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Mathematical Programming for Power Systems Operation
Mathematical Programming for Power
Systems Operation

From Theory to Applications in Python

Alejandro Garcés
Technological University of Pereira
Pereira, Colombia
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise,
except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Paperback ISBN: 9781119747260; ePub ISBN: 9781119747284;

ePDF ISBN: 9781119747277; oBook ISBN: 9781119747291

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Cover design by Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

Acknowledgment ix
Introduction xi

1 Power systems operation 1

1.1 Mathematical programming for power systems
operation 1
1.2 Continuous models 3
1.2.1 Economic and environmental dispatch 3
1.2.2 Hydrothermal dispatch 3
1.2.3 Effect of the grid constraints 5
1.2.4 Optimal power flow 5
1.2.5 Hosting capacity 7
1.2.6 Demand-side management 7
1.2.7 Energy storage management 9
1.2.8 State estimation and grid identification 9
1.3 Binary problems in power systems operation 11
1.3.1 Unit commitment 12
1.3.2 Optimal placement of distributed generation and capacitors 12
1.3.3 Primary feeder reconfiguration and topology identification 13
1.3.4 Phase balancing 13
1.4 Real-time implementation 14
1.5 Using Python 15

Part I Mathematical programming 17

2 A brief introduction to mathematical optimization 19

2.1 About sets and functions 19
2.2 Norms 22
2.3 Global and local optimum 24
vi Contents

2.4 Maximum and minimum values of continuous

functions 25
2.5 The gradient method 26
2.6 Lagrange multipliers 32
2.7 The Newton’s method 33
2.8 Further readings 35
2.9 Exercises 35

3 Convex optimization 39
3.1 Convex sets 39
3.2 Convex functions 45
3.3 Convex optimization problems 47
3.4 Global optimum and uniqueness of the solution 50
3.5 Duality 52
3.6 Further readings 56
3.7 Exercises 58

4 Convex Programming in Python 61

4.1 Python for convex optimization 61
4.2 Linear programming 62
4.3 Quadratic forms 67
4.4 Semidefinite matrices 69
4.5 Solving quadratic programming problems 71
4.6 Complex variables 74
4.7 What is inside the box? 75
4.8 Mixed-integer programming problems 76
4.9 Transforming MINLP into MILP 79
4.10 Further readings 80
4.11 Exercises 81

5 Conic optimization 85
5.1 Convex cones 85
5.2 Second-order cone optimization 85
5.2.1 Duality in SOC problems 90
5.3 Semidefinite programming 92
5.3.1 Trace, determinant, and the Shur complement 92
5.3.2 Cone of semidefinite matrices 95
5.3.3 Duality in SDP 97
5.4 Semidefinite approximations 98
5.5 Polynomial optimization 102
5.6 Further readings 105
5.7 Exercises 106
 Contents vii

6 Robust optimization 109

6.1 Stochastic vs robust optimization 109
6.1.1 Stochastic approach 110
6.1.2 Robust approach 110
6.2 Polyhedral uncertainty 111
6.3 Linear problems with norm uncertainty 113
6.4 Defining the uncertainty set 115
6.5 Further readings 121
6.6 Exercises 121

Part II Power systems operation 125

7 Economic dispatch of thermal units 127

7.1 Economic dispatch 127
7.2 Environmental dispatch 133
7.3 Effect of the grid 136
7.4 Loss equation 140
7.5 Further readings 143
7.6 Exercises 143

8 Unit commitment 145

8.1 Problem definition 145
8.2 Basic unit commitment model 146
8.3 Additional constraints 150
8.4 Effect of the grid 151
8.5 Further readings 153
8.6 Exercises 153

9 Hydrothermal scheduling 155

9.1 Short-term hydrothermal coordination 155
9.2 Basic hydrothermal coordination 156
9.3 Non-linear models 159
9.4 Hydraulic chains 162
9.5 Pumped hydroelectric storage 165
9.6 Further readings 168
9.7 Exercises 169

10 Optimal power flow 171

10.1 OPF in power distribution grids 171
10.1.1 A brief review of power flow analysis 173
10.2 Complex linearization 177
10.2.1 Sequential linearization 181
viii Contents

10.2.2 Exponential models of the load 182

10.3 Second-order cone approximation 184
10.4 Semidefinite approximation 188
10.5 Further readings 190
10.6 Exercises 190

11 Active distribution networks 195

11.1 Modern distribution networks 195
11.2 Primary feeder reconfiguration 196
11.3 Optimal placement of capacitors 200
11.4 Optimal placement of distributed generation 203
11.5 Hosting capacity of solar energy 205
11.6 Harmonics and reactive power compensation 208
11.7 Further readings 212
11.8 Exercises 212

12 State estimation and grid identification 215

12.1 Measurement units 215
12.2 State estimation 216
12.3 Topology identification 221
12.4 Y bus estimation 224
12.5 Load model estimation 228
12.6 Further readings 231
12.7 Exercises 232

13 Demand-side management 235

13.1 Shifting loads 235
13.2 Phase balancing 240
13.3 Energy storage management 246
13.4 Further readings 249
13.5 Exercises 249

A The nodal admittance matrix 253

B Complex linearization 257

C Some Python examples 263

C.1 Basic Python 263
C.2 NumPy 266
C.3 MatplotLib 268
C.4 Pandas 268

Bibliography 271
Index 281
 ix

Acknowledgment

Throughout the writing of this book, I have received a great deal of support and
assistance from many people. I would first like to thank my friends Lucas Paul
Perez at Welltec, Adrian Correa at Universidad Javeriana in Bogotá-Colombia,
Ricardo Andres Bolaños at XM (the transmission system operator in Colom-
bia), Raymundo Torres at Sintef-Norway, and Juan Carlos Bedoya at the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory (USA), who, in 2020 (during the COVID-19
pandemic), agreed to discuss some practical aspects associated to power sys-
tem operation problems. The discussions during these video conferences were
invaluable to improve the content of the book. I am also very grateful to my
students, who are the primary motivation for writing this book. Special thanks
to my former Ph.D. students, Danilo Montoya and Walter Julian Gil. Finally, I
want to thank the Department of Electric Power Engineering at the Universi-
dad Tecnológica de Pereira in Colombia and the Von Humbolt Foundation in
Germany for the financial support required to continue my research about the
operation and control of power systems.
Alejandro Garcés
 xi

Introduction

Electrification is the most outstanding engineering achievement in the 20tℎ

century, a well-deserved award if we consider the high complexity of genera-
tion, transmission, and distribution systems. An electric power system includes
hundreds or even thousands of generation units, transformers, and transmis-
sion lines, located throughout an entire country and operated continuously 24
hours per day. Running such a complex system is a great challenge that requires
using advanced mathematical techniques.
All industrial systems seek to increase their competitiveness by improv-
ing their efficiency. Electric power systems are not the exception. We can
improve efficiency by introducing new technologies but also by implementing
mathematical optimization models into daily operation. In every mathemati-
cal programming model, we require to perform four critical stages depicted in
Figure . The first stage is an informed review of reality, identifying opportu-
nities for improvement. This stage may include conversations with experts in
order to establish the available data and the variables that are subject to be opti-
mized. The second stage is the formulation of an optimization model as given
below:

min 𝑓(𝑥)
subject to 𝑥 ∈ Ω (0.1)

Where 𝑥 is the vector of decision variables, 𝑓 is the objective function and, Ω is

the set of feasible solutions. Going from stage one (reality) to stage two (model)
is more of an art than a science. One problem may have different models and
different degrees of complexity. Practice and experience are required to master
this stage, as some models are easier to solve than others. Subsequently, the
third stage consists of the implementation of the mathematical model into a
software. After that, the fourth stage is the analysis of results in the context of
the real problem.
xii Introduction

Figure 0.1 Stages of solving an optimization problem.

This book will focus on stages two and three, associated with power system
operations models. In particular, we are interested in models with a geometric
characteristic called convexity, that present several advantages, namely:

● We can guarantee the global optimum and unique solution under well-
defined conditions. This aspect is interesting from both theoretical and prac-
tical points of view. In general, a global optimum advisable in real operation
problems.
● There are efficient algorithms for solving convex problems. In addition, we
can guarantee convergence of these algorithms. This is a critical aspect for
operation problems where the algorithm requires to be solved in real-time.
● There are commercial and open-source packages for solving convex opti-
mization models. In particular, we are going to use CvxPy, a free Python-
embedded modeling language for convex problems.
● Many power system operations problems are already convex; for example,
the economic and environmental dispatches, the hydrothermal coordination,
and the load estimation problem. Besides, it is possible to find efficient convex
approximations to non-convex problems such as the optimal power flow.

In summary, convex problems have both theoretical and practical advantages

for power systems operation. This book studies both aspects. The book is
oriented to bachelor and graduated students of power systems engineering.
Concepts related to power systems analysis such as per-unit representation,
the nodal admittance matrix, and the power flow problem are taken for granted.
A previous course of linear programming is desirable but not mandatory. We do
not pretend to encompass all the theory behind convex optimization; instead,
we try to present particular aspects of convex optimization which are useful in
power systems operation. The book is divided into two parts: In the first part,
 Introduction xiii

the main concepts of convex optimization are presented, including a distinct

chapter about conic optimization. After that, selected applications for power
systems operation are presented. Most of the solvers for convex optimization
allow mixed-integer convex problems. Therefore, we include models that can
be solved in this framework too. The student is recommended to do numerical
experiments in order to acquire practical intuition of the problems.
All applications are presented in Python, which is a language that is becom-
ing more important in power systems applications. Students are not expected
to have previous knowledge in Python, although basic concepts about pro-
gramming (in any language) are helpful. Our methodology is based on many
examples and toy-models. We made a great effort in showing the most simple
model with a clean code. Of course, these toy-models are an oversimplifica-
tion of the real problem; however, they allow us to understand the model and
its coding. In practice, we may have complex models that combine different
aspects such as the economic dispatch, the unit commitment and/or the opti-
mal power flow. A real operation model may require a sophisticated platform
that integrates the model with the supervisory control and data acquisition sys-
tem (SCADA) operating in real-time. The development of such a real industrial
model is beyond the objectives of this book.
Other documents randomly have
different content
some clearing in the woods where he might obtain help, and
perhaps regain his friends.
Thus Phil’s thoughts grew more and more cheerful; and he looked
forward most hopefully, and persisted in putting the best appearance
on things. At length he began to think that his long fast was not
good for him, especially as he might have some hard work to do on
the morrow; so he opened his basket, and taking out his sandwiches
that he had carried there all the day, he made a hearty meal. The
effect was most beneficial; the hollow, craving, gnawing feeling that
had distressed him passed away, and was succeeded by a sense of
comfort.
And now drowsiness began to steal over him. He had satisfied his
hunger; he had overcome by his long rest the first painful
exhaustion and fatigue consequent upon his severe exertions; above
all, his mind had attained a pleasant state of cheerfulness and hope.
There were no longer any despairing thoughts or terrible fears to
excite him and keep him awake; and so at length he fell into a
sound and refreshing sleep.
 XII.
The Wanderer on his winding Way.—The Bewilderment of the
Forest.—Swamps and Bogs.—? The friendly Brook.—Following the
Flow of the running Water.—A pleasant Course.—An encouraging
Discovery.—Astray once more.—He sinks to Rest.—The last
Sandwich.

I
T was very late when Phil fell asleep, and his fatigue and
exhaustion combined to make his sleep heavy and prolonged.
As there were no sounds to break in upon his slumbers, he
continued sleeping until late on the following day. On awaking he
raised himself up, and looked around in surprise, for in his dreams
he had been wandering among familiar scenes, and it was some
time before he could comprehend his present situation. But his
mossy bed at the foot of a large maple tree, and the woods that
extended all around on every side, soon enabled him to recall the
events of the preceding day, and to understand how he came here.
These recollections were not cheerful, nor was it a pleasant
change to turn from happy dreams to such an awakening as this; yet
Phil was not cast down. He still felt the beneficial effect of those
better thoughts of the night before; and still retained that buoyancy
of spirit and that hopefulness which he had felt on going to sleep.
And now another day had dawned, with its possibilities for good
and evil. His watch told him, to his amazement, that it was after ten
o’clock. Ten o’clock! After ten o’clock, and yet no signs of Bart and
the others! What did this mean? Had they neglected him so long?
Neglected him? No. They could not do that; but was it not possible
that during his sleep they may have wandered about these woods
near him, and called to him while he could not hear them? This was
a most distressing thought, and if such a thing had happened, its
result would bring a twofold evil; for in the first place, he would have
missed the chance of deliverance, and in the second place, they
would not be likely to pass by here again. But these thoughts were
not of a kind that he chose to entertain. He was in no mood now to
sink into despondent inaction. He was tired of this place, and was
anxious to leave it. He was also wearied of inaction, and was eager
to do something. Far better did it seem to him to do anything, and
go anywhere, even if he should be unsuccessful, than to remain here
waiting for those who might never come. So he at once dismissed all
idle thoughts and useless regrets, and addressed himself to the task
of arranging his own course of action.
He saw at once that the points of the compass were as much a
mystery as ever. The first glance upward showed him that the sky
was darker than ever, that its covering was more opaque, that the
smoke was nearer to the earth. The air also, was close and
oppressive. The sun was not visible, and therefore his hope failed of
finding some course which he might pursue by this means. What,
then, was he to do?
The first thing that he decided on doing was, to take his breakfast.
Now, he had eaten pretty freely on the preceding night, and
therefore it was with some concern that he opened his basket and
examined his stores. That concern was certainly not at all lessened
when he found that he had only two sandwiches left.
Two sandwiches!
Rather a small supply of provisions for one who was lost in the
midst of the forest, and had no idea whatever when he might be
able to find his way out. Phil would not allow himself to feel anxious
about this, yet at the same time he was prudent enough to look out
for the future; and so, though he was hungry, and felt the need of a
good breakfast, yet he did not feel inclined to devour all of his
slender stock at that one meal. He chose rather to exercise some
self-denial; and so he contented himself with only one sandwich, and
put the other back, reserving it for a time of need.
 He now felt thirsty, and began to look around for water. He could
not find any for a long time. Meanwhile, as he walked about, the
exertion made him much more sensitive to the closeness and heat of
that torrid atmosphere, and so aggravated his thirst that it began to
torment him to an intolerable degree. At length, to his great joy, he
found a swampy place; and, stooping down, he tore out the moss
and sods, and scooped up the black mud that was underneath, until
at last some black, discolored water appeared. He took a few
mouthfuls of this without hesitation, and then, scooping out some
more mud, he waited till the water should grow clearer. The particles
of mud after a time settled at the bottom, and the water became
clear enough for Phil to drink it; and though it was disagreeably
warm, it yet refreshed him.
He now resumed his course. This swamp lay in a slight hollow,
and seemed to extend for some distance. He was loath to leave it,
for the remembrance of his recent sufferings was strong within him;
and so he walked along the swampy hollow. To his surprise it
extended for a long distance, and to his great gratification the
moisture of the ground increased, until at length the bog became
more and more marshy, and pools of standing water became visible.
He skirted the edge of the swamp, still walking on, and at length
reached a place where a small brook flowed on out of this swamp
into the woods. Along this he walked for a little distance, and then
took another draught of the water, which he now found quite pure,
and not so warm as to be unpleasant. Much refreshed, he sat down
by its edge, and once more began to deliberate about the best
course that he could take.
He did not like the state of things altogether. It was bad enough to
be lost in the forest; but there were other things superadded which
made his situation far worse. For he now felt the oppressiveness of
the air most painfully, and the exertion of walking was far more
exhaustive than he had ever known it before. Besides, the
atmosphere had a smoky character, which was distressing, and the
thick smoke clouds overhead showed that something was going on
in these woods that might ere long make his situation much worse.
There was, indeed, something ominous in that sickly, leaden sky, in
those rolling smoke clouds that hung so low, in this suffocating air
which he could not breathe with comfort,—something ominous in
the oppressive heat, and in the stagnation of the atmosphere. There
was, however, a breeze; its signs were visible overhead, but the
woods were so dense that he could not gain any benefit from it.
What the meaning of it all might be, he could easily conjecture; but
the thought was too formidable to be entertained, and so he tried to
dismiss it from his mind.
And now, while he thought of what he ought to do, a plan of
action suggested itself which was so-simple, so feasible, and so full
of promise, that he at once caught at it and proceeded to act upon
it. This plan was nothing else than to follow the course of the brook.
It would of course enlarge as it ran on. It might lead into a larger
stream, and that stream would be sure to bring him out somewhere.
Besides, to be near a stream would be of great advantage in many
ways. It would be more open, and lighter, and more airy than the
thick recesses of the forest; its bed would offer a comparatively easy
footpath, except where it might become too strong or swampy; and
he would always be in the neighborhood of water.
On this idea he proceeded at once to act, and so resumed his
journey, walking in the bed of the little brook. The bottom afforded
an easy path; and though the water was over his ankles, yet its
coolness was refreshing, and served to alleviate very materially the
effects of the sultry atmosphere.
But on resuming his course, Phil saw that if he hoped to make any
real progress, he must divest himself of all useless encumbrances.
His basket and his fishing-rod were of this description. He therefore
sacrificed both of them to the necessities of the occasion; but before
he threw them down, he removed the hook and line from the rod, so
as to have it in case of need. And now, as he went on, he felt the
benefit of this disencumbrance; for the weight and inconvenience of
these had been excessively troublesome all along. Yet the line and
hook were the only essential part of the rod, and the sandwich was
the only necessary part of the basket; and these things were carried
far more conveniently in his pocket.
The brook flowed on, and gradually increased in volume by the
occasional addition of other brooklets, which joined it in its course.
The channel grew broader, and the waters grew more abundant,
sometimes spreading themselves out wide over a pebbly bottom, at
other times collecting into deep pools, which Phil preferred avoiding.
In spite of the irregularities and inequalities of its course, Phil
preferred walking here to wandering at random through the woods;
in the first place, on account of the reasons above mentioned; and in
the second place, for the reason that it led to some definite point,
and would not allow him to wander about blindly in a circle. The
hopeless bewilderment which had resulted from his forest
wanderings on the previous day, made his present course seem
quite certain and definite in comparison.
At last, to Phil’s great delight, the brook joined another brook,
which was fully twice as large, though not as large as that stream
where he had been fishing. A vague hope had arisen in his mind that
this brook might lead him to that very stream, in which case he
counted confidently on finding his friends; but now he had walked so
far that he gave up this hope altogether, and had made up his mind
to seek his own safety, irrespective of his friends. The new brook
was quite as easy as the old one; in fact, it was somewhat more so,
for it was less irregular, and presented fewer inequalities of depths.
Over its bed, then, Phil trudged on, sometimes stopping to dash
water over his face and head, at other times thrusting in his hands,
and occasionally bending down to take a drink. The presence of the
brook thus proved of the greatest advantage to him, and its cool
waters prevented him from feeling that exhaustion under which he
might otherwise have sunk utterly. In the broader pathway that this
brook afforded, he had also the chance of gaining advantage of any
slight breeze or movement of the air that might take place; and thus
in every way he was a gainer.
 At length he came to another brook, into which this one
discharged itself. The new brook was very much larger; and though
not quite so large as the stream where they had been fishing, still it
was not much smaller. At first the only thought that came to Phil
was, that he had come back to this very stream itself from which he
had started; but soon, as he came to reflect upon the length of his
wanderings, and upon the probability that many streams ran through
the forest, he gave up this idea, and contented himself with
following out the plan that he had adopted. This stream he thought
might lead to some larger one, and that larger one to some river,
which might eventually bring him to the habitations of man.
The fresh hopes that were now aroused within him lessened his
fatigue, and stimulated him to new efforts. The bed of this stream
was shallow and pebbly, sometimes deepening into pools, at other
times bringing him into the midst of swamps, and grasses, and
rushes; but, on the whole, it was no more difficult than its
predecessor had been; and his progress was very satisfactory.
At length he came to a place where he saw something that sent a
thrill of joy through his whole being.
It was a path!
It was an unmistakable path, narrow and rough, it is true, yet still
a path. It seemed like one of those roads which are used in winter
to draw logs out of the woods, or fuel; yet whatever its purpose
might be, there it was; and here at last Phil saw something that
proved that he was not cut off altogether from all association with
human kind. That path seemed to promise escape, and seemed to
lead him forth from the wilderness track to life and liberty.
He stood and looked at it long and carefully. It ran across the
brook, and on either side it presented the same appearance. The
question that now arose in his mind was, which side should he
choose—the right or the left? There was nothing in the path that
helped him to a decision; no footmarks were visible to show him
where to go; he was left altogether to chance and to his own
instincts.
At length he decided to take the path on the right hand side, and
accordingly he at once went on in this direction. The path was about
six feet wide, and was comparatively smooth; so smooth, indeed,
that it seemed almost luxurious when compared with the
irregularities of the brook, with its alternations of gravel and swamp,
which was also deep in water. Here, then, Phil walked along rapidly,
and was so full of hope that at every turn in the path he expected to
see some house.
The path, as has been said, seemed like one of those which are
used in the winter only for lumbering purposes. At the present time
it bore no marks whatever of recent use. No traces of wheels were
visible, no footprints of any kind; yet it was level, for the ordinary
irregularities seemed to have been smoothed away by the attrition of
logs which had been hauled over it.
Phil walked on for several hours. He was very much fatigued; but
the new excitement that had arisen consequent upon this discovery
had prevented him from giving way to his weariness, and had, in
fact, roused him above it to such an extent that he was unconscious
of it. His expectation of meeting with some signs of humanity clung
to him incessantly as he walked along; and though he was
constantly disappointed, yet he constantly hoped, and persisted in
the hope, in spite of disappointments.
At length, it began to grow darker, and he saw that evening was
coming on. He had been walking incessantly, with but one short rest,
ever since eleven o’clock. Under ordinary circumstances he could not
have maintained such a prolonged effort; and had he not met with
this path he would have sought rest long before this. But his intense
desire to escape, which had been stimulated by this discovery of the
path, drew him on, and nerved him to new efforts. At the end of
each hour he still hoped that the next hour would bring something;
and so he kept on even after the darkness began to deepen. Now,
as the darkness increased, the path grew less and less perceptible,
and at last he happened to get out of it at a place where there was a
wide opening in the woods. Leaving it here, he wandered about until
he discovered that he had lost it altogether. On making this
discovery, he made no effort either to retrace his steps, or to find
out the lost path. He was too much worn out to think of doing either.
He simply gave up.
A moss-covered mound was close beside him; and taking a seat
here, he determined to remain for the night, and leave all further
effort for the following day. He was fearfully fatigued, and utterly
worn out. When he gave up he gave up completely. His only thought
now was for his immediate wants, and those wants comprised the
two essentials of food and rest. Rest he could find here, on the
mossy mound, under the forest trees. As to food, thanks to his
forethought and self-denial in the morning, something yet remained.
It was that sandwich which he had reserved for a time of need. The
time of need had come, and he drew the sandwich from his pocket.
He looked at it for a moment solemnly and thoughtfully. It was his
last sandwich—the very last of his little stock of provisions. Should
he eat it all, or should he still preserve a little of it? It seemed
unwise to eat it all. He broke it into two portions, and wrapping one
up carefully, he proceeded to eat the other. But on eating this he
found his appetite unappeased, and his craving for more was
irresistible. He unwrapped what he had reserved and looked at it.
Should he eat it? Dare he eat it? To eat it would be to deprive
himself of his last mouthful, and on the following morning he would
have nothing with which to begin the day.
 He looked at that small fragment of food with longing eyes, and
the longer he looked at it the more tempting did it seem, and the
more irresistible did the temptation grow. At last he thought that it
would be better to strengthen himself now after his long journey,
and secure a good night’s rest.
On the morrow he could look out for food and get something to
eat—somewhere, he knew not where—somehow, he knew not how.
This thought appeased his cautious scruples. He hesitated no longer,
but ate what remained of the sandwich.
And so his last particle of food was gone.
 But he gave no thought to this. He was too tired, and worn out
with exhaustion he lay down and fell asleep.
 XIII.
Clouds and Vapors.—The exhaustive Heat.—Thirst.—Muddy Water.
—The Pangs of Hunger.—How to fish.—The River.—The placid Lake.—
A Plunge into the Water.—The Midday Mead.—The Pine Woods.—The
rocky Cavern.—Preparing a Night’s Rest.—The Evening Repast.—
Night once more.

O
N waking the next morning, Phil’s first impulse was to look
above and around to see what might be the prospects for
the day. To his disappointment he found those prospects
not at all changed for the better. Overhead he saw the rolling smoke
clouds, which now were gloomier and denser than before, and still
nearer the earth. The atmosphere caught from them a very
perceptible odor, which showed the character of the clouds above,
and was pungent enough to create some degree of irritation in the
nose and throat. The spot where he was appeared to be somewhat
more open than usual, and in some directions he could look over a
space several rods in extent. In this direction the smoke haze was
very apparent.
He felt both hungry and thirsty. But he had nothing whatever to
eat, and knew it. He had eaten his last mouthful the evening before,
and there was nothing whatever left now to satisfy the demands of
his appetite. But for the present his thirst was stronger than his
hunger; and so parched was his throat, and so painful was his
craving for water, that he at once started up, and set out in search
of some.
His object was now to regain that path which he had lost the night
before, and follow it until he might find another brook, or at least a
swamp. But though he sought most diligently, and most thoroughly,
in all directions, still he could find no trace of it whatever. Bitter
experience had already taught him his own utter incapability of
finding his way back through these woods to any point from which
he might have wandered, and so he soon gave up this search as
useless: but in addition to this, his thirst was altogether too pressing
to allow of any search after lost paths. The one thing of his desire
became water, and so he turned his attention towards finding this
first necessity. He did not have to undergo a very long trial. The
woods were intersected in many places by small brooklets, and
before long he came to a bog, in which he obtained sufficient water
to allay his thirst. By carefully examining this, he found a place
which was the outlet of a brook, and he now pursued the same
course which had been followed by him the day before; that is, he
walked along in the bed of the brook, hoping that it would lead to a
stream.
As he walked along it grew larger and larger; other brooks joined
it; and at length it ran into a stream which was quite as large as that
one from which he had originally wandered. On reaching this he sat
down on the bank and rested. The stream was about a dozen yards
wide here, and the waters were shallow, running on among gravel
and cobble stones. The banks were bordered with trees, which rose
to the height of about forty feet, and threw their branches across the
stream till they nearly met.
Sitting here and resting, Phil began to feel more hungry than ever.
His walk had only served to sharpen his appetite, and the alleviation
of his thirst had brought out his hunger more prominently. And now
what could he do? To struggle forward all day without anything to
eat would be almost impossible. Already he felt exhausted from his
walk thus far without food; and to commence again seemed out of
the question. In his hunger he now tried to find something in the
woods. He tore up some grass, and chewed the roots; he peeled off
some maple bark, and tried to chew this; but the grass roots and the
maple bark had no perceptible effect in diminishing his hunger. At
last he thought of his fishing line, which he had carried with him
after throwing away the rod. Wondering why he had been so stupid
as not to think of this before, he proceeded to search for a suitable
rod. This he found after a short time, and attaching the line to the
end of it, he proceeded to try his skill at fishing. He walked down the
stream for some distance, but for some time he met with no
success. He began to feel a little alarm, and to think that the heat
and the smoke prevented the fish from rising, when suddenly, in the
midst of his discouragement, he felt a nibble at the hook. He jerked
it up, but missed his prey that time; still the circumstance
encouraged him greatly, for it showed him that there was hope, and
he continued his task with fresh spirit. At length, to his intense
delight, he jerked out a fish. It was quite small, but still it was
indescribably welcome; and without waiting any longer, Phil at once
proceeded to kindle a fire. He did this with little difficulty, and
placing the fish on the blazing sticks, he watched it until it seemed
sufficiently cooked to be eaten. Although his hunger had made him
too impatient to wait till the fish was thoroughly cooked, yet that
same hunger made him indifferent to little deficiencies of this sort,
and the half-raw trout seemed to him, without exception, the most
delicious morsel that he had ever eaten. He now resumed his rod,
and before long hauled out another, which was soon followed by
another, and yet another. By this time the fire had died down to the
coals, and on these Phil laid his fish. This time he waited until they
were so thoroughly cooked that they would have satisfied the most
fastidious appetite. On these Phil made a right royal repast; and this
supply of food seemed to him to be sufficient for any effort that he
might have to make that day. Before starting, however, he was
provident enough to wait until he had caught three more trout, so as
to secure himself from again coming so close to absolute starvation
as he had been that morning; and then, putting these in his pocket,
he rolled up very carefully his precious hook and line, and once more
resumed his journey.
He had thus been able to satisfy both that thirst and that hunger
which had each assailed him so fiercely on his first awaking; and this
fact gave to him a glow of satisfaction, and a confidence in his own
resources, which dispelled the last vestige of his gloom, and filled
him with energy, and hope, and cheerfulness. In this frame of mind
he set out on the renewal of his journey, not knowing any better
than before where he was going, yet hoping for the best.
The brook ran on for some miles, receiving other brooks, and
growing gradually larger. As a general thing, its bed afforded a
sufficiently easy pathway for Phil to traverse, without any unusual
exertion, and was preferable, on the whole, to the forest with its
underbrush. Occasionally, however, he was able to take advantage of
favorable openings among the trees, and on several occasions
gained very much by taking short cuts, and avoiding certain bends in
the river. On such short cuts it is needless to say that he never
ventured, unless he was able to see plainly where he was going. In
this way he went on for some hours, and in that time he certainly
succeeded in getting-over a large extent of ground.
But such exertions as these were not made easily; and soon the
energy with which he had started began to relax. He became more
sensitive to the heat, and it seemed to him that the smoke was
growing more dense and more distressing. He began to think that he
must be drawing nearer to the fires from which all this smoke and
this oppressive heat arose. The thought was a most disheartening
one; for if it were true, it would transform what seemed to be his
pathway to safety into a blind rush to danger, and make of no avail
all his long struggles that he had put forth so perseveringly. It was a
thought, indeed, which was too depressing for him to entertain, and
so he strove to drive it from his mind; but it was one of those
unpleasant ideas which cling to the mind in spite of itself, and so,
notwithstanding Phil's efforts to hope for the best, there lowered
over him a very dark and dismal foreboding that his present course
would at length bring him face to face with the fire.
And what then?
All, that he could not tell.
Should he turn back now? No; that was a thing which he could not
bear to think of. Wherever he was going, he could not turn back yet
—not till he was convinced that it was all wrong—not till the very
presence of the fire itself should force him to give up all hope of
farther progress in this direction.
In spite of his surroundings of oppressive heat and distressing
smoke, of rough pathways and alternating wood and water,—in spite
of his fatigue of body, and despondency of mind,—Phil still kept on
his course, and struggled most heroically to maintain his onward
march, wherever it might lead. At length he reached a place where
the stream ran in almost a straight line for a considerable distance;
and looking down this, he could see at the farthest extremity the
smoky haze; but at the same time he felt confident that it was not a
whit denser than it had been in the morning. This discovery
encouraged him; and now, if he felt the smoke and the heat more
keenly, he was able, with great apparent reason, to attribute it solely
to his own weariness of body.
“I will rest soon,” he thought. “I will take a long rest, and get
something to eat, and that will be sure to restore me.”
With this thought he went on; and though he had made up his
mind to rest, yet he kept constantly postponing the period of that
rest. At length the stream took a turn round a wooded declivity, and
as Phil went up this to cut across, he suddenly beheld lying
immediately in front of him a small lake, into which the stream ran.
The sight of this at once decided him to make this wooded
declivity his resting-place. So he took his seat here on the shore, and
looked out upon the scene before him. The lake was of no very
great extent, and was surrounded on all sides by trees. In front of
Phil the beach was pebbly, and the waters clear and transparent; but
on the right there was a wide extent covered over with green
rushes, and water lilies, both yellow and white. As Phil looked forth
upon this pleasant scene, the waters seemed so inviting and so
clear, that he determined to take a bath. No sooner had he thought
of this than he was on his feet again, and in a very short time had
divested himself of his clothes and plunged in.
 He plunged down into those sweet, clear, tranquil waters. As his
head sank under the embrace of the cool flood, it seemed to convey
new life and strength to every fibre of his wearied frame. It was one
delicious moment in a day of toil and trouble. He struck out and
swam far off into the middle of the lake. Then he dived again and
again; and then, rolling over on his back, he lay floating, with his
eyes closed, and his form reposing luxuriously upon its soft, watery
couch. The water here was sufficiently clear and sufficiently deep for
his purposes, the rushes and lilies were over upon the shore on one
side, and there was nothing to mar his enjoyment. Here he forgot
the heat and the smoke. The cool waters took away from him all
that sense of oppression which he had so long felt, and when he at
length landed, it was as though he had enjoyed some prolonged rest
for hours, or some profound and refreshing slumber.
Now he resumed his clothes, and thought of those fish which he
had been carrying. On examining them, he found them slightly stale,
yet not at all crushed, and thereupon he proceeded to kindle a fire
upon the shore of the lake. Thus far he had found no difficulty in
making his fires, for he had matches with him, and there was no
lack of dry twigs; so, in a short time, a fire sufficient for his purposes
was blazing merrily. Phil was in no hurry; so, lying down near it, and
leaning on one elbow, he watched it lazily, until sufficient coals had
been formed, upon which he might lay his fish.
The fish this time were even superior to what they had been on a
former occasion, for Phil’s practice had shown him, to some extent,
how they could be broiled to the best advantage. All that they
needed was a little salt and pepper; but he was too hungry to miss
either of those seasonings. He found, indeed, in his case, the truth
of the old saying, that hunger is the best relish; and never in his life
had he eaten any meal with half the zest that he had known at the
eventful meals of this eventful day. A draught of water from the
running stream completed his repast, and he now lay down
refreshed, and began to meditate over his journey. He had now
rested for nearly two hours, and he began to feel like resuming his
march. It would be necessary, he saw, to walk around the lake till he
found its outlet, and then go along as before, and keep on as long
as his strength might hold out.
Once more, then, he rose strong, eager, resolute, and cheerful,
hoping for the best, and willing to go on in this course until he
reached some destination, wherever that might be. He walked along
the lake shore, and on reaching the other end, he found the outlet.
This was nothing more than a continuation of the stream down
which he had been going, but there was more water, for the lake
probably received other contributions; and what was more
important, the bottom was muddy. Fortunately, however, the woods
here were free from underbrush, so that he had no difficulty in
walking through them, keeping the stream in sight. After going
about a mile or so, he found, to his great delight, that he had come
to a pine forest. To him, after his long, rough walk, this fact gave the
greatest possible joy. For now the trees rose up around him at wide
intervals, and no tangled underbrush stood in his way, forcing him to
wind through them or lose himself in the attempt to go around it.
The pine forest allowed him to choose his own course and walk
almost as freely as though he were in an open field. Besides, the
ground under his feet gave a firm foothold. It was not like the soft
moss or long ferns of the other woods; it was not like the pebbly
bed of the stream; it was hard, and smooth, and afforded an easy
pathway.
As Phil went on, he noticed that the stream grew much wider,
though it still remained shallow. Its waters flowed sometimes in the
middle of the bed, sometimes on the right bank, and sometimes
towards the left; while again they distributed themselves over the
whole of its wide bed, and brawled, and gurgled, and bubbled
onward among the stones and pebbles with which its bed was again
filled. At one place its channel divided, and a little island covered
with trees arose in the midst, while the waters, after flowing past in
two streams, once more reunited. About a half mile below this
another stream joined it, and the waters were very considerably
increased.
Phil walked along for several hours, and at length began to feel
once more that excessive weariness which he had felt before bathing
in the lake. Once more the atmosphere grew exceedingly oppressive,
and the smoke distressed him. At length he came to a ledge of
rocks, by the borders of the stream. As he came up he noticed
something like an opening, and walked towards it. He saw that a
huge mass of rock lay tilted over and resting against another mass
in such a way that it formed a covered chamber about ten feet long
and six feet wide. The floor was a flat, rough rock, and the end
consisted of damp moss. Immediately beside this the stream flowed
along in a deeper channel than usual, for all its waters had gathered
on this side, leaving the rest of its bed bare. Phil was so struck with
the appearance of this place that he examined it quite closely, and
began to think that it would be an excellent place to pass the night
in. He could not have found it at a better time. Already it was
growing a little dusk, and he was thoroughly worn out. In fact he
was so tired that after stopping here one minute he found it
impossible to go forward any farther; so he at once resolved to stay.
On the top of the rock was a quantity of moss, and as he was
going to pass the night here he proceeded to gather it, and collected
a sufficient quantity to make a comfortable couch when strewed on
the rocky floor of his little cave. But there were other things to do
before he should be able to rest. He was once more in a state of
starvation, and the only thing for him to do was to resort to his
fishing-line. He found a pole without much trouble, and then threw
his line. At first he met with no success. But he persevered, and
walked farther up the stream till he came to a place that looked
more favorable. Here his efforts were crowned with success, for in a
little time he had hooked no less than six trout, one of which was
large enough for a meal by itself.
After this he took a bath in the running stream, and felt once
more the same invigorating and restorative effects from the cool
water which he had experienced during his bath in the lake.
Then he kindled his fire on the edge of the stream, near his cave,
and cooked two of the fish, reserving the others for the next
morning.
This meal was as great a success as the former ones had been,
and at length he retired to the little cave where he had already
spread the moss for a bed. Here he could not help recalling the
events of the day. He had hoped, on starting, by this time to have
reached some human abode. He had not done so. But this, instead
of exciting his regrets, gave way altogether to emotions of gratitude.
He had been saved from thirst and from hunger in a most wonderful
manner, and, even at this moment, instead of feeling utterly
exhausted, he had little else than a sense of languid weariness. All
this filled him with thankfulness, and kneeling down in his little cave,
he offered up his most grateful thanks to the merciful Being who had
protected his wanderings during the day.
After this he lay down on his moss and soon fell asleep.
 XIV.
Bart.—An anxious Night.—Suspicions.—Reappearance of Pat.—The
Woes of Pat.—A hideous Thought.—The Leper.—Off to the Woods.—
Indian File.—The Rear Guard.—Defection of Pat.—He makes a
Circuit.—“Hyar! Hyar! You dar? Whar Mas’r Bart?”

T
HE sight of the lurid glow which had burst upon Bart’s eyes
as he looked from the priest’s house excited within him
anxious thoughts, which kept him awake for hours on that
night; the thought that Phil was wandering in those woods, and that
all around him were these wrathful flames; the thought that perhaps
he might have already fallen a victim; the thought that his search
could scarcely be made now, since they could hardly hope to
penetrate the woods for any distance; the thought that now any
search, however extensive, might perhaps be too late. He slept but
little. Every little while he would rise from his bed, and look out of
the window towards the woods, to see if that lurid glow continued.
It was visible for a long time, but at length died out altogether. But
this did not lessen Bart’s anxieties, for now the smoke grew thicker,
and the smell of it was most unpleasantly perceptible, exciting the
very natural thought that the fire glow was no longer visible, not
because the fires were extinguished, but rather because the smoke
had grown so dense that it hid it from view.
When Bart arose it was not yet daybreak, and on coming down
stairs no one was visible. He went out of doors, and paced up and
down the road uneasily. After a while two men made their
appearance, whom Bart recognized as the ones who were to be the
guides in their exploration of the forest. He felt too anxious and too
sick at heart to ask them anything, for he thought that anything they
would say would only confirm his worst fears, and as yet he did not
wish to know the worst. He wished to cling to his hopes, faint
though they now were, until hope should be no longer possible.
After a while Solomon made his appearance; but Bart had nothing to
say to him, and the old man, seeing by his manner that he did not
wish to be spoken to, held aloof, and sat down in silence on the
doorstep.
It was now day, and still the priest had not made his appearance.
Bart wondered at this, and attributed it to his oversleeping himself.
This made him feel somewhat impatient, and he thought hardly of
the priest for yielding to his drowsiness at such a time as this, when
it was a question of life and death; but he waited, and checked a
rising impulse which he had to hunt up the priest’s bedroom and
wake him. While he was fretting and fuming, the two French guides
had placidly seated themselves on the doorstep in a line with
Solomon, and began to smoke, chatting with one another in French.
Suddenly Bart heard footsteps behind him. He thought it was the
priest, and turned hastily. It was not the priest, however, but Pat.
Bart had actually forgotten Pat’s existence ever since that moment
on the previous evening, when he had gone out doors to look for
him, and had seen that terrible appearance over the forest trees. As
he now recognized him, he wondered at his long absence, and
noticed at the same time that Pat looked very much agitated. At
once he thought that Pat had heard bad news, and had come to tell
him. This idea was so terrible that he stood paralyzed, and could
scarcely utter a word.
Pat came up and gave a heavy sigh.
“It’s dhreadful—it’s terrible. Och, wurrooooo!” Bart looked at him
with an awful face, not daring to ask the question that was upon his
lips, and now feeling sure that Pat had heard the worst.
“Och, what’ll we iver do?” cried Pat; “what’ll we iver do? Sure an
me heart’s fairly broke widin me, so it is.”
“How did you find it out?” asked Bart, in a trembling voice.
 “Sure an wasn’t it the praste himself that tould me,” said Pat, in a
tone of voice that sounded like a wail of despair.
“The priest?” said Bart. “You saw him then—did you. Where—
where is he?”
“The praste,” said Pat, dolefully; “sorra one o’ me knows. I seen
him dhrivin off. I wor sleepin undher a tray behind the fince. I wasn’t
goin to thrust mesilf in their leper houses, so I wasn’t.”
“You saw him. P—he has gone, has he—gone—to—to—to see
about it,” stammered Bart, feverishly; “and what did he tell you?”
“Tell me?” said Pat, dubiously.
“Yes. You said you saw him.”
“So I did.”
“Well—what did he say about it?”
“Sure an he didn’t say anythin jist thin.”
“But he told you about it, you said.”
“So he did; but it was last night.”
“O, in the night—you saw him in the night—he must have been
out then—and I thought he was in bed. O, why wasn’t I with him?
Why didn’t he take me? But I suppose he thought I’d be too much
overcome, and so he didn’t want to tell me—and did he tell you this,
Pat? Tell me all. Tell me all—don’t keep me in suspense.”
At these incoherent words Pat stared at Bart in utter amazement,
and for a moment thought that he had lost his senses.
“Suspinse?” he said—“suspinse? What do you mean? You talk as
though you’d lost your sivin sinsis! Sure an didn’t you hear it yerself,
ivery word? Sure an worn’t ye in the room yourself, listhening? Didn’t
ye hear it all?”
 “Hear it all? Hear what?” cried Bart. “About what?”
“Why, about the lepers, sure. Sorra a thought I’ve had iver since,
except about that same. And I went off, so I did; for I didn’t dare to
slape in that leper house, wid a man that lives among the lepers and
shakes hands wid them.”
“The lepers!” cried Bart in impatience, but with a feeling of
inexpressible relief—the relief which is felt at a respite, however
brief, from sorrow. “The lepers! Why, I was talking about Phil. Have
you heard anything about Phil?”
“Phil?” said Pat. “Arrah, sure he’s all right. I ony wish I wor in his
shoes. It ud be a happy boy I’d be if I cud change places wid Phil.
Och, wurroo—but it’s a bitther day whin I came to this place.”
“You haven’t heard anything at all about Phil, then?” said Bart.
“Niver a word,” said Pat. “I’ve heard too much about other things.”
Bart turned away.
As for Pat, he wandered disconsolately to the fence by the road
side, and leaning against it, he stood there in a woe-begone
attitude,—the very picture of despair.
Bart now resumed his melancholy walk; but before he had taken
many paces, he heard the rapid gallop of a horse, and in turning, he
saw a rider approaching the house, who, on drawing nearer, turned
out to be the priest. Bart now saw that he had done his kind host a
great injustice in supposing that he had been oversleeping himself,
and felt a natural sorrow at his suspicions. As the priest dismounted,
the very first words which he addressed to Bart made the
compunction of the latter over his unjust suspicions still stronger,
since they showed that, so far from sleeping while Bart was wakeful,
in his anxiety over Phil, he had left Bart in bed, and had been
traversing the country for miles, in order to institute a general search
after the lost boy.