such a course. Although other en-
vironments (e.g., Excel/VBA, Mathcad) or languages (e.g., Fortran 90, C++) could
have been chosen, MATLAB presently offers a nice combination of handy program-
ming features with powerful built-in numerical capabilities. On the one hand, its
M-file programming environment allows students to implement moderately compli-
cated algorithms in a structured and coherent fashion. On the other hand, its built-in,
numerical capabilities empower students to solve more difficult problems without try-
ing to “reinvent the wheel.”
The basic content, organization, and pedagogy of the third edition are essentially pre-
served in the fourth edition. In particular, the conversational writing style is intentionally
maintained in order to make the book easier to read. This book tries to speak directly to the
reader and is designed in part to be a tool for self-teaching.
That said, this edition differs from the past edition in three major ways: (1) new
material, (2) new and revised homework problems, and (3) an appendix introducing
Simulink.
1. New Content. I have included new and enhanced sections on a number of topics. The
primary additions include material on some MATLAB functions not included in previ-
ous editions (e.g., fsolve, integrate, bvp4c), some new applications of Monte Carlo
for problems such as integration and optimization, and MATLAB’s new way to pass
parameters to function functions.
2. New Homework Problems. Most of the end-of-chapter problems have been modified,
and a variety of new problems have been added. In particular, an effort has been made
to include several new problems for each chapter that are more challenging and dif-
ficult than the problems in the previous edition.
3. I have developed a short primer on Simulink which I have my students read prior to
covering that topic. Although I recognize that some professors may not choose to
cover Simulink, I included it as a teaching aid for those that do.
xiv
PREFACE xv

Aside from the new material and problems, the fourth edition is very similar to the
third. In particular, I have endeavored to maintain most of the features contributing to its
pedagogical effectiveness including extensive use of worked examples and engineering and
scientific applications. As with the previous edition, I have made a concerted effort to make
this book as “student-friendly” as possible. Thus, I’ve tried to keep my explanations straight-
forward and practical.
Although my primary intent is to empower students by providing them with a sound
introduction to numerical problem solving, I have the ancillary objective of making this
introduction exciting and pleasurable. I believe that motivated students who enjoy engi-
neering and science, problem solving, mathematics—and yes—programming, will ulti-
mately make better professionals. If my book fosters enthusiasm and appreciation for these
subjects, I will consider the effort a success.

Acknowledgments. Several members of the McGraw-Hill team have contributed to

this project. Special thanks are due to Jolynn Kilburg, Thomas Scaife, Ph.D., Chelsea
Haupt, Ph.D., and Jeni McAtee for their encouragement, support, and direction.
During the course of this project, the folks at The MathWorks, Inc., have truly dem-
onstrated their overall excellence as well as their strong commitment to engineering and
science education. In particular, Naomi Fernandes of The MathWorks, Inc., Book Program
has been especially helpful and Jared Wasserman of the MathWorks Technical Support
Department was of great help with technical questions.
The generosity of the Berger family has provided me with the opportunity to work on
creative projects such as this book dealing with computing and engineering. In addition,
my colleagues in the School of Engineering at Tufts, notably Masoud Sanayei, Babak
Moaveni, Luis Dorfmann, Rob White, Linda Abriola, and Laurie Baise, have been very
supportive and helpful.
Significant suggestions were also given by a number of colleagues. In particular, Dave
Clough (University of Colorado–Boulder), and Mike Gustafson (Duke University) pro-
vided valuable ideas and suggestions. In addition, a number of reviewers provided use-
ful feedback and advice including Karen Dow Ambtman (University of Alberta), Jalal
Behzadi (Shahid Chamran University), Eric Cochran (Iowa State University), Frederic
Gibou (University of California at Santa Barbara), Jane Grande-Allen (Rice University),
Raphael Haftka (University of Florida), Scott Hendricks (Virginia Tech University), Ming
Huang (University of San Diego), Oleg Igoshin (Rice University), David Jack (Baylor Uni-
versity), Se Won Lee (Sungkyunkwan University), Clare McCabe (Vanderbilt University),
Eckart Meiburg (University of California at Santa Barbara), Luis Ricardez (University of
Waterloo), James Rottman (University of California, San Diego), Bingjing Su (University
of Cincinnati), Chin-An Tan (Wayne State University), Joseph Tipton (The University
of Evansville), Marion W. Vance (Arizona State University), Jonathan Vande Geest
(University of Arizona), Leah J. Walker (Arkansas State University), Qiang Hu (University
of Alabama, Huntsville), Yukinobu Tanimoto (Tufts University), Henning T. Søgaard
(Aarhus University), and Jimmy Feng (University of British Columbia).
It should be stressed that although I received useful advice from the aforementioned
individuals, I am responsible for any inaccuracies or mistakes you may find in this book.
Please contact me via e-mail if you should detect any errors.
xvi PREFACE

Finally, I want to thank my family, and in particular my wife, Cynthia, for the love,
patience, and support they have provided through the time I’ve spent on this project.

Steven C. Chapra
Tufts University

Medford, Massachusetts
steven.chapra@tufts.edu

PEDAGOGICAL TOOLS

Theory Presented as It Informs Key Concepts. The text is intended for Numerical
Methods users, not developers. Therefore, theory is not included for “theory’s sake,” for ex-
ample no proofs. Theory is included as it informs key concepts such as the Taylor series, con-
vergence, condition, etc. Hence, the student is shown how the theory connects with practical
issues in problem solving.

Introductory MATLAB Material. The text includes two introductory chapters on how to
use MATLAB. Chapter 2 shows students how to perform computations and create graphs
in MATLAB’s standard command mode. Chapter 3 provides a primer on developing
numerical programs via MATLAB M-file functions. Thus, the text provides students with
the means to develop their own numerical algorithms as well as to tap into MATLAB’s
powerful built-in routines.

Algorithms Presented Using MATLAB M-files. Instead of using pseudocode, this book
presents algorithms as well-structured MATLAB M-files. Aside from being useful com-
puter programs, these provide students with models for their own M-files that they will
develop as homework exercises.

Worked Examples and Case Studies. Extensive worked examples are laid out in detail
so that students can clearly follow the steps in each numerical computation. The case stud-
ies consist of engineering and science applications which are more complex and richer than
the worked examples. They are placed at the ends of selected chapters with the intention
of (1) illustrating the nuances of the methods and (2) showing more realistically how the
methods along with MATLAB are applied for problem solving.

Problem Sets. The text includes a wide variety of problems. Many are drawn from en-
gineering and scientific disciplines. Others are used to illustrate numerical techniques and
theoretical concepts. Problems include those that can be solved with a pocket calculator as
well as others that require computer solution with MATLAB.

Useful Appendices and Indexes. Appendix A contains MATLAB commands, Appendix

B contains M-file functions, and new Appendix C contains a brief Simulink primer.

Instructor Resources. Solutions Manual, Lecture PowerPoints, Text images in Power-

Point, M-files and additional MATLAB resources are available through Connect®.
Part One
Modeling, Computers,
and Error Analysis

1.1 MOTIVATION

What are numerical methods and why should you study them?
Numerical methods are techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated
so that they can be solved with arithmetic and logical operations. Because digital comput-
ers excel at performing such operations, numerical methods are sometimes referred to as
computer mathematics.
In the pre–computer era, the time and drudgery of implementing such calculations
seriously limited their practical use. However, with the advent of fast, inexpensive digital
computers, the role of numerical methods in engineering and scientific problem solving
has exploded. Because they figure so prominently in much of our work, I believe that
numerical methods should be a part of every engineer’s and scientist’s basic education.
Just as we all must have solid foundations in the other areas of mathematics and science,
we should also have a fundamental understanding of numerical methods. In particular, we
should have a solid appreciation of both
their capabilities and their limitations.
Beyond contributing to your overall
education, there are several additional
reasons why you should study numerical
methods:
1. Numerical methods greatly expand the
types of problems you can address.
They are capable of handling large sys-
tems of equations, nonlinearities, and
complicated geometries that are not
uncommon in engineering and science
and that are often impossible to solve
analytically with standard calculus. As
such, they greatly enhance your prob-
lem-solving skills.
2. Numerical methods allow you to use
“canned” software with insight. During
1
2 PART 1 MODELING, COMPUTERS, AND ERROR ANALySIS

your career, you will invariably have occasion to use commercially available prepack-
aged computer programs that involve numerical methods. The intelligent use of these
programs is greatly enhanced by an understanding of the basic theory underlying the
methods. In the absence of such understanding, you will be left to treat such packages
as “black boxes” with little critical insight into their inner workings or the validity of
the results they produce.
3. Many problems cannot be approached using canned programs. If you are conversant
with numerical methods, and are adept at computer programming, you can design
your own programs to solve problems without having to buy or commission expensive
software.
4. Numerical methods are an efficient vehicle for learning to use computers. Because nu-
merical methods are expressly designed for computer implementation, they are ideal for
illustrating the computer’s powers and limitations. When you successfully implement
numerical methods on a computer, and then apply them to solve otherwise intractable
problems, you will be provided with a dramatic demonstration of how computers can
serve your professional development. At the same time, you will also learn to acknowl-
edge and control the errors of approximation that are part and parcel of large-scale
numerical calculations.
5. Numerical methods provide a vehicle for you to reinforce your understanding of math-
ematics. Because one function of numerical methods is to reduce higher mathematics
to basic arithmetic operations, they get at the “nuts and bolts” of some otherwise
obscure topics. Enhanced understanding and insight can result from this alternative
perspective.
With these reasons as motivation, we can now set out to understand how numerical
methods and digital computers work in tandem to generate reliable solutions to mathemati-
cal problems. The remainder of this book is devoted to this task.

1.2 PART ORGANIZATION

This book is divided into six parts. The latter five parts focus on the major areas of nu-
merical methods. Although it might be tempting to jump right into this material, Part One
consists of four chapters dealing with essential background material.
Chapter 1 provides a concrete example of how a numerical method can be employed
to solve a real problem. To do this, we develop a mathematical model of a free-falling
bungee jumper. The model, which is based on Newton’s second law, results in an ordinary
differential equation. After first using calculus to develop a closed-form solution, we then
show how a comparable solution can be generated with a simple numerical method. We
end the chapter with an overview of the major areas of numerical methods that we cover in
Parts Two through Six.
Chapters 2 and 3 provide an introduction to the MATLAB® software environment.
Chapter 2 deals with the standard way of operating MATLAB by entering commands one
at a time in the so-called calculator, or command, mode. This interactive mode provides
a straightforward means to orient you to the environment and illustrates how it is used for
common operations such as performing calculations and creating plots.
1.2 PART ORGANIZATION 3

Chapter 3 shows how MATLAB’s programming mode provides a vehicle for assem-
bling individual commands into algorithms. Thus, our intent is to illustrate how MATLAB
serves as a convenient programming environment to develop your own software.
Chapter 4 deals with the important topic of error analysis, which must be understood
for the effective use of numerical methods. The first part of the chapter focuses on the
roundoff errors that result because digital computers cannot represent some quantities
exactly. The latter part addresses truncation errors that arise from using an approximation
in place of an exact mathematical procedure.
 1
Mathematical Modeling,
Numerical Methods,
and Problem Solving

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this chapter is to provide you with a concrete idea of what
numerical methods are and how they relate to engineering and scientific problem
solving. Specific objectives and topics covered are
• Learning how mathematical models can be formulated on the basis of scientific
principles to simulate the behavior of a simple physical system.
• Understanding how numerical methods afford a means to generate solutions in a
manner that can be implemented on a digital computer.
• Understanding the different types of conservation laws that lie beneath the models
used in the various engineering disciplines and appreciating the difference
between steady-state and dynamic solutions of these models.
• Learning about the different types of numerical methods we will cover in this
book.

YOU’VE GOT A PROBLEM

S
uppose that a bungee-jumping company hires you. You’re given the task of
predicting the velocity of a jumper (Fig. 1.1) as a function of time during the
free-fall part of the jump. This information will be used as part of a larger
analysis to determine the length and required strength of the bungee cord for jumpers
of different mass.
You know from your studies of physics that the acceleration should be equal to the ratio
of the force to the mass (Newton’s second law). Based on this insight and your knowledge

4
 1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL 5

Upward force of physics and fluid mechanics, you develop the following mathematical model for the rate
due to air of change of velocity with respect to time,
resistance

___ cd 2
dυ = g − ___
dt mυ

where υ = downward vertical velocity (m/s), t = time (s), g = the acceleration due to
gravity (≅ 9.81 m/s2), cd = a lumped drag coefficient (kg/m), and m = the jumper’s
mass (kg). The drag coefficient is called “lumped” because its magnitude depends on fac-
tors such as the jumper’s area and the fluid density (see Sec. 1.4).
Because this is a differential equation, you know that calculus might be used to obtain
an analytical or exact solution for υ as a function of t. However, in the following pages, we
will illustrate an alternative solution approach. This will involve developing a computer-
oriented numerical or approximate solution.
Aside from showing you how the computer can be used to solve this particular prob-
Downward lem, our more general objective will be to illustrate (a) what numerical methods are and
force due (b) how they figure in engineering and scientific problem solving. In so doing, we will also
to gravity show how mathematical models figure prominently in the way engineers and scientists use
numerical methods in their work.
FIGURE 1.1
Forces acting
on a free-falling
bungee jumper.

1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

A mathematical model can be broadly defined as a formulation or equation that expresses
the essential features of a physical system or process in mathematical terms. In a very gen-
eral sense, it can be represented as a functional relationship of the form

Dependent
variable
=f (
independent
variables
, parameters,
forcing
functions ) (1.1)

where the dependent variable is a characteristic that typically reflects the behavior or state
of the system; the independent variables are usually dimensions, such as time and space,
along which the system’s behavior is being determined; the parameters are reflective of
the system’s properties or composition; and the forcing functions are external influences
acting upon it.
The actual mathematical expression of Eq. (1.1) can range from a simple algebraic
relationship to large complicated sets of differential equations. For example, on the basis
of his observations, Newton formulated his second law of motion, which states that the
time rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on it. The
mathematical expression, or model, of the second law is the well-known equation
F = ma (1.2)

where F is the net force acting on the body (N, or kg m/s2), m is the mass of the object (kg),
and a is its acceleration (m/s2).
6 MATHEMATICAL MODELING, NUMERICAL METHODS, AND PROBLEM SOLVING

The second law can be recast in the format of Eq. (1.1) by merely dividing both sides
by m to give

a = __
F
m (1.3)

where a is the dependent variable reflecting the system’s behavior, F is the forcing func-
tion, and m is a parameter. Note that for this simple case there is no independent variable
because we are not yet predicting how acceleration varies in time or space.
Equation (1.3) has a number of characteristics that are typical of mathematical models
of the physical world.
• It describes a natural process or system in mathematical terms.
• It represents an idealization and simplification of reality. That is, the model ignores
negligible details of the natural process and focuses on its essential manifestations.
Thus, the second law does not include the effects of relativity that are of minimal
importance when applied to objects and forces that interact on or about the earth’s
surface at velocities and on scales visible to humans.
• Finally, it yields reproducible results and, consequently, can be used for predictive
purposes. For example, if the force on an object and its mass are known, Eq. (1.3) can
be used to compute acceleration.
Because of its simple algebraic form, the solution of Eq. (1.2) was obtained easily.
However, other mathematical models of physical phenomena may be much more complex,
and either cannot be solved exactly or require more sophisticated mathematical techniques
than simple algebra for their solution. To illustrate a more complex model of this kind,
Newton’s second law can be used to determine the terminal velocity of a free-falling body
near the earth’s surface. Our falling body will be a bungee jumper (Fig. 1.1). For this case,
a model can be derived by expressing the acceleration as the time rate of change of the
velocity (dυ/dt) and substituting it into Eq. (1.3) to yield

___
dυ = __
F (1.4)
dt m
where υ is velocity (in meters per second). Thus, the rate of change of the velocity is equal
to the net force acting on the body normalized to its mass. If the net force is positive, the
object will accelerate. If it is negative, the object will decelerate. If the net force is zero, the
object’s velocity will remain at a constant level.
Next, we will express the net force in terms of measurable variables and parameters.
For a body falling within the vicinity of the earth, the net force is composed of two
opposing forces: the downward pull of gravity FD and the upward force of air resistance FU
(Fig. 1.1):
F = FD + FU (1.5)

If force in the downward direction is assigned a positive sign, the second law can be
used to formulate the force due to gravity as
FD = mg (1.6)
2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s ).
 1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL 7

Air resistance can be formulated in a variety of ways. Knowledge from the science
of fluid mechanics suggests that a good first approximation would be to assume that it is
proportional to the square of the velocity,

FU = −cd υ2 (1.7)

where cd is a proportionality constant called the lumped drag coefficient (kg/m). Thus, the
greater the fall velocity, the greater the upward force due to air resistance. The parameter
cd accounts for properties of the falling object, such as shape or surface roughness, that af-
fect air resistance. For the present case, cd might be a function of the type of clothing or the
orientation used by the jumper during free fall.
The net force is the difference between the downward and upward force. Therefore,
Eqs. (1.4) through (1.7) can be combined to yield

___ cd 2
dυ = g − ___
mυ (1.8)
dt

Equation (1.8) is a model that relates the acceleration of a falling object to the forces
acting on it. It is a differential equation because it is written in terms of the differential rate
of change (dυ/dt) of the variable that we are interested in predicting. However, in contrast
to the solution of Newton’s second law in Eq. (1.3), the exact solution of Eq. (1.8) for the
velocity of the jumper cannot be obtained using simple algebraic manipulation. Rather,
more advanced techniques such as those of calculus must be applied to obtain an exact or
analytical solution. For example, if the jumper is initially at rest (υ = 0 at t = 0), calculus
can be used to solve Eq. (1.8) for

( )
___ ___
___
gm gcd
___
υ(t) = √ cd tanh √ m t (1.9)

where tanh is the hyperbolic tangent that can be either computed directly1 or via the more
elementary exponential function as in

−x
tanh x = _______
x
e −e (1.10)
ex + e−x

Note that Eq. (1.9) is cast in the general form of Eq. (1.1) where υ(t) is the dependent
variable, t is the independent variable, cd and m are parameters, and g is the forcing function.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Analytical Solution to the Bungee Jumper Problem

Problem Statement. A bungee jumper with a mass of 68.1 kg leaps from a stationary
hot air balloon. Use Eq. (1.9) to compute velocity for the first 12 s of free fall. Also deter-
mine the terminal velocity that will be attained for an infinitely long cord (or alternatively,
the jumpmaster is having a particularly bad day!). Use a drag coefficient of 0.25 kg/m.

1
MATLAB allows direct calculation of the hyperbolic tangent via the built-in function tanh(x).
8 MATHEMATICAL MODELING, NUMERICAL METHODS, AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Solution. Inserting the parameters into Eq. (1.9) yields

_________ _________
υ(t) = √ 9.81(68.1)
_________
0.25 (√
tanh
9.81(0.25)
_________
68.1 )
t = 51.6938 tanh(0.18977t)

which can be used to compute

t, s υ, m/s

0 0
2 18.7292
4 33.1118
6 42.0762
8 46.9575
10 49.4214
12 50.6175
∞ 51.6938

According to the model, the jumper accelerates rapidly (Fig. 1.2). A velocity of
49.4214 m/s (about 110 mi/hr) is attained after 10 s. Note also that after a sufficiently

FIGURE 1.2
The analytical solution for the bungee jumper problem as computed in Example 1.1. Velocity
increases with time and asymptotically approaches a terminal velocity.

60

Terminal velocity

40
υ, m/s

20

0
0 4 8 12
t, s
1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL 9

long time, a constant velocity, called the terminal velocity, of 51.6983 m/s (115.6 mi/hr)
is reached. This velocity is constant because, eventually, the force of gravity will be in
balance with the air resistance. Thus, the net force is zero and acceleration has ceased.

Equation (1.9) is called an analytical or closed-form solution because it exactly satis-

fies the original differential equation. Unfortunately, there are many mathematical models
that cannot be solved exactly. In many of these cases, the only alternative is to develop a
numerical solution that approximates the exact solution.
Numerical methods are those in which the mathematical problem is reformulated so it
can be solved by arithmetic operations. This can be illustrated for Eq. (1.8) by realizing that
the time rate of change of velocity can be approximated by (Fig. 1.3):

___
dυ ≅ ___ υ(ti+1) − υ(ti )
Δυ = ___________ (1.11)
dt Δt ti+1 − ti

where Δυ and Δt are differences in velocity and time computed over finite intervals,
υ(ti) is velocity at an initial time ti, and υ(ti+1) is velocity at some later time ti+1. Note that
dυ/dt ≅ Δυ/Δt is approximate because Δt is finite. Remember from calculus that
___
dυ = lim ___
Δυ
dt Δt→0 Δt
Equation (1.11) represents the reverse process.

FIGURE 1.3
The use of a finite difference to approximate the first derivative of υ with respect to t.

υ(ti+1)

True slope
dυ/dt
∆υ

Approximate slope
υ(ti ) ∆υ = υ(ti+1) − υ(ti)
∆t ti+1 − ti

ti ti+1 t

∆t
10 MATHEMATICAL MODELING, NUMERICAL METHODS, AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Equation (1.11) is called a finite-difference approximation of the derivative at time ti.

It can be substituted into Eq. (1.8) to give

υ(ti+1) − υ(ti )
___________ cd
___ 2
ti+1 − ti = g − m υ(ti )

This equation can then be rearranged to yield

[ cd
υ(ti+1) = υ(ti ) + g − ___ 2
]
m υ(ti ) (ti+1 − ti ) (1.12)

Notice that the term in brackets is the right-hand side of the differential equation itself
[Eq. (1.8)]. That is, it provides a means to compute the rate of change or slope of υ. Thus,
the equation can be rewritten more concisely as

dυ
υi+1 = υi + ___i Δt (1.13)
dt

where the nomenclature υi designates velocity at time ti, and Δt = ti+1 − ti.
We can now see that the differential equation has been transformed into an equation that
can be used to determine the velocity algebraically at ti+1 using the slope and previous values
of υ and t. If you are given an initial value for velocity at some time ti, you can easily compute
velocity at a later time ti+1. This new value of velocity at ti+1 can in turn be employed to extend
the computation to velocity at ti+2 and so on. Thus at any time along the way,

New value = old value + slope × step size

This approach is formally called Euler’s method. We’ll discuss it in more detail when we
turn to differential equations later in this book.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Numerical Solution to the Bungee Jumper Problem

Problem Statement. Perform the same computation as in Example 1.1 but use Eq. (1.12)
to compute velocity with Euler’s method. Employ a step size of 2 s for the calculation.

Solution. At the start of the computation (t0 = 0), the velocity of the jumper is zero.
Using this information and the parameter values from Example 1.1, Eq. (1.12) can be used
to compute velocity at t1 = 2 s:

[
υ = 0 + 9.81 − ____
68.1
2
]
0.25 (0) × 2 = 19.62 m/s

For the next interval (from t = 2 to 4 s), the computation is repeated, with the result

[ ]
0.25 (19.62)2 × 2 = 36.4137 m/s
υ = 19.62 + 9.81 − ____
68.1
1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL 11

60

Terminal velocity

Approximate,
40 numerical solution
υ, m/s

Exact, analytical
solution
20

0
0 4 8 12
t, s

FIGURE 1.4
Comparison of the numerical and analytical solutions for the bungee jumper problem.

The calculation is continued in a similar fashion to obtain additional values:

t, s υ, m/s

0 0
2 19.6200
4 36.4137
6 46.2983
8 50.1802
10 51.3123
12 51.6008
∞ 51.6938

The results are plotted in Fig. 1.4 along with the exact solution. We can see that the numeri-
cal method captures the essential features of the exact solution. However, because we have
employed straight-line segments to approximate a continuously curving function, there is
some discrepancy between the two results. One way to minimize such discrepancies is to
use a smaller step size. For example, applying Eq. (1.12) at 1-s intervals results in a smaller
error, as the straight-line segments track closer to the true solution. Using hand calcula-
tions, the effort associated with using smaller and smaller step sizes would make such
numerical solutions impractical. However, with the aid of the computer, large numbers of
calculations can be performed easily. Thus, you can accurately model the velocity of the
jumper without having to solve the differential equation exactly.
12 MATHEMATICAL MODELING, NUMERICAL METHODS, AND PROBLEM SOLVING

As in Example 1.2, a computational price must be paid for a more accurate numeri-
cal result. Each halving of the step size to attain more accuracy leads to a doubling of the
number of computations. Thus, we see that there is a trade-off between accuracy and com-
putational effort. Such trade-offs figure prominently in numerical methods and constitute
an important theme of this book.

1.2 CONSERVATION LAWS IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE

Aside from Newton’s second law, there are other major organizing principles in science
and engineering. Among the most important of these are the conservation laws. Although
they form the basis for a variety of complicated and powerful mathematical models, the
great conservation laws of science and engineering are conceptually easy to understand.
They all boil down to
Change = increases − decreases (1.14)
This is precisely the format that we employed when using Newton’s law to develop a force
balance for the bungee jumper [Eq. (1.8)].
Although simple, Eq. (1.14) embodies one of the most fundamental ways in which
conservation laws are used in engineering and science—that is, to predict changes
with respect to time. We will give it a special name—the time-variable (or transient)
computation.
Aside from predicting changes, another way in which conservation laws are applied is
for cases where change is nonexistent. If change is zero, Eq. (1.14) becomes
Change = 0 = increases − decreases
or
Increases = decreases (1.15)
Thus, if no change occurs, the increases and decreases must be in balance. This case, which
is also given a special name—the steady-state calculation—has many applications in engi-
neering and science. For example, for steady-state incompressible fluid flow in pipes, the
flow into a junction must be balanced by flow going out, as in
Flow in = flow out
For the junction in Fig. 1.5, the balance that can be used to compute that the flow out of the
fourth pipe must be 60.
For the bungee jumper, the steady-state condition would correspond to the case where
the net force was zero or [Eq. (1.8) with dυ/dt = 0]
mg = cd υ2 (1.16)
Thus, at steady state, the downward and upward forces are in balance and Eq. (1.16) can
be solved for the terminal velocity
___

√___
gm
υ= c d

Although Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15) might appear trivially simple, they embody the two funda-
mental ways that conservation laws are employed in engineering and science. As such, they
will form an important part of our efforts in subsequent chapters to illustrate the connection
between numerical methods and engineering and science.
 1.3 NUMERICAL METHODS COVERED IN THIS BOOK 13

Pipe 2
Flow in = 80

Pipe 1 Pipe 4
Flow in = 100 Flow out = ?

Pipe 3
Flow out = 120

FIGURE 1.5
A flow balance for steady incompressible fluid flow at the junction of pipes.

Table 1.1 summarizes some models and associated conservation laws that figure
prominently in engineering. Many chemical engineering problems involve mass balances
for reactors. The mass balance is derived from the conservation of mass. It specifies that
the change of mass of a chemical in the reactor depends on the amount of mass flowing in
minus the mass flowing out.
Civil and mechanical engineers often focus on models developed from the conserva-
tion of momentum. For civil engineering, force balances are utilized to analyze structures
such as the simple truss in Table 1.1. The same principles are employed for the mechanical
engineering case studies to analyze the transient up-and-down motion or vibrations of an
automobile.
Finally, electrical engineering studies employ both current and energy balances to model
electric circuits. The current balance, which results from the conservation of charge, is simi-
lar in spirit to the flow balance depicted in Fig. 1.5. Just as flow must balance at the junction
of pipes, electric current must balance at the junction of electric wires. The energy balance
specifies that the changes of voltage around any loop of the circuit must add up to zero.
It should be noted that there are many other branches of engineering beyond chemical,
civil, electrical, and mechanical. Many of these are related to the Big Four. For example, chem-
ical engineering skills are used extensively in areas such as environmental, petroleum, and bio-
medical engineering. Similarly, aerospace engineering has much in common with mechanical
engineering. I will endeavor to include examples from these areas in the coming pages.

1.3 NUMERICAL METHODS COVERED IN THIS BOOK

Euler’s method was chosen for this introductory chapter because it is typical of many
other classes of numerical methods. In essence, most consist of recasting mathematical
operations into the simple kind of algebraic and logical operations compatible with digital
computers. Figure 1.6 summarizes the major areas covered in this text.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 10 Roscoe, ‘Bahima,’ in Jour. Anthr. Inst. xxxvii. 101.

11 Felkin, ‘Notes on the For Tribe,’ in Proceed. Roy. Soc.

Edinburgh, xiii. 218.

12 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 33.

13 Curr, The Australian Race, i. 81. Brough Smyth, op. cit. i.

xxxv.

14 Macgillivray, Voyage of Rattlesnake, ii. 10.

15 von Kotzebue, Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea, iii.

249, note. Cook, quoted by Buckle, Miscellaneous and
Posthumous Works, iii. 355.

16 Torday and Joyce, ‘Ethnography of the Ba-Huana,’ in Jour.

Anthr. Inst. xxxvi. 279.

17 Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 173.

18 von Kittlitz, Reise nach dem russischen Amerika, &c. ii. 103
sq.

19 Low, Sarawak, p. 266.

Among various peoples certain foods are forbidden to priests or

magicians. The priests of the ancient Egyptians were not allowed to
eat fish,20 nor to meddle with the esculent or potable substances
which were produced out of Egypt;21 and, according to Plutarch,
they so greatly disliked the nature of excrementitious things that
they not only rejected most kinds of pulse, but also the flesh of
sheep and swine, because it produced much superfluity of
nutriment.22 The lamas of Mongolia will touch no meat of goats,
horses, or camels.23 Among the Semang of the Malay Peninsula the
medicine-men will not eat goat or buffalo flesh and but rarely that of
fowl.24 The dairymen of the Todas may drink milk from certain
buffaloes only, and are altogether forbidden to eat chillies.25 These
and similar restraints laid upon priests or wizards are probably
connected with the idea that holiness is a delicate quality which calls
for special precautions.26 Schomburgk states that the conjurers of
the British Guiana Indians partake but seldom of the native hog,
because they consider the eating of it injurious to the efficacy of
their skill.27 And the Ulád Bu ʿAzîz in Morocco believe that if a scribe
or a saint eats wolf’s flesh the charms he writes will have no effect,
and the saliva of the saint will lose its curative power.
20 Herodotus, ii. 37. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 7. Porphyry,
De abstinentia ab esu animalium, iv. 7.

21 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 7.

22 Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 5.

23 Prejevalsky, Mongolia, i. 56.

24 Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, ii.

226.

25 Rivers, Todas, p. 102 sq. For some other instances see

Landtman, Origin of Priesthood, p. 161 sq.

26 Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 391.

27 Schomburgk, ‘Expedition to the Upper Corentyne,’ in Jour.

Roy. Geograph. Soc. London, xv. 30.

There are still other cases in which certain persons are

permanently required to abstain from certain kinds of food. Thus in
the Andaman Islands every man and woman “is prohibited all
through life from eating some one (or more) fish or animal: in most
cases the forbidden dainty is one which in childhood was observed
(or imagined) by the mother to occasion some functional
derangement; when of an age to understand it the circumstance is
explained, and cause and effect being clearly demonstrated, the
individual, in question thence forth considers that particular meat his
yât-tūb, and avoids it carefully. In cases where no evil consequences
have resulted from partaking of any kind of food, the fortunate
person is privileged to select his own yât-tūb, and is, of course,
shrewd enough to decide upon some fish, such as shark or skate,
which is little relished, and to abstain from which consequently
entails no exercise of self-denial.” It is believed that the god Pūluga
would punish severely any person who might be guilty of eating his
yât-tūb, either by causing his skin to peel off, or by turning his hair
white, and flaying him alive.28 In Samoa each man had generally his
god in the shape of some species of animal; and if he ate one of
these divine animals it was supposed that the god avenged the insult
by taking up his abode in the eater’s body and there generating an
animal of the same kind until it caused his death.29 The members of
a totem clan are usually forbidden to eat the particular animal or
plant whose name they bear.30 Thus among the Omaha Indians men
whose totem is the elk believe that if they ate the flesh of the male
elk they would break out in boils and white spots in different parts of
their bodies; and men whose totem is the red corn think that if they
ate red corn they would have running sores all round their mouths.31
Yet, however general, prohibitions of this kind cannot be said to be a
universal characteristic of totemism.32 Sir J. G. Frazer even suggests
that the original custom was perhaps to eat the totem and the latter
custom to abstain from it.33 But this is hardly more than a guess.
28 Man, ‘Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands.’ in Jour.
Anthr. Inst. xii. 354.

29 Turner, Samoa, p. 17 sq.

30 Frazer, Totemism, p. 7 sqq. Idem, Totemism and Exogamy, iv.

6.

31 Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ in Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn. iii. 225,

231. Idem, ‘Siouan Folk-Lore,’ in American Antiquarian, vii. 107.

32 Frazer, Totemism, p. 19. Idem, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 6.

sq.

33 Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 6 sq.

There are, finally, restrictions in eating which refer to the whole

people or tribe. In early society certain things which might serve as
food are often not only universally abstained from, but actually
prohibited by custom or law. The majority of these prohibitions have
reference to animals or animal products, which are naturally more
apt to cause disgust than is vegetable food—probably because our
ancestors in early days, by instinct, subsisted chiefly on a vegetable
diet, and only subsequently acquired a more general taste for animal
nourishment.34 Certain animals excite a feeling of disgust by their
very appearance, and are therefore abstained from. This I take to be
a reason for the aversion to eating reptiles. It is said that snakes are
avoided as food because their flesh is supposed to be as poisonous
as their bite;35 but this explanation is hardly relevant to harmless
reptiles, which are likewise in some cases forbidden food.36 The
abstinence from fish seems generally to have a similar origin, though
some peoples say that they refuse to eat certain species because the
soul of a relative might be in the fish.37 The Navahoes of New
Mexico “must never touch fish, and nothing will induce them to taste
one.”38 The Mongols consider them unclean animals.39 The South
Siberian Kachinzes are said to refrain from them because they
believe that “the evil principle lives in the water and eats fish.”40 The
Káfirs on the North-Western frontier of India “detest fish, though
their rivers abound in them.”41 The same aversion is common in the
South African tribes42 and among most Hamitic peoples of East
Africa;43 when asked for an explanation of it, they say that fish are
akin to snakes. Fish, or at least certain species of fish, were
forbidden to the ancient Syrians;44 and the Hebrews were prohibited
from eating all fish that have not fins and scales.45 It is curious to
note that various peoples who detest fish also abstain from fowl.46
The Navahoes are strictly forbidden to eat the wild turkey with which
their forests abound;47 and the Mongols dislike of fowl is so great
that one of Prejevalsky’s guides nearly turned sick on seeing him eat
boiled duck.48 Some peoples have a great aversion to eggs,49 which
are said to be excrements, and therefore unfit for food.50 There may
be a similar reason for the abstinence from milk among peoples who
have domesticated animals able to supply them with it.51 The
Dravidian aborigines of the hills of Central India, who never use milk,
are expressly said to regard it as an excrement.52 The ancient Caribs
had a horror of eggs and never drank milk.53 The Ashantees are
“forbidden eggs by the fetish, and cannot be persuaded to taste
milk.”54 The Kimbunda in South-Western Africa detest milk, and
consider it inconceivable how a grown-up person can enjoy it; they
believe that the Kilulu, or spirit, would punish him who partook of
it.55 The Dyaks of Borneo, the Javanese, and the Malays abstain
from milk.56 To the Chinese milk and butter are insupportably
odious.57
34 Cf. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote, p. 17.

35 Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, i.

130 (Berembun). Schurtz, op. cit. p. 22.

36 Leviticus, xi. 29 sq. Sayce, Hibbert Lectures on the Religion of

the Ancient Babylonians, p. 83.

37 Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 430, 432.

38 Stephen, ‘Navajo,’ in American Anthropologist, vi. 357.

39 Prejevalsky, op. cit. i. 56.

40 von Strümpell, ‘Der Volksstamm der Katschinzen,’ in Mittheil.

d. Vereins f. Erdkunde zu Leipzig, 1875, p. 23.

41 Fosberry, ‘Some of the Mountain Tribes of the N.W. Frontier of

India,’ in Jour. Ethn. Soc. London, N.S. i. 192.

42 Fritsch, Drei Jahre in Süd-Afrika, p. 338. Shooter, Kafirs of

Natal and the Zulu Country, p. 215 (Zulus). Kropf, Das Volk der
Xosa-Kaffern, p. 102. Campbell, Second Journey in the Interior of
South Africa, ii. 203 (Bechuanas). The Hottentots, however, eat
fish (Fritsch, p. 339).

43 Hildebrandt, ‘Wakamba und ihre Nachbarn,’ in Zeitschr. f.

Ethnol. x. 378. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, i. 155
(Somals, Gallas). Schurtz, op. cit. p. 23.

44 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 15. Plutarch, De superstitione, 10.

45 Leviticus, xi. 10 sqq.

 46 Hildebrandt, in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. x. 378 (Gallas, Wadshagga,
Waikuyu, &c.). Paulitschke, op. cit. i. 153 sqq. (Gallas, Somals).
Burton, Two Trips to Gorilla Land, i. 95 (Somals). Meldon, ‘Bahima
of Ankole,’ in Jour. African Soc. vi. 146; Ashe, Two Kings of
Uganda, p. 303 (Bahima). Kropf, Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern, p.
102. Among the Zulus domestic fowls are eaten by none except
young persons and old (Shooter, op. cit. p. 215). For other
peoples who abstain from fowl, see Bastian, Die deutsche
Expedition an der Loango-Küste, i. 185; Casati, Ten Years in
Equatoria, i. 165 (Monbuttu); Salt, Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 179
(Danakil); Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula, i. 135 (Sabimba), 136 (Orang Muka Kuning); Globus, l.
330 (inhabitants of Hainan); Ehrenreich, quoted by Schurtz, op.
cit. p. 20 (Karaya of Goyaz); von den Steinen, Durch Central-
Brasilien, p. 262 (Yuruna); Cæsar, De bello Gallico, v. 12 (ancient
Britons).

47 Stephen, in American Anthropologist, vi. 357.

48 Prejevalsky, op. cit. i. 56.

49 The Kafirs formerly abstained from eggs (Kropf, op. cit. p.

102). Among the Zulus eggs are eaten by young and old persons
only (Shooter, op. cit. p. 215). The Bahima refuse this kind of food
(Ashe, op. cit. p. 303), and so do generally the Waganda,
especially the women (Felkin, ‘Notes on the Waganda Tribe,’ in
Proceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xiii. 716; Ashe, p. 303). See also
Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen, p. 126 sq.; Schurtz, op. cit.
p. 23 sq.

50 Reichard, ‘Die Wanjamuesi,’ in Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. f.

Erdkunde zu Berlin, xxiv. 321. Hildebrandt, ‘Wakamba und ihre
Nachbarn,’ in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. x. 378.

51 See Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 484.

52 Crooke, Things Indian, p. 92.

53 Du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles, ii. 389.

 54 Bowdich, Mission to Ashantee, p. 319.

55 Magyar, Reisen in Süd-Afrika, i. 303, 321.

56 Low, op. cit. p. 267.

57 Huc, Travels in Tartary, i. 281. Westermarck, op. cit. p. 484.

The meat of certain animals may also be regarded with disgust on

account of their filthy habits or the nasty food on which they live. In
the Warramunga tribe, in Central Australia, there is a general
restriction applying to eagle-hawks, and the reason assigned for it is
that this bird feeds on the bodies of dead natives.58 It seems that
the abstinence from swine’s flesh, at least in part, belongs to the
same group of facts. Various tribes in South Africa hold it in
abomination.59 In some districts of Madagascar, according to Drury,
the eating of pork was accounted a very contemptible thing.60 It is,
or was, abstained from by the Jakuts of Siberia, the Votyaks of the
Government of Vologda,61 and the Lapps.62 The disgust for pork has
likewise been met with in many American tribes. The Koniagas will
eat almost any digestible substance except pork.63 The Navahoes of
New Mexico abominate it “as if they were the devoutest of
Hebrews”;64 it is not forbidden by their religion, but “they say they
will not eat the flesh of the hog simply because the animal is filthy in
its habits, because it is the scavenger of the town.”65 In his
description of the Indians of the South-Eastern States Adair writes:
—“They reckon all those animals to be unclean that are either
carnivorous, or live on nasty food, as hogs, wolves, panthers, foxes,
cats, mice, rats…. When swine were first brought among them, they
deemed it such a horrid abomination in any of their people to eat
that filthy and impure food, that they excluded the criminal from all
religious communion in their circular town-house…. They still affix
vicious and contemptible ideas to the eating of swine’s flesh;
insomuch that Shúkàpa, ‘swine eater,’ is the most opprobrious
epithet that they can use to brand us with; they commonly subjoin
Akang-gàpa, ‘eater of dunghill fowls.’ Both together signify ‘filthy,
helpless animals.’”66 So also those Indians in British Guiana who
have kept aloof from intercourse with the colonists reject pork with
the greatest loathing. Schomburgk tells us that an old Indian
permitted his children to accompany him on a journey only on the
condition that they were never to eat any viands prepared by his
cook, for fear lest pork should have been used in their preparation.
But this objection does not extend to the native hog, which, though
generally abstained from by wizards, is eaten by the laity
indiscriminately, with the exception of women who are pregnant or
who have just given birth to a child.67 This suggests that the
aversion to the domestic pig partly springs from the fact that it is a
foreign animal. Indeed, the Guiana Indians refuse to eat the flesh of
all animals that are not indigenous to their country, but were
introduced from abroad, such as oxen, sheep, and fowls, apparently
on the principle “that any strange and abnormal object is especially
likely to be possessed of a harmful spirit.”68 The Kafirs, also, abstain
from the domestic swine, though they eat the wild hog.69 Some
writers maintain that pork has been prohibited on the ground that it
is prejudicial to health in hot countries;70 but, as we have seen, this
prohibition is found among various northern peoples as well, and it
seems besides that the unwholesomeness of pork in good condition
has been rather assumed than proved. Sir J. G. Frazer, again,
believes that the ancient Egyptians, Semites, and some of the
Greeks abstained from this food not because the pig was looked
upon simply as a filthy and disgusting creature, but because it was
considered to be endowed with high supernatural powers.71 In
Greece the pig was used in purificatory ceremonies.72 Lucian says
that the worshippers of the Syrian goddess abstained from eating
pigs, some because they held them in abomination, others because
they thought them holy.73 The heathen Harranians sacrificed the
swine and ate swine’s flesh once a year.74 According to Greek
writers, the Egyptians abhorred the pig as a foul and loathsome
animal, and to drink its milk was believed to cause leprosy and itchy
eruptions;75 but once a year they sacrificed pigs to the moon and to
Osiris and ate of the flesh of the victims, though at any other time
they would not so much as taste pork.76
58 Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p.
612.

59 Fritsch, Drei Jahre in Süd-Afrika, p. 339. Kropf, op. cit. p. 102

(Kafirs).

60 Drury, Madagascar, p. 143.

61 Latham, Descriptive Ethnology, i. 363.

62 Leem, Beskrivelse over Finmarkens Lapper, p. 501.

63 Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 75.

64 Stephen, in American Anthropologist, vi. 357.

65 Matthews, ‘Study of Ethics among the Lower Races,’ in Jour.

American Folk-Lore, xii. 5.

66 Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 132 sqq.

67 Schomburgk, in Jour. Roy. Geograph. Soc. London, xv. 29 sq.

68 Im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, p. 368. Dr. Schurtz suggests

(op. cit. p. 19 sqq.) that some other peoples, as the Indians of
Brazil, abstain from fowls because they are not indigenous to their
country.

69 Müller, Allgemeine Ethnographie, p. 189.

70 Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor, p. 32. Wiener,

‘Die alttestamentarischen Speiseverbote,’ in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. viii.
103. See also Buckle, Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works, iii.
354 sq.

71 Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 304 sqq. Idem, Pausanias’s

Description of Greece, iv. 137 sq.

72 Ramsay, op. cit. p. 31 sq. Frazer, Pausanias’s Description of

Greece, iii. 277, 593.

73 Lucian, De dea Syria, 54.

 74 Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 290. Cf. Isaiah,
lxv. 4, and lxvi. 3, 17, where this sacrifice is alluded to as a
heathen abomination.

75 Herodotus, ii. 47. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 8. Aelian, De

natura animalium, x. 16.

76 Herodotus, ii. 47. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 8.

Of the abhorrence of cannibalism I shall speak in a separate

chapter, but in this connection it is worth noticing that the eating of
certain animals is regarded with horror or disgust either because
they are supposed to be metamorphosed ancestors77 or on account
of their resemblance to men. Various peoples refrain from monkey’s
flesh;78 and European travellers mention their own instinctive
repugnance to it and their aversion to shooting monkeys.79 The
Indians of Lower California will eat any animal, except men and
monkeys, “the latter because they so much resemble the former.”80
According to an ancient writer quoted by Porphyry, the Egyptian
priests rejected those animals which “verged to a similitude to the
human form.”81 The Kafirs say that elephants are forbidden food
because their intelligence resembles that of men.82
77 Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 430 sqq. St. John, op. cit. i. 186
(Land Dyaks).

78 Shooter, op. cit. p. 215 (Zulus). Schurtz, op. cit. p. 28

(Abyssinians). Skeat and Blagden, op. cit. i. 134 (Orang Sletar). In
the Institutes of Vishnu (li. 3) the eating of apes is particularly
stigmatised.

79 Schurtz, op. cit. p. 28. Infra, on Regard for the Lower

Animals.

80 Bancroft, op. cit. i. 560.

81 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 7.

82 Müller, Ethnographie, p. 189.

 Moreover, intimacy with an animal easily takes away the appetite
for its flesh. Among ourselves, as Mandeville observes, “some people
are not to be persuaded to taste of any creatures they have daily
seen and been acquainted with, whilst they were alive; others
extend their scruple no further than to their own poultry, and refuse
to eat what they fed and took care of themselves; yet all of them will
feed heartily and without remorse on beef, mutton, and fowls, when
they are bought in the market.”83 Among other races we meet with
feelings no less refined. Mencius, the Chinese moralist, said:—“So is
the superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them
alive, he cannot bear to see them die; having heard their dying cries,
he cannot bear to eat their flesh. Therefore he keeps away from his
slaughter house and cook-room.”84 The abstinence from domestic
fowls and their eggs, as also from the tame pig, may occasionally
have sprung from sympathy. Dr. von den Steinen states that the
Brazilian Yuruna cannot be induced to eat any animal which they
have bred themselves, and that they apparently considered it very
immoral when he and his party ate hen-eggs.85 In the sacred books
of India it is represented as a particularly bad action to eat certain
domestic animals, including village pigs and tame cocks; a twice-
born man who does so knowingly will become an outcast.86 Among
the Bechuanas in South Africa dogs and tame cats are not eaten,
though wild cats are.87 The Arabs of Dukkâla in Morocco eat their
neighbours’ cats but not their own. Among the Dinka only such cows
as die naturally or by an accident are used for food; but a dead cow
is never eaten by the bereaved owner himself, who is too much
afflicted at the loss to be able to touch a morsel of the carcase of his
departed beast.88 Herodotus says that the Libyans would not taste
the flesh of the cow, though they ate oxen;89 and the same rule
prevailed among the Egyptians and Phœnicians, who would sooner
have partaken of human flesh than of the meat of a cow.90 The
eating of cow’s flesh is prohibited by the law of Brahmanism.91
According to Dr. Rájendralála Mitra, the idea of beef as an article of
food “is so shocking to the Hindus, that thousands over thousands of
the more orthodox among them never repeat the counterpart of the
word in their vernaculars, and many and dire have been the
sanguinary conflicts which the shedding of the blood of cows has
caused.”92 In China “the slaughter of buffaloes for food is unlawful,
according to the assertions of the people, and the abstaining from
the eating of beef is regarded as very meritorious.”93 It is said in the
‘Divine Panorama’ that he who partakes of beef or dog’s flesh will be
punished by the deity.94 In Japan neither cattle nor sheep were in
former days killed for food;95 and in the rural districts many people
still think it wrong to eat beef.96 In Rome the slaughter of a
labouring ox was in olden days punished with excommunication;97
and at Athens and in Peloponnesus it was prohibited even on penalty
of death.98 Indeed, the ancient idea has survived up to modern
times in Greece, where it has been held as a maxim that the animal
which tills the ground ought not to be used for food.99 These
prohibitions are no doubt to some extent expressions of kindly
feelings towards the animals to which they refer.100 A Dinka is said
to be fonder of his cattle than of his wife and children;101 and
according to classical writers, the ploughing ox is not allowed to be
slaughtered because he is himself an agriculturist, the servant of
Ceres, and a companion to the labourer in his work.102 But at the
same time the restrictions in question are very largely due to
prudential motives. Peoples who live chiefly on the products of their
cattle show a strong disinclination to reduce their herds, especially
by killing cows or calves;103 and agricultural races are naturally
anxious to preserve the animal which is used for work on the field.
With reference to the Egyptian and Phœnician custom of eating bulls
but abstaining from cows, Porphyry observes that “for the sake of
utility in one and the same species of animals distinction is made
between that which is pious and that which is impious,” cows being
spared on account of their progeny.104 Until quite recently in Egypt
no one was allowed to kill a calf, and permission from the
government was required for the slaughter of a bull.105 Moreover,
domestic animals are frequently regarded as sacred in consequence
of their utility, and for that reason also abstained from. The Dinka
pay a kind of reverence to their cattle.106 In Egypt, according to
Herodotus, the cow was sacred to Isis.107 In India she has been the
object of a special worship.108
83 Mandeville, Fable of the Bees, p. 188.

84 Mencius, i. 1. 7. 8.

85 von den Steinen, Durch Central-Brasilien, p. 262. See also

Juan and Ulloa, Voyage to South America, i. 426 (Indians of
Quito).

86 Institutes of Vishnu, li. 3. Laws of Manu, v. 19.

87 Campbell, Second Journey in the Interior of South Africa, ii.

203.

88 Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, i. 163 sq.

89 Herodotus, iv. 186.

90 Ibid. ii. 41. Porphyry, op. cit. ii. 11.

91 Institutes of Vishnu, li. 3.

92 Rájendralála Mitra, Indo-Aryans, i. 354.

93 Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, ii. 187.

94 Giles, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, ii. 376.

95 Reed, Japan, i. 61.

96 Griffis, Mikado’s Empire, p. 472.

97 Pliny, Historia naturalis, viii. 70.

98 Varro, De re rustica, ii. 5. 3. sq. Aelian, Varia historia, v. 14.

99 Mariti, Travels through Cyprus, i. 35.

100 See infra, on Regard for the Lower Animals.

101 Schweinfurth, op. cit. i. 164.

102 Aelian, Varia historia, v. 14. Varro, De re rustica, ii. 5. 3.

103 Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s, p. 86; Kropf, op. cit.

p. 102 (Kafirs). Merker, Die Masai, p. 169. Paulitschke,
Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, i. 153. Ratzel, History of Mankind,
 ii. 411 (pastoral races of Africa). Erman, Reise um die Erde, i. 515
(Kirghiz). Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen, p. 122 sq.
Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 297. Schurtz, op. cit.
p. 30 sq.

104 Porphyry, op. cit. ii. 11.

105 Wilkinson, in Rawlinson’s translation of Herodotus, ii. 72 sq.

n. 7.

106 Schweinfurth, op. cit. i. 163.

107 Herodotus, ii. 41.

108 Barth, Religions of India, p. 264.

Certain foods, then, are generally abjured, not merely because

they excite disgust, or as the case may be, because they have a
disagreeable taste, but also from utilitarian considerations. To the
instances just mentioned may be added the custom prevalent among
the Tonga Islanders of setting a temporary prohibition or taboo on
certain eatables in order to prevent them from growing scarce.109
But the most important prudential motive underlying the general
restrictions in diet is no doubt fear lest the food should have an
injurious effect upon him who partakes of it. The harm caused by it
may only be imaginary; indeed, forbidden food is commonly
regarded as unwholesome, whatever be the original ground on
which it was prohibited.110 The Negroes of the Loango Coast say
that they abstain from goat-flesh because otherwise their skin would
scale off, and from fowl so as not to lose their hair.111 Some tribes of
the Malay Peninsula refuse to eat the flesh of elephants under the
pretext that it would occasion sickness.112 The tribes inhabiting the
hills of Assam think that “the penalty for eating the flesh of a cat is
loss of speech, while those who infringe a special rule forbidding the
flesh of a dog are believed to die of boils.”113 The worshippers of the
Syrian goddess maintained that the eating of sprats or anchovies
would fill the body with ulcers and wither up the liver.114 In Russia
veal is considered by many to be very unwholesome food, and is
entirely rejected by pious people.115 It is not probable that these
ideas are in the first instance derived from experience; but there can
be no doubt that fear of evil consequences is in many cases a
primary motive for the abstinence from a certain kind of food. Mr. Im
Thurn supposes that the Guiana Indian avoids eating the flesh of
various animals because he thinks they are particularly malignant.116
Animals that present some unusual or uncanny peculiarity are
rejected because they are objects of superstitious fear. The Egyptian
priests, we are told, did not eat oxen which were twins or which
were speckled, nor animals that had only one eye.117 The North
American Indians of the South-Eastern States abstained from all
birds of night, believing that if they ate them they would fall ill.118
Another cause of rejecting the flesh of certain animals is the idea
that anybody who partook of it would at the same time acquire
some undesirable quality inherent in the animal.119 The Záparo
Indians of Ecuador “will, unless from necessity, in most cases not eat
any heavy meats such as tapir and peccary, but confine themselves
to birds, monkeys, deer, fish, &c., principally because they argue that
the heavier meats make them also unwieldy, like the animals who
supply the flesh, impeding their agility and unfitting them for the
chase.”120 For a similar reason the ancient Caribs are said to have
refrained from turtles;121 and some North American Indians state
that in former days their greatest chieftains “seldom ate of any
animal of gross quality, or heavy motion of body, fancying it
conveyed a dullness through the whole system, and disabled them
from exerting themselves with proper vigour in their martial, civil,
and religious duties.”122 The Namaquas of South Africa, again,
pretend not to eat the flesh of the hare, because they think it would
make them as faint-hearted as that animal.123 Among the Kafirs only
children may eat hares, whereas the men partake of the flesh of the
leopard in order to get its strength.124 Among some other peoples
the hare is forbidden food,125 possibly owing to a similar
superstition. The blood of an animal is avoided because it is believed
to contain its life or soul. We meet with this custom in several North
American tribes,126 as well as in the Old Testament;127 and from the
Jews it passed into early Christianity.128
109 Mariner, Natives of the Tonga Islands, ii. 233.

110 Cf. Schurtz, op. cit. p. 23.

111 Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, i.

185.

112 Skeat and Blagden, op. cit. i. 132.

113 Hodson, ‘The “Genna” amongst the Tribes of Assam,’ in Jour.

Anthr. Inst. xxxvi. 98.

114 Plutarch, De superstitione, 10.

115 Erman, Reise um die Erde, i. 515.

116 Im Thurn, op. cit. p. 368.

117 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 7.

118 Adair, op. cit. p. 130 sq.

119 See Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 353 sqq.

120 Simson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador, p. 168.

121 Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iii. 384.

122 Adair, op. cit. p. 133.

 123 Hahn, Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 106.

124 Kropf, op. cit. p. 102.

125 Leviticus, xi. 6, 8. Cæsar, De bello Gallico, v. 12 (ancient

Britons). The Chinese have a deep-rooted prejudice against eating
the flesh of the hare, which they have always regarded as an
animal endowed with mysterious properties (Dennis, Folk-Lore of
China, p. 64). With reference to the Biblical prohibition of eating
camel’s flesh, old exegetes observed that the camel is a very
revengeful animal, and that its vindictiveness would be
transferred to him who partook of its meat (Wiener, in Zeitschr. f.
Ethnol. viii. 104); but whether the prohibition in question
originated in such a belief is open to doubt.

126 Adair, op. cit. p. 134. Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 353.

127 Leviticus, iii. 17; vii. 25 sqq.; xvii. 10 sqq.; xix. 26.
Deuteronomy, xii. 16, 23 sqq.; xv. 23.

128 Haberland, ‘Gebräuche und Aberglauben beim Essen,’ in

Zeitschr. f. Völkerpsychologie, xvii. 363 sq.

The general abstinence from certain kinds of food has thus sprung
from a great variety of causes. Of these I have been able to point
out only some of the more general and obvious. As Sir J. G. Frazer
justly remarks, to explain the ultimate reason why any particular
food is prohibited to a whole tribe or to certain of its members would
commonly require a far more intimate knowledge of the history and
beliefs of the tribe than we possess.129 Even explanations given by
the natives themselves may be misleading, since the original motive
for a custom may have been forgotten, while the custom itself is still
preserved. But I think that, broadly speaking, the general avoidance
of a certain food may be traced to one or several of the following
sources: its disagreeable taste; disgust caused, in the case of animal
food, either by the external appearance of the animal, or by its
unclean habits, or by sympathy, or by associations of some kind or
other, or even by the mere fact that it is commonly abstained from;
the disinclination to kill an animal for food, or, generally, to reduce
the supply of a certain kind of victuals; the idea, whether correct or
false, that the food would injure him who partook of it. From what
has been said in previous chapters it is obvious that any of these
factors, if influencing the manners of a whole community and
especially when supported by the force of habit, may lead not only
to actual abstinence but to prohibitory rules the transgression of
which is apt to call forth moral disapproval. This is particularly the
case at the earlier stages of culture, where a people’s tastes and
habits are most uniform, where the sway of custom is most
powerful, where instinctive aversion most readily develops into moral
indignation, and where man in almost every branch of action thinks
he has to be on his guard against supernatural dangers. And in this,
as in other cases of moral concern, the prohibition may easily be
sanctioned by religion, especially when the abstinence is due to fear
of some mysterious force or quality in the thing avoided. The
religious aspect assumed particular prominence in Hebrewism and
Brahmanism. It is said in the ‘Institutes of Vishnu’ that the eating of
pure food is more essential than all external means of purification;
“he who eats pure food only is truly pure, not he who is only purified
with earth and water.”130 The Koran forbids the eating of “what is
dead, and blood, and flesh of swine, and whatsoever has been
consecrated to other than God.”131 Mediæval Christianity prohibited
the eating of various animals, especially horses, which were not used
as food in the South of Europe, but which the pagan Teutons
sacrificed and ate at their religious feasts.132 The idea that it is
“unchristian” to eat horseflesh has survived even to the present day,
and has, together with the aversion to feeding on a pet animal, been
responsible for the loss of enormous quantities of nourishing food.
Among ourselves the only eatable thing the partaking of which is
generally condemned as immoral is human flesh. But there are a
considerable number of people who think that we ought to abstain
from all animal meat, not only for sanitary reasons, but because man
is held to have no right to subject any living being to suffering and
death for the purpose of gratifying his appetite.
129 Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 391 sq.
 130 Institutes of Vishnu, xxii. 89.

131 Koran, ii. 168.

132 Langkavel, ‘Pferde und Naturvölker,’ in Internationales Archiv

für Ethnographie, i. 53. Schurtz, op. cit. p. 32 sq. Maurer, Die
Bekehrung des Norwegischen Stammes zum Christenthume, ii.
198.

On similar grounds vegetarianism has been advocated as a moral

duty among Eastern races, as also in classical antiquity. The regard
for life in general, which is characteristic of Taouism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Brahmanism,133 led to the condemnation of the use of
animals as food. It is a very common feeling among the Chinese of
all classes that the eating of flesh is sensual and sinful, or at least
quite incompatible with the highest degree of sincerity and purity.134
In Japan many persons abstain from meat, owing to Buddhistic
influence.135 In India animal food was not avoided in early times;
the epic characters shoot deer and eat cows.136 Even in the sacred
law-books the eating of meat is permitted in certain circumstances:
—“On offering the honey-mixture to a guest, at a sacrifice and at the
rites in honour of the manes, but on these occasions only, may an
animal be slain.”137 Nay, some particular animals are expressly
declared eatable.138 The total abstinence from meat is in fact
represented as something meritorious rather than as a strict duty;139
it is said that “by avoiding the use of flesh one gains a greater
reward than by subsisting on pure fruit and roots, and by eating
food fit for ascetics in the forest.”140 But on the other hand we also
read that “there is no greater sinner than that man who, though not
worshipping the gods or the manes, seeks to increase the bulk of his
own flesh by the flesh of other beings.”141 As a matter of fact, meat
is nowadays commonly, though by no means universally, abstained
from by high caste Hindus, whereas most low caste natives are only
vegetarian when flesh food is not within their reach;142 and we are
told that the views which many Hindus entertain of people who
indulge in such food are not very unlike the opinions which
Europeans have about cannibals.143 The immediate origin of these
restrictions seems obvious enough. They were not introduced—as
has been supposed—either as mere sumptuary measures,144 or
because meat was found to be an aliment too rich and heavy in a
warm climate,145 but they were the natural outcome of a system
which enjoins regard for life in general and kindness towards all
living beings. In the ‘Laws of Manu’ it is expressly said that the use
of meat should be shunned for the reason that “meat can never be
obtained without injury to living creatures, and injury to sentient
beings is detrimental to the attainment of heavenly bliss.”146 That
the prohibition of eating animals resulted from the prohibition of
killing them is also suggested by other facts. If Hindu Pariahs eat the
flesh of animals which have died naturally, it “is not visited upon
them as a crime, but they are considered to be wretches as filthy
and disgusting as their food is revolting.”147 Buddhism allows the
eating of fish and meat if it is pure in three respects, to wit—if one
has not seen, nor heard, nor suspected that it has been procured for
the purpose;148 and among the Buddhists of Burma even the most
strictly religious have no scruples in eating the flesh of an animal
killed by another person, “as then, they consider, the sin of its
destruction does not rest upon them, but on the person who actually
caused it.”149
133 See infra, on Regard for the Lower Animals.

134 Doolittle, op. cit. ii. 183.

135 Chamberlain, Things Japanese, p. 175 sq.

136 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 200.

137 Laws of Manu, v. 41. See also Vasishtha, iv. 5.

138 Institutes of Vishnu, li. 6. Laws of Manu, v. 18.

139 See Jolly, ‘Recht und Sitte,’ in Bühler, Grundriss der indo-
arischen Philologie, ii. 157.

140 Laws of Manu, v. 54. See also ibid. v. 53, 56.

141 Ibid. v. 52.

 142 Kipling, Beast and Man in India, p. 6. Crooke, Things Indian,
p. 228.

143 Percival, Land of the Veda, p. 272.

144 Hopkins, op. cit. p. 200.

145 Dubois, Description of the Character, &c. of the People of

India, p. 120.

146 Laws of Manu, v. 48. See also ibid. v. 45, 49.

147 Dubois, op. cit. p. 121.

148 Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 71, n. 5.

149 Fytche, Burma Past and Present, ii. 78.

Vegetarianism is, further, said to have been practised by the first

and most learned class of the Persian Magi, who, according to
Eubulus, neither slew nor ate anything animated;150 and many of
the Egyptian priests are reported to have abstained entirely from
animal food.151 In ancient legends we are told that the earliest men,
who were pure and free from sin, killed no animal but lived
exclusively on the fruits of the earth.152 In Greece the Pythagoreans
opposed the killing and eating of animals, “as having a right to live
in common with mankind,”153 or in consequence of their theory that
the souls of men after death transmigrate into animals.154 According
to Porphyry, a fleshless diet not only contributes to the health of the
body and to the preservation of the power and purity of the mind,
but is required by justice. Animals, he said, are allied to men, and he
must be considered an impious person who does not abstain from
acting unjustly towards his kindred.155
150 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 16.

151 Ibid. iv. 7.

152 Genesis, i. 29. Bundahis, xv. 6 sqq.; cf. Windischmann,

Zoroastrische Studien, p. 212. Hesiod, Opera et dies, 109 sqq.
Plato, Politicus, p. 272. Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 2.
 153 Diogenes Laertius, Vitæ philosophorum, viii. 1. 12 (13).
Plutarch, De carnium esu oratio I. 1.

154 Seneca, Epistulæ, cviii. 19.

155 Porphyry, op. cit. i. 2; iii. 26 sq.

There still remains a group of restrictions in diet which call for our
consideration, namely, such as refer to the use of intoxicating drinks,
either only prohibiting immoderation or also demanding total
abstinence.
Among a large number of peoples drunkenness is so common that
it can hardly be looked upon as a vice by the community; on the
contrary, it is sometimes an object of pride, or is regarded almost as
a religious duty. An old traveller on the West African Gold Coast says
that the natives teach their children drunkenness at the age of three
or four years, “as if it were a virtue.”156 The Negroes of Accra,
according to Monrad, take a pride in getting drunk, and praise the
happiness of a person who is so intoxicated that he can hardly
walk.157 In ancient Yucatan he who dropped down senseless from
drink in a banquet was allowed to remain where he fell, and was
regarded by his companions with feelings of envy.158 Among the
Pueblo Indians in New Mexico, who are otherwise a sober people,
drunkenness forms a part of their religious festivals.159 So also in the
hill tribes of the Central Provinces of India a large quantity of liquor
is an essential element in their religious rites, and their acts of
worship invariably end in intoxication.160 Of the Ainu in Japan we are
told that “to drink for the god” is their chief act of worship; the more
saké they drink the more devout they are, whereas the gods will be
angry with a person who abstains from the intoxicating drink.161 The
ancient Scandinavians regularly concluded their religious ceremonies
with filling and emptying stoops in honour of their gods; and even
after their conversion to Christianity they were allowed to continue
this practice at the end of their services, with the difference that
they were now required in their toast-drinking to substitute for the
names of their false deities those of the true God and his saints.162
Of the Germans Tacitus states that “to pass an entire day and night
in drinking disgraces no one”;163 and this habit of intoxication the
Anglo-Saxons brought with them to England, where it was nourished
by a damp climate and a marshy soil. In the seventh and eighth
centuries some efforts were made to check drunkenness on the
initiative of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, and Egbert,
archbishop of York, and these exertions were supported by the kings
from a political desire to prevent riots and bloodshed.164 The
Penitentials tell us the tale of universal intemperance more
effectively than any description of it could do. A bishop who was so
drunk as to vomit while administering the holy sacrament was
condemned to eighty or ninety days penance, a presbyter to
seventy, a deacon or monk to sixty, a clerk to forty;165 and if a
person was so intoxicated that, pending the rite, he dropped the
sacred elements into the fire or into a river, he was required to chant
a hundred psalms.166 A bishop or priest who persevered in the habit
of drunkenness was to be degraded from his office;167 whilst single
cases of intoxication, if accompanied by vomiting, incurred penance
for a certain number of days—forty for a presbyter or deacon,168
thirty for a monk,169 fifteen for a layman.170 However, these rules
admitted of exceptions: if anybody in joy and glory of our Saviour’s
natal day, or of Easter, or in honour of any saint, vomited through
being drunk, and in so doing had taken no more than he was
ordered by his elders, it mattered nothing; and if a bishop had
commanded him to be drunk he was likewise innocent, unless
indeed the bishop was in the same state himself.171 If these
attempts to encourage soberness produced any change for the
better, it could only have been temporary; for some time afterwards
intemperance was carried to its greatest excess through the practice
and example of the Danes.172 Under the influence of the Normans,
who were a more temperate race, drunkenness, for a time
decreased in England; but after a few reigns the Saxons seem rather
to have corrupted their conquerors than to have been benefited by
their example.173 As late as the eighteenth century drunkenness was
universal among all classes in England. It was then as uncommon for
a party to separate while any member of it remained sober as it is
now for any one in such a party to degrade himself through
intoxication. No loss of character was incurred by habitual excess.
Men in the position of gentlemen congratulated each other upon the
number of bottles emptied; and it would have been considered a
very frivolous objection to a citizen who aspired to the dignity of
Alderman or Mayor that he was an habitual drunkard.174
156 Bosman, Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 107.

157 Monrad, Skildring af Guinea-Kysten, p. 242.

158 Bancroft, op. cit. ii. 725.

159 Ibid. i. 555.

160 Hislop, Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, p. 1.

Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khondistan, p. 164 sq. (Kandhs).

161 Bird, Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, ii. 68, 96. Cf. Batchelor, Ainu
of Japan, p. 31.

162 Maurer, op. cit. ii. 200. Bartholinus, Antiquitates Danicæ, i. 8,

p. 128 sqq. Mallet, Northern Antiquities, p. 196.

163 Tacitus, Germania, 22.

164 Laws of Hlothhære and Eadric, 12 sq. Thrupp, The Anglo-

Saxon Home, p. 297.

165 Pœnitentiale Pseudo-Theodori, xxvi. 4 (Wasserschleben, Die

Bussordnungen der abendländischen Kirche, p. 594). Pœnitentiale
Egberti, xi. 7 (Wasserschleben, p. 242).

166 Pœnitentiale Pseudo-Theodori, xxvi. 5 (Wasserschleben, op.

cit. p. 594). Pœnitentiale Egberti, xi. 9 (Wasserschleben, p. 242).

167 Pœnitentiale Theodori, i. 1. 1 (Wasserschleben, op. cit. p.

184). Pœnitentiale Egberti, xi. 1 (Wasserschleben, p. 242).

168 Pœnitentiale Theodori, i. 1. 3 (Wasserschleben, op. cit. p.

184). Pœnitentiale Egberti, xi. 3 (Wasserschleben, p. 242).
 169 Pœnitentiale Theodori, i. 1. 2 (Wasserschleben, op. cit. p.
184). Pœnitentiale Egberti, xi. 2 (Wasserschleben, p. 242).

170 Pœnitentiale Theodori, i. 1. 5 (Wasserschleben, op. cit. p.

184).

171 Pœnitentiale Theodori, i. 1. 4 (Wasserschleben, op. cit. p.

184).

172 Thrupp, op. cit. p. 299 sqq.

173 Ibid. p. 301 sq.

174 Porter, Progress of the Nation, p. 239. Pike, History of Crime

in England, ii. 587. Massey, History of England during the Reign of
George III. ii. 60.

Though of late years drunkenness has been decreasing among

those European nations who have been most addicted to it, and is
nowadays generally recognised as a vice, our civilisation is still, as it
has always been, the great source from which the poison of
intoxication is pouring over the earth in all directions, infecting or
killing races who previously knew nothing of alcohol or looked upon
it with abhorrence. Eastern religions have emphatically insisted upon
sobriety or even total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. In the
sacred law-books of Brahmanism thirteen different kinds of alcoholic
drinks are mentioned, all of which are forbidden to Brâhmanas and
three to Kshatriyas and Vaisyas;175 yet, though there be no sin in
drinking spirituous liquor, “abstention brings greater reward.”176 A
twice-born man who drinks the liquor called Surâ commits a mortal
sin, which will be punished both in this life and in the life to come;177
the most proper penalty for such a person is to drink that liquor
boiling-hot, and only when his body has been completely scalded by
it is he freed from his guilt.178 Among the modern Hindus
drunkenness is said to be detested by all but the very lowest castes
in the agricultural districts and some high caste people residing in
the great towns, who have learned it from Europeans; it is supposed
to be destructive of caste purity; hence a notorious drunkard is, or at
least used to be, expelled from his caste.179 Buddhism interdicts
altogether the use of alcohol;180 “of the five crimes, the taking of
life, theft, adultery, lying, and drinking, the last is the worst.”181
Taouism condemns the love of wine.182 In Zoroastrianism the holy
Sraosha is represented as fighting against the demon of
drunkenness,183 and it is said that the sacred beings are not pleased
with him who drinks wine more than moderately;184 but it seems
that the ancient Persians nevertheless were much addicted to
intoxication.185 According to classical writers, some of the Egyptian
priests abstained entirely from wine, whilst others drank very little of
it;186 and before the reign of Psammetichus the kings neither drank
wine, nor made libation of it as a thing acceptable to the gods.187
The use of wine and other inebriating drinks is forbidden by
Islam,188 and was punished by Muhammed with flogging.189 It may
also be said of his followers that they for the most part have obeyed
this command, at least in country districts,190 and that the
exceptions to the rule are directly or indirectly attributable to the
influence of Christians.
175 Institutes of Vishnu, xxii. 82, 84. Gautama, ii. 20. Laws of
Manu, xi. 94 sq.

176 Laws of Manu, v. 56.

177 Ibid. ix. 235, 237; xi. 49, 55; xii. 56.

178 Ibid. xi. 91.

179 Caldwell, Tinnevelly Shanars, p. 38. Dubois, op. cit. p. 116.

Samuelson, History of Drink, p. 46.

180 Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 290. Monier-Williams, Buddhism, p.

126.

181 Hardy, Manual of Budhism, p. 491.

182 Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism, p. 266.

183 Vendîdâd, xix. 41.

184 Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xvi. 62.

 185 Herodotus, i. 133.

186 Porphyry, op. cit. iv. 6. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 6.

187 Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 6.

188 Koran, ii. 216.

189 Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 122.

190 Burton, Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah, ii. 118. Blunt,

Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, ii. 213. Polak, Persien, ii. 268.
Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 298 sq. Pool, Studies in
Mohammedanism, p. 283.

The condemnation of drunkenness is, of course, in the first place

due to its injurious consequences. The Basutos of South Africa say
that “there is blood in the dregs”—that is, intoxication ends in bloody
quarrels.191 The Omaha Indians made drunkenness a crime
punishable with flogging and loss of property, because it often led to
murders.192 Sahagun tells us of a Mexican king who severely
admonished his people to abstain from intoxication, as being the
cause of troubles and disorders in villages and kingdoms, of misery,
sorrow, and poverty.193 Of him who drinks immoderately it is said in
one of the Pahlavi texts that infamy comes to his body and
wickedness to his soul.194 According to Ecclesiasticus, “drunkenness
increaseth the rage of a fool till he offend: it diminisheth strength
and maketh wounds.”195 We read in the Talmud, “Drink not, and you
will not sin.”196 Muhammed said that in wine there is both sin and
profit, but that the sin is greater than the profit.197 Buddhism
stigmatises drinking as the worst of crimes because it leads to all
other sins; from the continued use of intoxicating drink six evil
consequences are said to follow—namely, the loss of wealth; the
arising of disputes that lead to blows and battles; the production of
various diseases, as soreness of the eyes and others; the bringing of
disgrace, from the rebuke of parents and superiors; the exposure to
shame, from going hither and thither unclothed; the loss of the
judgment required for the carrying on of the affairs of the world.198
That drunkenness, in spite of the evils resulting from it, nevertheless
so frequently escapes censure, is due partly to the pleasures
connected with it, partly to lack of foresight,199 and in a large
measure to the influence of intemperate habits. Why such habits
should have grown up in one country and not in another we are
often unable to tell. The climate has no doubt something to do with
it, although it is impossible to agree with the statement made by
Montesquieu that the prevalence of intoxication in different parts of
the earth is proportionate to the coldness and humidity of the air.200
A gloomy temperament and a cheerless life are apt to induce people
to resort to the artificial pleasures produced by drink. The dreariness
of the Puritan Sunday has much to answer for; the evidence given
by a spirit merchant before the Commission on the Forbes Mackenzie
Act was “that there is a great demand for drink on Sunday,” and that
“this demand must be supplied.”201 Ennui was probably a cause of
the prevailing inebriety in Europe in former days, when there was
difficulty in passing the time not occupied in fighting or hunting;202
and the monotony of life in the lower ranks of an industrial
community still tends to produce a similar effect. Other causes of
drunkenness are miserable homes and wretched cooking. Mr. Lecky
is of opinion that if the wives of the poor in Great Britain and Ireland
could cook as they can cook in France and in Holland, a much
smaller proportion of the husbands would seek a refuge in the
public-house.203
191 Casalis, Basutos, p. 307.

192 Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ in Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn. iii. 370.

193 Sahagun, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, ii.

94 sqq.

194 Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xvi. 63.

195 Ecclesiasticus, xxxi. 30.

196 Deutsch, Literary Remains, p. 58.

197 Koran, ii. 216.

198 Hardy, op. cit. p. 491 sq.

 199 Cf. supra, i. 281, 309 sq.

200 Montesquieu, De l’esprit des lois, xiv. 10 (Œuvres, p. 303

sq.).

201 Hessey, Sunday, p. 378.

202 Cf. Spencer, Principles of Ethics, i. 445.

203 Lecky, Democracy and Liberty, ii. 138.

The evil consequences of intoxication have led not only to the

condemnation of an immoderate use of alcoholic drink, but also to
the demand for total abstinence, in consideration of the difficulty
many people have in avoiding excess. But this hardly accounts in full
for the religious prohibition of drink which we meet with in the East.
Wine or spirituous liquor inspires mysterious fear. The abnormal
mental state which it produces suggests the idea that there is
something supernatural in it, that it contains a spirit, or is perhaps
itself a spirit.204 Moreover, the juice of the grape is conceived as the
blood of the vine205—in Ecclesiasticus the wine which was poured
out at the foot of the altar is even called “the blood of the grape”;206
and in the blood is the soul. The law of Brahmanism not only
prohibits the drinking of wine, but also commands that “one should
carefully avoid red exudations from trees and juices flowing from
incisions.”207 That spirituous liquor is believed to contain baneful
mysterious energy is obvious from the statement that if the Brahman
(the Veda) which dwells in the body of a Brâhmana is even once
deluged with it, his Brahmanhood forsakes him, and he becomes a
Sûdra;208 holy persons are, of course, most easily affected by the
mysterious drink, owing to the delicate nature of holiness.
Muhammedans likewise regard wine as “unclean” and polluting;209
some of them dread it so much that if a single drop were to fall upon
a clean garment it would be rendered unfit to wear until washed.210
In Morocco it is said that by drinking alcohol a Muhammedan loses
the baraka, or holiness, of “the faith” and a scribe the memory of
the Koran, and that if a person who drinks alcohol has a charm on
him, its baraka is spoiled. The fact that wine was forbidden by the
Prophet might perhaps by itself be a sufficient reason for the notion
that it is unclean. But already in pre-Muhammedan times it seems to
have been scrupulously avoided by some of the Arabs,211 though
among others it was much in use and was highly praised by their
poets.212
204 See supra, i. 278, 281; infra, on the Belief in Supernatural
Beings; Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 359.

205 Frazer, op. cit. i. 358 sq.

206 Ecclesiasticus, l. 15.

207 Laws of Manu, v. 6.

208 Ibid. xi. 98.

209 Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 299.

210 Winterbottom, Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of

Sierra Leone, i. 72.

211 Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, xix. 94. 3. Zöckler,

Askese und Mönchtum, i. 93.

212 Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, i. 21 sqq.

As for the Muhammedan prohibition of wine, the suggestion has

been made by Palgrave that it mainly arose from the Prophet’s
antipathy to Christianity and his desire to broaden the line of
demarcation between his followers and those of Christ. Wine was
raised by the founder of Christianity to a dignity of the highest
religious import. It became well-nigh typical of Christianity and in a
manner its badge. To declare it “unclean,” an “abomination,” and
“the work of the devil,” was to set up for the Faithful a counter-
badge.213 This view derives much probability from the fact that there
are several unequivocal indications of the same bent of policy in
Muhammed’s system, showing a distinct tendency to oppose Islam
to other religions. But at the same time both a desire to prevent
intoxication and the notion that wine is polluting may very well have
been co-operating motives for the prohibition.