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19 views

The Absolute Beginner's Guide to Python Programming [incomplete] 1st Edition Kevin Wilson instant download

The document is a promotional overview of 'The Absolute Beginner's Guide to Python Programming' by Kevin Wilson, which includes step-by-step guidance and lab exercises for learning Python. It also provides links to other related eBooks and resources available for download. The book covers fundamental programming concepts, Python syntax, data handling, and more advanced topics like object-oriented programming and exception handling.

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The Absolute
Beginner’s Guide to
Python Programming
A Step-by-Step Guide
with Examples and Lab
Exercises

Kevin Wilson
The Absolute Beginner’s Guide to Python Programming: A Step-by-Step
Guide with Examples and Lab Exercises
Kevin Wilson
London, UK

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8715-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8716-3


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8716-3

Copyright © 2022 by Kevin Wilson


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part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
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express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer Programming�����������������������������1


What Is Python������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Getting Started������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Setting Up��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Install on Windows������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Install on MacOS����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
Install on Linux����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13

Chapter 2: The Basics�������������������������������������������������������������������������15


Language Classification��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Low-Level Language�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
High-Level Language�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Python Language Syntax������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Reserved Words���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Identifiers������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Indentation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Comments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Input��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21

iii
Table of Contents

Output������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Escape Characters�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Writing a Program�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Lab Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30

Chapter 3: Working with Data������������������������������������������������������������31


Variables�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Local Variables����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Global Variables���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Basic Data Types�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Integers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Floating Point Numbers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Strings�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Lists���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Two-Dimensional Lists����������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
Sets���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Tuples������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Dictionaries���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Program Input�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Program Output���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Casting Data Types����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Arithmetic Operators�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Operator Precedence�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Performing Arithmetic�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Comparison Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Boolean Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44

iv
Table of Contents

Bitwise Operators�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Lab Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46

Chapter 4: Flow Control����������������������������������������������������������������������49


Sequence������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49
Selection�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
if... else����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
elif�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Iteration (Loops)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
For Loop���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
While Loop�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Break and Continue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Lab Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69

Chapter 5: Handling Files�������������������������������������������������������������������71


File Types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Text File���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Binary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Text File Operations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������73
Open Files������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������73
Write to a File������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75
Read from a File��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Binary File Operations�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79
Open Files������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79
Write to a File������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
Read a File�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81

v
Table of Contents

Random File Access��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83


Lab Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85

Chapter 6: Using Functions�����������������������������������������������������������������87


Declaring Functions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������87
Scope������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Recursion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Lab Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93

Chapter 7: Using Modules�������������������������������������������������������������������95


Importing Modules����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������96
Creating Your Own Modules������������������������������������������������������������������������������100
Lab Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102

Chapter 8: Exception Handling���������������������������������������������������������103


Types of Exception��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Catching Exceptions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Raising Your Own Exceptions����������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108

Chapter 9: Object-Oriented Programming����������������������������������������109


Principles of OOP����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Encapsulation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Inheritance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Polymorphism����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Abstraction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110

vi
Table of Contents

Classes and Objects������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110


Class Inheritance����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Polymorphic Classes�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116
Method Overriding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Lab Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120

Chapter 10: Building an Interface�����������������������������������������������������121


Creating a Window��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������121
Adding Widgets�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Menus����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
The Canvas��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
Images���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������129
Buttons��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
Message Boxes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131
Text Field�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
Listbox���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133
Checkbox�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
Labels����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137
Label Frame�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Interface Design������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������144

Chapter 11: Developing a Game�������������������������������������������������������145


Installing Pygame����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
Opening a Window��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������147
Adding an Image�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
The Game Loop�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149
The Event Loop�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������151

vii
Table of Contents

Shapes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Basic Animation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������164

Chapter 12: Python Web Development���������������������������������������������167


Web Servers������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Install the Web Server���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
Set Up Python Support��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
Executing a Script���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
Python Web Frameworks����������������������������������������������������������������������������������175
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������181

Appendix A: Quick Reference�����������������������������������������������������������183


D
 ata Types���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������183
N
 umeric Operators��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������183
C
 omparison Operators��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184
B
 oolean Operators��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184
S
 tring Operators������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184
L ist Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184
D
 ictionary Operators�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
S
 tring Methods��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
L ist Methods�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
D
 ictionary Methods�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
F unctions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������186
F iles������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������186
C
 onditional��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������186
M
 ulti-conditional�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������186
W
 hile Loop��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187

viii
Table of Contents

F or Loop������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
L oop Control������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
M
 odules������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
B
 uilt-In Functions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
D
 eclare a Class�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
C
 hild Class��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
C
 reate Object����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
C
 all Object Method��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
A
 ccess Object Attributes�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
E xceptions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189

ix
About the Author
With over 20 years’ experience in the computer industry, Kevin Wilson
has made a career out of technology and showing others how to use it.
After earning a master’s degree in computer science, software engineering,
and multimedia systems, Kevin has held various positions in the IT
industry including graphic and web design, digital film and photography,
programming and software engineering, developing and managing
corporate networks, building computer systems, and IT support. He
currently teaches computer science at college and works as an IT trainer in
England while researching for his Ph.D.

xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Joos Korstanje is a data scientist, with over
five years of industry experience in developing
machine-learning tools. He has a double M.Sc.
in applied data science and environmental
science and has extensive experience working
with geodata use cases. He currently works at
Disneyland Paris, where he develops machine
learning for a variety of tools. His project
experience includes forecasting, recommender
engines, optimization, machine learning on
GPS tracking data, and more. Joos is also an active blogger on Medium and
has worked on multiple book publications.

xiii
Introduction
The aim of this book is to provide a first course in the use of Python to
develop programs.
It provides a foundation for those who wish to write computer
programs based on sound programming principles, and because the book
is intended to be a primer, it allows the beginner to become comfortable
with basic programming tasks.
As it is a first course, no previous experience of computer
programming is assumed.
Throughout the book, we’ll explore the Python programming language
with worked examples and lab exercises for you to complete yourself.
For this purpose, we’ve included all the source code for this book in the
following repository: github.com/apress/absolute-beginners-guide-python

xv
CHAPTER 1

Introduction to
Computer
Programming
What is a computer program? A computer is a device that processes
instructions to achieve a task. This set of instructions is called a computer
program.
A computer program usually takes some data such as a string or a
number and performs calculations to produce results. We usually refer to
the data as the program’s input and the results as the program’s output.
To write computer programs, we use a computer programming
language. There are many different languages such as BASIC, C, C++,
and Python. In this guide, we are going to concentrate on the Python
programming language.
Every computer program manipulates data to produce a result, so
most languages allow the programmer to choose names for each item of
data. These items are called variables or constants. A variable, as the name
suggests, is an item that can contain different values as the program is
executed. A constant stays the same.

© Kevin Wilson 2022 1


K. Wilson, The Absolute Beginner’s Guide to Python Programming,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8716-3_1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Programming

For example, if we wrote a program to calculate the volume of a sphere,


we could have variables for the radius and one for the result. We can also
have a constant for the value of Pi as it never changes.
In larger programs, we often need to make decisions based on user
input, a calculated result, or condition. In this case, we use an if statement.
This is called selection.
Some blocks of code might also need to be repeated; in this case, we
use a loop. This is called repetition.
The Python programming language has specific facilities to enable
us to implement the concepts outlined earlier. Many of these will be
introduced throughout this book.

What Is Python
Python is a high-level language developed by Guido van Rossum in the
late 1980s and is used in web development, scientific applications, gaming,
AI, and is well suited to education for teaching computer programming.
Python is designed to be an easily readable language. Therefore, it uses
an uncluttered formatting style and often uses English keywords where
other languages use a symbol.
Python is an interpreted programming language, meaning Python
programs are written in a text editor and then put through a Python
interpreter to be executed.
Python is used in the field of artificial intelligence and can be found
in many day-to-day applications. Streaming services such as Spotify use
Python for data analysis, particularly users’ listening habits in order to
offer suggestions on which artist to follow, other music a particular user
might be interested in, and so on. Python is also used within Netflix’s
machine-learning algorithms for recommending relevant content to users,
monitoring browsing habits, and marketing.

2
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
when the Archduke’s match seemed really progressing, they played
their trump card in bringing forward Charles IX. again. When
Rambouillet, the French envoy to Scotland, saw Elizabeth in
February he had enlarged, by the Queen-mother’s orders, upon the
vigour and comeliness of the young King. The Queen was always
ready to listen to talk like this, and sighed that she would like to
meet him, “but,” she said, “do you think it would be a good match
for the King to marry an old woman like me?” De Foix, before his
departure in May, 1566, again and again referred to the matter
lightly, with the evident intention of keeping it alive, to the detriment
of the Archduke’s match and for the benefit of Leicester. The
manœuvre was easily seen through, of course, and Guzman, in an
interview with Cecil on the 18th of May, said to him, “These
Frenchmen are in a fine taking when they see the Archduke’s match
progressing, and at once bring forward their own king to embarrass
the Queen. When they see that this trick has hindered the
negotiations they take up with Leicester again, and think we do not
see through them.” Cecil was of the same opinion, and said the
French thought they could do as they liked when they had Robert on
their side. Instead of Sackville, a Kentish gentleman named Danett
was sent to the Emperor, merely as an accredited messenger, with a
reply to his letter and the offer of the Garter. The letters from Danett
arrived in London in June, 1566, and were of so encouraging a
nature that the advocates of the Austrian match again became
confident that their man would win the prize. This gave rise as usual
to fresh activity on the part of the French. Catharine de Medici, in
her instructions to the new ambassador, Bôchetel de la Forest,
directed him to help forward Leicester’s pretensions with all his
might, and thwart those of the Archduke, and Elizabeth had an
interesting conversation with the ambassador’s nephew Vulcob on
the subject during her progress in the autumn of 1566. The Queen
was staying at Stamford, and Vulcob was charged with his uncle’s
excuses for not attending her. He met Leicester at the door of the
chamber, to whom he conveyed the regard and sympathy of the
King and Queen-mother of France. The Earl replied that the Queen
was more undecided about marrying him than ever, and he did not
know what to think. He had known the Queen, he said, since they
were children together, and she had always announced her intention
to remain single, but if by any chance she did marry, he was sure
she would marry no one but him. Vulcob was then summoned by the
Queen, who at once began to dwell upon the physical qualities of
Charles IX., and the Frenchman, nothing loath, launched into high-
flown panegyrics of her own perfections and his master’s manliness.
A day or two afterwards he got into talk with the Queen’s physician,
who suggested that the best way to cement the alliance between
England and France would be to bring about a marriage between the
King and Queen. Vulcob objected that their ages were so different,
and the unlikelihood of issue; to which the physician replied: “Your
King is seventeen, and the Queen only thirty-two. Take no notice of
what she says in that respect, it is only her passing fancies. If the
King marries her, I will answer for her having ten children, and no
one in the world knows her temperament better than I do. If you
like, you and I will secretly manage this business. Your King is young
and vigorous and accustomed to travel; let him come to Boulogne to
49
see this fair lady.” The hint was faithfully conveyed to Catharine de
Medici, but she was not deceived by it. Both she and her
ambassador clearly saw the drift, and talked of the affair only when
necessary to thwart the Austrian match, or when Leicester himself
was not strong enough to stand alone against his enemies.
This position continued during the summer and autumn of 1566:
Elizabeth bitterly jealous of the birth of Mary of Scotland’s child,
apprehensive of the secret aid in money being sent by Alba to Mary
for the promotion of her cause, and yet afraid to offend the house of
Austria, which might arm her own Catholic subjects against her;
Leicester alternately hopeful and despairing; the Archduke’s friends
minimising points of difference and smoothing over difficulties in the
hope of getting their man to England at any cost; and the French
party sleepless in their efforts to prevent Elizabeth’s marriage with
any nominee of Spain. More than once the quarrel between Leicester
and his enemies nearly flamed out into open hostility. The Queen
peremptorily insisted upon his making friends with Sussex, and even
forced him to an appearance of reconciliation with his rival Ormond.
Both the Spanish and French ambassadors give numberless
instances of the rancour existing at Court, and profess themselves
shocked at the Queen’s lightness and giddiness of conduct in
connection with the marriage question. The nation itself, so far as
public opinion could be said to exist at the time, was also disturbed,
and when Parliament met in October, all Cecil’s efforts were
unavailing to prevent the discussion of the Queen’s marriage and the
succession. A joint committee of both Houses was appointed to draw
up an address to the Queen on the subject, and the resentment of
Elizabeth against the majority for dealing with the matter of the
succession particularly, against her wish, was cunningly fanned by
Guzman, who pointed out that they were nearly all extreme
Protestants. “I do not know what the devils want,” said the Queen.
“O! your Majesty,” replied the ambassador, “what they want is simply
liberty; and if monarchs do not look out for themselves and
50
combine, it is easy to see how it will end.” So the irate Queen sent
for the leaders of both Houses to have it out with them. First came
the Duke of Norfolk, her kinsman and most distinguished subject,
himself almost a sovereign in his own county, and received the full
torrent of her vituperation. He was a traitor, a conspirator, and much
else, and the poor man, overwhelmed, stammered out that he never
thought to ask her pardon for having offended her thus. Next came
the turn of Leicester, Pembroke, Northampton, and Howard, who
remonstrated with her upon her treatment of Norfolk. She told
Pembroke he talked like a swaggering soldier; said that Northampton
was a nice fellow to prate about marriage—he had better look after
his own matrimonial difficulties than mince words with her. Then
softening somewhat she turned to Leicester and said that, even if all
the world had abandoned her, she did not think he would have done
so. He said something about his willingness to die at her feet, to
which she replied that that was not the purpose. When the interview
was at an end, the lords met in conclave and sent Sussex to beg
Guzman again to exert his influence in favour of the Archduke. The
next day the ambassador saw the Queen for the purpose, when she
again broke out in denunciation of her councillors for putting this
pressure upon her, and was particularly bitter about Leicester. “What
did Guzman think,” she asked, “of such ingratitude after she had
shown him so much kindness and favour that even her honour had
suffered for his sake. She was glad, however, of so good an
opportunity of sending him away, and the Archduke might now be
quite free from suspicion.” Her anger of course was mostly directed
against the attempt to force her hand in the matter of the
succession; and, by the advice of Guzman, she saw the leaders
separately in a calmer mood and put them off with vague assurances
that she would marry shortly, and would summon a Parliament if
anything prevented her from doing so. Once only she lost her
temper again in her long speech to the joint committee, and that
was when she addressed the Bishops of London and Durham, whom
she turned upon and rent for their inconsistency. By dint of alternate
bullying and cajolery she reduced both Houses of Parliament to a
condition of pliability, and having got her supplies voted, dissolved
Parliament early in January, 1567, and was again free to do as she
liked without interference. Her indignation against Leicester was
short-lived. Only a month after she had rejoiced in sending him
away, she told Guzman that she thought he had acted for the best
and was deceived by the others. “She was quite certain,” she said,
“that he would lay down his life for hers, and that if one of them had
to die he would willingly be the one.”
To satisfy the powerful combination which was determined to
press the Archduke’s cause, it was decided that the Earl of Sussex
should be sent with the Garter to the Emperor, with powers to
discuss the terms of marriage; but Leicester and the French
managed, by casting doubts and raising difficulties, to delay his
departure. Norfolk was brought up to London to exert his influence,
and for several months again the Court was a hot-bed of intrigue, in
which Norfolk, Sussex, and the Conservative party, aided by
Guzman, and cautiously supported by Cecil and Bacon, were pitted
against Leicester and the French ambassador. From day to day the
fickle Queen changed. First Sussex was to be hurried off at once,
then he was to go after Shrovetide; then when he had prepared for
his journey Elizabeth told him he would not leave so quickly as he
thought. With Leicester, too, she was equally changeable, one day
turning her back upon him, and the next begging the Spanish
ambassador to be friendly with him. On one occasion in February,
1567, when the Council had progressed very far in the settlement of
Sussex’s instructions, Leicester’s Puritan friends again brought up the
matter of the succession in order to embroil matters and embarrass
the Queen; but she put her foot down firmly then, and they dropped
the subject in a fright. This having failed, they renewed their
agitation for an inquiry into the conduct of Sussex as Viceroy of
Ireland; but out of this honest Ratcliff emerged triumphant, to the
sorrow of his enemies. At last Sussex got tired of the constant
quarrelling, and begged for leave to go home, which was refused,
and some sort of reconciliation was patched up between him and
Leicester. In view of almost hourly changes in the Queen’s
matrimonial attitude, and the certainty that the Leicester party
would after all try to wreck the Archduke’s suit on the religious
conditions, Sussex firmly refused to undertake the embassy to the
Emperor, unless he had precise orders signed by the Queen as to the
terms he might accept, “as he was determined not to deceive the
Emperor.” At last, after infinite trouble, Sussex was despatched at
the end of June, 1567, bearing full instructions to negotiate the
marriage. He was to raise no great difficulty except on two points:
first the question of the Archduke’s income, and secondly that of
religion. He was to say that “the Queen will take care that he wants
for nothing, but she does not wish her people to think she had
married a man too poor to keep himself.” The Archduke might
privately hear Mass in his own chamber, but must conform outwardly
to the law of England and accompany the Queen to Protestant
service publicly.
It was felt by all those who favoured the match that the Spanish
ambassadors in London and Vienna might have been more cordial in
their support of it than they were; and both the Queen and Sussex
were for ever trying to get at Philip’s real desires in the matter. With
the papers now before us, we see that if the Emperor was to be
induced to give way on the question of religion, and England was to
remain Protestant, the marriage would injure rather than benefit
Philip’s plans; whilst a thoroughly Catholic match, by which Elizabeth
would have submitted to the Pope, would have cut the ground from
under her feet and made her the humble servant of Spain. This she
knew better than any one, and however much Philip may have again
deceived himself in the matter, there was never a shadow of a
chance of such a match being made by her or consented to by her
wisest councillors. Upon this rock the matrimonial hopes of the
Archduke again split. Sussex remained with the Emperor until
February, 1568, probably the only prominent English statesman who
was sincere or honest in the negotiations, but was at last himself
undeceived, and begged for his recall in deep disappointment and
resentment against Leicester and his party, upon whom he laid the
blame of the failure of his mission. A decent pretence was assumed
on both sides that the project was still pending; and the Emperor
was invested with the Garter with great pomp; but the matter was
practically at an end on the departure of Sussex from Vienna: not
altogether to Philip’s displeasure, as he had lost all belief in the
Queen’s matrimonial professions, and was daily becoming more
convinced of the impossibility of her humbling herself to the extent
of accepting the Catholic conditions by which alone a marriage with
his kinsman would be advantageous to him. Elizabeth, too, was in a
better position now than she had been to drop the hollow
negotiations, since the civil war in France, and Philip’s own
difficulties in the Netherlands and the South of Europe, secured her
from present danger from either power, whilst the standing menace
of Scotland had disappeared for the first time for years, as Mary was
a prisoner with a cloud of doubt and disgrace hanging over her
head.
Under these circumstances Elizabeth could rest somewhat from
the long comedy of mystification about her matrimonial affairs,
continuing, however, to keep her hand in by dallying with Leicester
and occasionally smiling upon Heneage. An attempt was made
nearly three years later, in December, 1570, to revive the
negotiations for the Archduke’s match by sending young Henry
Cobham to the Emperor; but the device had at last grown too stale
to deceive, and a cold refusal to entertain the matter was given,
much to the indignation of Elizabeth, who now found that both her
royal suitors had deserted her, Charles IX. having recently married a
daughter of the Emperor.
CHAPTER V.
Marriage with the Duke of Anjou suggested—Guido Cavalcanti
and La Mothe’s negotiations—Walsingham’s description of
Anjou—Anjou’s religious scruples—His objections
overcome—Lord Buckhurst’s mission to Paris—Anjou’s
conditions—Religious difficulties—The Ridolfi plot—Anjou
obstinate again—Smith’s mission to France—Marriage with
the Duke of Alençon suggested—Great disparity of age.

The treaty of St. Germain between Charles IX. and the Huguenots,
signed in August, 1570, brought to an end the long civil war in
France. It had for some time been a favourite project of the Guises
and the Catholic party in France to rescue Mary of Scotland by force,
with the help of the Pope, marry her to the Duke of Anjou, and place
her on the throne of England. Charles IX. was bitterly jealous of his
brother Anjou, the hope of the Catholic league, and was desirous of
providing for him somewhere out of France. Such a proposal,
therefore, as that made for his union with Mary Stuart, met with
some countenance from the King and his mother. Elizabeth and her
ministers were not aware to what extent support would be given by
Spain to such a project, which, whilst on the one hand strengthening
the league, would on the other have given the French a footing in
Great Britain; but with France at peace Elizabeth was always
apprehensive, and a counter-move had to be made. The two great
Huguenot nobles who had resided in England during the war, the
Vidame de Chartres and Cardinal Chatillon—Coligny’s brother—were
permitted to re-enter France by the peace of St. Germain; and to
them and their party it appeared a desirable thing to disarm the
weak, fanatical Catholic figurehead Anjou by yoking him, under their
auspices, to strong-minded Protestant Elizabeth, and so remove him
from active interference in French politics. Such a proposal,
moreover, was a welcome one to Elizabeth and her friends, because
it effectually checkmated the intrigues of the Guises and the league
in favour of Mary Stuart, which for the moment were founded on the
suggested marriage of the latter with Anjou. In the autumn of 1570,
therefore, both Chatillon and Chartres, before they left England,
separately broached the idea. Before doing so, however, Chartres
wrote asking the opinion of Marshal Montmorenci, and Chatillon
sought guidance direct from the Queen-mother. The replies
apparently being favourable Chartres mentioned the matter to Cecil,
who discussed it privately with the Queen, whilst at the end of
November Chatillon opened his approach by asking the new French
ambassador, La Mothe Fénélon, how Anjou’s suit with the Princess of
Portugal was prospering, as he had reason to believe that if the
Duke became a suitor for the Queen of England’s hand he would be
welcomed. La Mothe, who doubtless had already received his
instructions from France, replied that he had always understood that
the Queen had no intention of marrying, but if she would accept the
Duke for her consort greater peace and tranquillity to France and the
world would result than from anything else. He promised to write to
51
the Queen-mother on the subject, which he did at once. But
Catharine always preferred to negotiate through one of the many
crafty Florentines who were personally devoted to her, rather than
through the leaders of either French political party, so an excuse was
invented for sending her trusty Guido Cavalcanti to England. La
Mothe was ill when Guido arrived in London, and the latter called to
ask after his convalescence. In conversation with the ambassador he
mentioned Elizabeth’s great indignation at the rebuff she had
received through young Cobham from the Archduke Charles, who, to
make matters worse, had since married a Bavarian princess. He then
asked the ambassador whether he thought this would not be a good
opportunity to bring Anjou forward. La Mothe’s reply being
favourable, Cavalcanti next approached Leicester, who was equally
encouraging, and promised to revert to the subject when he
returned from Hampton Court, whither he was then going to see the
Queen. When La Mothe was told this by Cavalcanti, he thought it
time to assert himself as the accredited ambassador, and at once
went to Hampton Court personally. Before seeing the Queen he
visited Leicester, and hinted that approaches had been made to him
for a marriage between the Queen and Anjou, but as Leicester was
regarded by the French as their best friend, he, the ambassador, had
decided to carry the matter no further without his co-operation, so
that he might have the credit of the negotiation. Leicester replied
that he was always against an Austrian alliance, and as the Queen
was determined not to marry a subject, he would sacrifice his own
chance in favour of Anjou’s suit. The matter, he said, could be
discussed fully when the Court returned to London, but in the
meanwhile it would be well for La Mothe to say a word or two to the
Queen about it. When Leicester introduced him into the presence,
Elizabeth was awaiting him in her smartest clothes. After the usual
coy fencing she said she was growing old, and but for the idea of
leaving heirs, would be ashamed to speak about marriage, as she
was one of those women whom men seek for their possessions and
not for their persons. The princes of the house of France, she said,
had the reputation of being good husbands, and to pay all honour to
their wives, but not to love them. This was enough for the present,
and La Mothe sent off post-haste to Catharine a full account of the
interview, with no great confidence, as he said, of a successful
termination of the affair; but the chance was so great a one that it
should not be missed, and the Duke of Anjou should be carefully
prepared. Catharine replied in the same strain. She had considered,
she said, that this might be one of Elizabeth’s intrigues with the
intention of prolonging the negotiations and making use of the
French in the meanwhile, and if the Queen of England had a
daughter or heiress she would be a more fitting match for Anjou
than the Queen herself. But still he (La Mothe) was to keep the
matter alive on every opportunity, and push it forward as if of his
own action. Catharine urged La Mothe that the greatest secrecy
should be observed, but Elizabeth could not refrain from gossiping
about it, and it soon became common talk, much to the annoyance
of La Mothe, who blamed the indiscretion of Chartres and Chatillon,
who blamed each other. In conversation with the ambassador
Elizabeth appeared entirely favourable to the match, but objected
that although Anjou had reached manhood—he was just twenty—he
was still much younger than she. “So much the better for your
Majesty,” replied he, laughingly. On another occasion he extolled the
happiness of his young King Charles IX. with his bride, and advised
all princesses in search of happy matrimony to mate with princes of
the house of France. The Queen thereupon cited some rather
conspicuous instances to the contrary, and said that it would not
satisfy her to be honoured as a Queen, she must be loved for
herself; and La Mothe duly gave the expected gallant reply. Chatillon
was then announced and the ambassador retired. The Cardinal put
the question point blank—would she accept the Duke if he
proposed? To which she replied that on certain conditions she would.
To his request that she would at once submit the proposal to the
52
Council she at first demured, but the next day she did so. “One of
the members only said that the Duke would be rather young, and
that it would be well to consider deeply before they broke entirely
with the house of Burgundy. The other members were silent,
surprised to see her so set upon this marriage, which they have
hitherto thought was merely a fiction. The Earl of Leicester is greatly
dismayed at having been the instigator of it, but the Cardinal
promises him grand estate and honours, and says he shall go to
France to conclude it. The fickleness of the Queen makes it
impossible to say whether the marriage will go forward or not. She
has assured the Cardinal that she is free from any pledge elsewhere,
and that she is determined to marry a prince and not a subject,
53
whilst she has a good opinion of the character of Anjou.” This was
in the third week of January, 1571; and on the 31st of the month La
Mothe was entertained at a grand banquet, where he was seated
next to the Queen. She was as usual sentimental, and afraid that
she would not be loved for herself alone, but the ambassador
assured her that the Prince would both love and honour her, and
would in due time make her the mother of a fine boy. This being an
aspect of the case upon which she liked to dwell, the Queen became
more talkative but pledged herself no further. She was indeed so full
of the subject that she could speak of nothing else. She consulted
Lady Clinton and Lady Cobham, she discussed it with her other
ladies, and the Court was filled with feminine tittle-tattle about
Anjou’s personal charms and supposed gallantries. With regard to
the latter we may reserve our opinion; but of the former we are in
good position to judge from contemporary portraits and descriptions
of him. When the match had begun to look serious Walsingham was
sent as ambassador to France, and before he went he had a long
conversation with Leicester in his closet at Hampton Court, when the
Earl asked him to send a description of the Prince to him as soon as
possible after his arrival. On the 16th of January Leicester wrote to
ask him for this description, and was evidently even then not very
enthusiastic for the match. “I confesse our estate requireth a match,
but God send us a good one and meet for all parties.”
Walsingham, replying on the 28th, says he has had a good
opportunity of seeing the prince, and describes him as being three
inches taller than himself (Walsingham), somewhat sallow, “his body
verie good shape, his legs long and thin but reasonably well
proportioned. What helps he had to supply any defects of nature I
know not. Touching the health of his person I find the opinion
diverse and I know not what to credit, but for my part I forbeare to
be over curious in the search thereof, for divers respects. If all be as
well as outwardly it showeth he is of bodie sound enough. And yet
at this present I do not find him so well coloured as when I was last
54
here.” He goes on to describe him as being haughty at first
approach, but really more affable than either of his brothers. It will
be seen that Walsingham, Puritan and ally of Leicester, was not very
favourable to the match, and he was indeed regarded as opposed to
it in the French Court.
Jean Correro, the Venetian ambassador, describes Anjou as
being stronger built, of better colour, and more agreeable
appearance than his brother, Charles IX., and says he was very fond
of playing with the ladies of the palace; but Michaeli, another
Venetian envoy, paints him in colours more familiar to us. “He is
completely dominated,” he says, “by voluptuousness; covered with
perfumes and essences. He wears a double row of rings, and
pendants at his ears, and spends vast sums on shirts and clothes.
He charms and beguiles women by lavishing upon them the most
55
costly jewels and toys.” Walsingham says that a portrait could not
be sent to England, as it was forbidden to paint pictures of the King
56
or his brothers, but a great French Catholic courtier wrote to
Walsingham, in the hope that he would transmit it to Elizabeth, the
following glowing but insidious account of the young prince: “It is his
misfortune that his portraits do not do him justice. Janet himself has
not succeeded in depicting that certain something which nature has
given him. His eyes, that gracious turn of the mouth when he
speaks, that sweetness which wins over all who approach him,
cannot be reproduced by pen or pencil. His hand is so beautiful that
if it were turned it could not be more perfectly modelled. Do not ask
me whether he has inspired the passion of love! He has conquered
wherever he has cast his eyes, and yet is ignorant of one-hundredth
part of his conquests. You have been persuaded that he has a
leaning to the new religion, and might be brought to adopt it.
Undeceive yourself. He was born a Catholic, he has lived the
declared champion of Catholicism, and, believe me, he will live and
die in the faith. I have, it is true, seen in his hands the psalms of
Marot and other books of that sort, but he only had them to please a
great Huguenot lady with whom he was in love. If the Queen, your
mistress, be not satisfied with so worthy a person she will never
marry. Henceforward the only thing for her to do is to vow perpetual
celibacy.”
Things went smoothly for the first few weeks, although the
French, warned by past experience, were determined not to be
drawn too far unless Elizabeth showed signs of sincerity. But soon
the Guises and the nobles of the league took fright, and the Pope’s
Nuncio personally exhorted Anjou not to be driven into such a match
with a heretic woman who was too old to hope for issue by him. He
told him that “England, which he was well assured was the mark he
chiefly shot at, might be achieved, and that right easily too, by the
sword, to his great honour, and less inconvenience than by making
57
so unfit a match.” Walsingham, on the other hand, was not very
active in pushing the suit. He evidently disbelieved in the Queen’s
sincerity, and he was probably right in doing so, notwithstanding her
professions to him of her desire for the match. Whatever may have
been in the Queen’s own mind, the Walsingham Correspondence
proves beyond question that the marriage was looked upon by Cecil
as necessary at the time, and it would seem as if even Leicester and
Walsingham were reluctantly drawn to the same opinion. Matters
were indeed in a critical condition for England. The Ridolfi plot was
brewing, the English Catholic nobles in a ferment, and the Pope,
Philip, the league, and the Guises, ready to turn their whole power
to the destruction of Elizabeth. Scotland was in revolt against the
English faction, Alba was reported to be preparing for the invasion of
England, and Thomas Stukeley was planning with Philip and the
Pope his descent upon Ireland. It was a desperate, forlorn hope to
think that the painted puppet in the hands of the Catholic party in
France would change his religion for the sake of marrying Elizabeth,
but for the moment there seemed no other chance of salvation for
Protestant England. The Duke himself spoke slightingly of the Queen
and the match. The Guises and the Spanish ambassador, says
Walsingham, “do not stick to use dishonourable arguments to
dissuade him from the same. They urge rather the conquest of
England.” Cecil, on the 3rd of March, told Walsingham from the
Queen that if he were approached on the subject he was to say that
the Queen was convinced of the necessity of marriage for the
welfare of her realm, and would only marry a prince. And then in a
private note Cecil adds: “If God should order this marriage or any
other to take place no time shall be wasted otherwise than honour
should require. I am not able to discern what is best, but surely I
see no continuance of her quietness without a marriage.” Leicester,
even, seems to have believed in the match taking place. He says he
was so anxious for a personal description of the Duke because he
finds that matter is likely to come into question, “and I do perceive
her Majesty more bent upon marrying than heretofore she has been.
God make her fortunate therein.” Walsingham, in a letter to Leicester
(March 9th) in reply, says the opinion is that “unless Anjou marries
the Queen it will be most dangerous, as he will then turn to the
Queen of Scots, since he must be provided for somewhere out of
France.” This, indeed, was almost the only hopeful element in the
situation, the absolute need for the young King and his mother to
deprive the French Catholic nobles of their royal figurehead. Charles
IX. and his mother tried their hardest to persuade Anjou to the
marriage, but for a time without success. The Duke grew more and
more scornful of the match under the influence of the monks by
whom he was surrounded. The Huguenots, to whom it was a matter
of life or death to get rid of the King’s brother as chief of their
enemies, sent Téligny to Charles IX. to complain of the Duke’s
attitude. The King replied that he was sufficient master of his
brother to overcome every obstacle to the match unless it were that
of religion. He said he would send his brother away from the Court
so as to destroy the influence of the monks over him. Catharine at
last despaired, and wrote to La Mothe deploring that Anjou spoke
disparagingly of Elizabeth’s honour, and refused absolutely to marry
her, notwithstanding all her prayers. “So, M. de La Mothe,” she adds,
“you are on the point of losing such a kingdom as that for my
children.” But a few days afterwards, by the aid of Cavalcanti, she
apparently overcame her son’s scruples, and on the 18th of February
she wrote more cheerfully to La Mothe, saying that Anjou had
consented to marry the Queen if he were asked.
Two days after this Lord Buckhurst, with a brilliant suite, arrived
in Paris, ostensibly to congratulate Charles IX. on his marriage, but
with secret instructions from the Queen to negotiate with Catharine
again about the Anjou match. Fêtes and banquets, masques and
coursing, kept Buckhurst brilliantly busy until the eve of his
departure, when Cavalcanti came and asked him whether he would
not like to see the new gardens of the Tuilleries, of which Catharine
was extremely proud. Buckhurst went, and of course found there the
Queen-mother, who expressed pleasurable astonishment at the
unexpected meeting. She was glad, she said, to have the
opportunity before he left of expressing to him the friendship of the
King and herself towards his mistress, and their desire to strengthen
it when opportunity offered. Time was short, and Buckhurst did not
beat about the bush. “Your Majesty doubtless refers to the marriage
of the Queen and the Duke of Anjou,” he said. Catharine replied that
if she and the King could feel sure that Elizabeth was not playing
with them as she had done with others, they would be pleased with
the match, always on condition that their honour did not suffer
thereby. Buckhurst assured her that the Queen had instructed him to
say that she was determined to marry a foreign prince, but as it was
not becoming for a maiden to seek a husband, she could only say
that when she was sought she would prove to them that no mockery
need be feared. Buckhurst tried very hard to draw Catharine into a
direct offer of her son’s hand, but she would only say that if the
Queen really wished to marry they were quite ready to enter into
negotiations. Before Buckhurst left the next day, however, she sent
him a written offer of her son’s hand to the Queen, on certain
conditions to be arranged. Elizabeth’s attitude when she received
this offer by Buckhurst convinces us that, however earnest some of
her councillors may have been to bring about the marriage, she
herself was playing her usual trick. On the 24th of March she wrote
to Walsingham, telling him of the offer made to her through
Buckhurst. It was her wish, she said, that only Walsingham and de
Foix should deal with the matter. It was her intention to marry some
person of royal blood, and Walsingham was to tell the Queen-mother
that his mistress knew full well that it had been reported that she did
not intend to marry, but only to hear offers and “bruits of marriage
from persons of great estate and then reject them.” She was grieved
to be so misunderstood. It is true that at the beginning of her reign
she desired to live single, but the Queen-mother must recollect
whom it was she rejected and how inconvenient such a marriage
would have been. This, of course, referred to Philip II.’s offer, and
was a very adroit turn, considering Catharine’s own feelings towards
her erstwhile son-in-law. Walsingham was, indeed, instructed to take
credit for his mistress’s abnegation and nobleness in refusing such a
match. She was now resolved to marry, he was to say; but through
all the instructions she cleverly avoided giving any specific pledge or
encouragement to Anjou personally. Her language, indeed, is almost
the same as that which she had employed eleven years before with
the Austrian suitors. Amongst the characteristic passages in her
letter is one in which she says that the Queen-mother’s experience
in marriage affairs would enable her to do all that was fitting in the
case without pressing Elizabeth to take too direct a part: “Pray the
Queen-mother not to be over curious as desiring so precise an
answer until the matter may be further treated of and explained,
and not to think it any touch to the honour of her son to be named
as a suitor to us, as others of as great degree have been, though the
motions took no effect, rather for other impediments than for any
58
mislike of their persons.” He was not to say more than needful
about the conditions; but if he were pressed he was to suggest
those adopted on Mary Tudor’s marriage with Philip II. There was no
desire, said Elizabeth, to urge Anjou to any change of conscience,
but he could not be allowed to exercise in England a religion
prohibited by the law, and must attend the Anglican Church for
form’s sake. Above all, the Queen-mother was to be assured that,
whatever might be said to the contrary, Leicester was “ready to
allow of any marriage that we shall like.”
When Walsingham received this ambiguous letter things in Paris
were looking less favourable. Unstable Anjou had again veered
round to the Catholic side, and Spanish intrigues were active all over
Europe to prevent the marriage. Anjou had just told de Foix that he
knew it was “all dalliance,” and reproached him for drawing him so
far in the match. “I will take no step forward,” said the prince,
“unless a decisive reply is sent from England.” When Walsingham
learnt this from de Foix he saw that it would be unwise to repeat his
mistress’s words about religion, and simply told the Queen-mother
that Elizabeth was disposed to accept the hand of the Duke of
Anjou. But this was too dry an answer for Catharine, who well knew
that affairs could not be arranged so easily, and told Walsingham as
much. He replied that as Elizabeth did not wish La Mothe in London
to deal with the affair, all points at issue might be settled by sending
de Foix thither, which Catharine promised should be done shortly,
but at present she preferred to send a “neutre,” as she called
Cavalcanti, upon whose penetration and faithfulness to her she knew
she could depend. It is clear that she still distrusted Elizabeth’s
sincerity, and she was undoubtedly correct in doing so. Leicester’s
59
letters to Walsingham at the same time show that his mind ran in
the same groove as that of the Queen. The Queen, he said, was
determined to marry, but “wished to deal privately, for less reproach
to both parties if nothing came of it.” “The person of Monsieur is well
liked of, but his conversation is harder to know.” There was no
difficulty about Anjou’s person or estate, he said, but the Queen was
firm about religion; whereat he, Leicester, rejoiced, and hoped that
God would always keep her firm therein. He well knew that upon
that rock he could always split the marriage barque when it looked
too much like entering port.
Henry de Valois, Duke of Anjou (Henry III.).

Cavalcanti, who had only just returned from London and who
could better than any man fathom the inner feelings of the English
Court, doubtless made his mistress acquainted with the true state of
affairs; and was again sent back to England with a draft of the
conditions proposed on behalf of Anjou, which shows clearly the
determination of Catharine that there should be no ambiguity in her
son’s position. Cavalcanti arrived in London on the 11th of April,
1571, but did not present his conditions until La Mothe had made a
formal offer, in the name of the King of France, of his brother’s hand.
The Duke, he said, had long felt great admiration and affection for
her, to which the Queen replied that the matter had already been
mentioned to her by others. She then elaborately excused herself for
the delay that had attended her other marriage negotiations,
promised that no cause for complaint in this respect should exist in
the present instance, and hoped that the French would not be too
exacting on the point of religion. The next day they came to
business. Cecil and Leicester were deputed to examine the draft
contract; and Cecil’s copy thereof is still at Hatfield and is printed by
the Historical MSS. Commission in the Hatfield Papers, part 2.
The proposals, which are evidently such as Elizabeth could never
have accepted, may be summarised as follows: (1) No ceremonies
were to be used at the marriage but those in accordance with the
religion of Monseigneur. (2) That he and his household should be
allowed the free exercise of their religion. (3) That immediately after
the marriage he should receive the title of king and govern and
administer the country jointly with the Queen. (4) That he should be
crowned after the consummation of the marriage. (5) That he
should receive from the English revenues a life pension of £60,000
sterling a year. (6) That the issue of the marriage should succeed to
the paternal and maternal properties in conformity with the laws of
the countries where such property may be situate. (7) That in the
event of the Queen’s predeceasing her husband and leaving issue he
was to govern the country as king on their behalf. (8) In case there
were no issue Anjou was to still be paid his pension of £60,000 for
life.
On the 14th Cecil submitted to the Queen the draft answer to be
sent to these proposals, and after some alterations were made in it,
Cavalcanti started for France with the English terms on the 17th of
April. This able State paper will also be found entire in part 2 of the
Hatfield Papers (Hist. MSS. Com.), and appears to be a sincere
attempt on the part of Cecil to compromise matters, although there
are two or three points upon which the Queen probably depended to
raise further difficulties if necessary to prevent the match. The
marriage was to be celebrated according to the English rites, but
Anjou’s ministers might attend as witnesses, so far as might be
necessary to legalise the marriage from his point of view. The Duke,
however, was not required to act against his conscience if any of the
ceremonies were openly offensive to the Catholic religion. Neither he
nor his household were to be compelled against their conscience to
attend Anglican worship, but the Queen’s consort was expected to
accompany her to church at suitable and accustomed times. He was
forbidden to attempt to change any of the ecclesiastical laws or
customs of England, or to favour those who violated them. He was
not to allow, so far as he could help, the ceremonies of the English
Church to be despised. He was to have the title of king and his
status was to be fixed by the precedent of Philip and Mary, but he
was not to be crowned. The Queen would undertake to supply him
with such sums from the Treasury as she might consider necessary
for the proper maintenance of his position. The French demands
with regard to the issue of the marriage were practically conceded,
but the demand for a life pension to continue even after the death of
the Queen was refused.
Matters, however, were not brought even to this point without a
great deal of finesse and wrangling between La Mothe and the
Queen and many long interviews with Cecil and Leicester. When
Cavalcanti was about to depart La Mothe begged the Queen to write
a letter to Anjou in answer to one he had sent to her. She, of course,
was shocked; she had never done such a thing, the pen would fall
from her hand, she would not know what to say, and so on. But the
letter was written nevertheless, and a very curious production it is,
full of worldly wisdom about the marriage proposals, but with plenty
of fulsome flattery of Anjou’s beauty, of his lovely hand, and his gifts
of mind and body. She apparently thought herself entitled to a little
flattery from La Mothe in return, and sighed that whilst in seven or
eight years the Duke would be better looking than ever, she would
have grown old. She then asked whether any one had spoken to the
Duke about her foot, her arm, “and other things she did not
mention,” and said she thought the Duke very desirable, to which La

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