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Stefan Bracke

Reliability
Engineering
Data analytics, modeling, risk prediction
Reliability Engineering
Stefan Bracke

Reliability Engineering
Data analytics, modeling, risk prediction
Stefan Bracke
Lehrstuhl für Zuverlässigkeitstechnik
und Risikoanalytik
Bergische Universität Wuppertal
Wuppertal, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-67445-1 ISBN 978-3-662-67446-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-67446-8

This book is a translation of the original German edition „Technische Zuverlässigkeit“ by Bracke, Stefan,
published by Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE in 2022. The translation was done with the help of artificial
intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was done
primarily in terms of content, so that the book will read stylistically differently from a conventional
translation. Springer Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the production of
books and on the related technologies to support the authors.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
For
Manmoleja
scientia, agnitio et opus: ars gratia artis
Foreword

A technically complex product or a complex production process fulfils on the

one hand the requirements in terms of a usually wide range of functions, and on
the other hand also the requirements for technical reliability with regard to the
expected product life cycle and maintainability. The development of technical
products over the past 100 years shows an enormous increase in terms of prod-
uct complexity, the constant enlargement of the range of functions and functionali-
ties. In addition, there is the interaction of components from different disciplines
such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and computer science. This
development has led to a focus on technical reliability in addition to the pure ful-
filment of requirements with regard to the functional spectrum.
Against this background, technical reliability has established itself as an inde-
pendent, interdisciplinary discipline, first in military technology and then in all
civil technology disciplines and industries, such as power plant technology, aero-
nautical technology, automotive technology, apparatus/plant engineering, electri-
cal/electronic consumer goods and medical technology. Technical reliability is
an essential, elementary contributor with regard to the safe confident realization
of function-critical and safety-critical product characteristics in the development,
realization and operation of technically complex products. Furthermore, require-
ments of reliability engineering have also an influence on the manufacturing
processes.
The focus of this book is on data analysis for mapping and assessing technical
reliability by the use of probabilistics, statistics and modelling. The methods of
technical reliability are applied in the elementary phases of the product develop-
ment process (concept and series development, production) as well as during the
field use of technical products.
The book is aimed equally at engineering students and engineers who deal with
technical reliability in the context of the development and manufacture of complex
technical products and in the context of field data analysis. The presentation of the
methods and procedures of technical reliability follows the maxim “theory-guided –
practice-oriented”, so that this book can be used both as a reference work and as a
textbook.
In the preparation of this work I have received support from various persons.
Special thanks go to Alicia Puls for the extensive proofreading: The critical
review of all texts, the careful examination of the procedures shown, as well as

vii
viii Foreword

the discussions on technical content with patience and perseverance have contrib-
uted significantly to the success of the present work. Furthermore, I would like
to thank Brigitte Fricke as well as Renate Rutter for their support in the prepara-
tion of numerous graphics and schematic diagrams. Furthermore, I would like to
thank Marcin Hinz for the manifold exchange on the topic of accelerated testing,
Christoph Rosebrock for the technical discussions on probabilistics and Dominik
Brüggemann for the discussions on the topic of significance tests.
I would like to thank the ladies and gentlemen of Springer Verlag, in particular
Susanne Schemann and Alexander Grün, for their dedicated advice and patience in
the preparation of this book.
A very special, personal thanks goes to Monika Piskala for her constant sup-
port in this book project over many years. Finally, I would also like to thank Mr.
Grauburgunder for his occasional presence at the one or other philosophical dis-
cussion and for his pleasant, cool and dry contributions.
Despite all efforts in the preparation of the texts and the presentation of the
methods, errors are not excluded. Comments from readers on improvements or
corrections to the technical content are welcome and can be sent to the subse-
quently following adress:
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Bracke
Chair of Reliability Engineering and Risk Analytics
University of Wuppertal, Germany
e-mail address: bracke@uni-wuppertal.de

Cologne, Stefan Bracke

May 2023
Contents

1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Structure of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 History of the Discipline Technical Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Technical Reliability and Product Emergence Process. . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Product Emergence Process and Product Life Cycle. . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Basic Features of the Product Emergence Process . . . . 9
2.1.2 Concept and Series Development Phases . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.3 Production and Distribution Phases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Technical Reliability in the Product Emergence Process. . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Use of Technical Reliability Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Risk Elimination and Risk Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Elementary Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Statistics and Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Product and Process Characteristics and Their Specifity. . . . . . . 24
3.3 Technical Reliability and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.1 Technical Reliability According to Bitter and DIN. . . . 28
3.3.2 Discussion of the Definition of Reliability
According to Bitter and DIN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.3 Definition of Technical Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.4 Technical Reliability and Failure Behaviour. . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.5 Data, Damage Data, Product Fleet and Censoring. . . . . 33
3.3.6 Key Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.7 Maintenance and Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Measuring and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Risk and Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Descriptive Statistics: Forms of Visulization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 Introduction and Case Study Engine Connecting Rod . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Value Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Bar Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 Histogram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 Cumulative Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

ix
x Contents

4.6 Mathematical Papers: Log Representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.6.1 Logarithmic paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6.2 Weibull Probability Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7 Boxplot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.8 Isochrone Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.9 X–Y Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5 Probability and Random Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1 Probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 Probabilistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 Examples for Probabilistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.3.1 Sampling Inspection in the Incoming Inspection. . . . . . 71
5.3.2 Urn Model: The Ball Drawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.3 The Monty Hall Problem (Goat Problem). . . . . . . . . . . 75
6 Data Collection and First Analysis Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Data Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.3 Estimation Methods for Unknown Parameters
Mean and Dispersion of a Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.1 Estimators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3.2 Estimators and Estimates for Mean Μ
and Variance σ2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.3 Estimation Function and Estimation
of the Proportion Value p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Basic Estimators and Characteristics of a Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.4.1 Case Study Engine Connecting Rod: Characteristic
Description, Characteristic Values of a Sample. . . . . . . 87
6.4.2 Estimator for the Mean Value Based on a Sample. . . . . 88
6.4.3 Estimator for the Dispersion Based on a Sample. . . . . . 89
6.4.4 Mean, Dispersion and Skewness
of a Measured Value Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7 Distribution Models and Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1 Fundamentals of a Distribution Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2 Continuous Distribution Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.2.1 Basics and Fields of Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.2.2 Normal Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2.3 Standard Normal Distribution and Application. . . . . . . 99
7.2.4 Folded Normal Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.5 Rayleigh Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.6 Logarithmic Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.7 Weibull Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2.8 Exponential Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2.9 Uniform Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2.10 Gamma Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Contents xi

7.2.11 Erlang Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7.2.12 Extreme Value Distribution Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.13 Distribution Model and Technical
Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3 Test Distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.1 t-Distribution According to Gosset
(Respectively Student). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.2 χ2 -Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.3 Fisher’s F-Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.4 Discrete Distribution Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4.1 Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.4.2 Binomial Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.4.3 Poisson Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4.4 Hypergeometric Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.5 Growth Process and Saturation Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.5.1 Logistic Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.5.2 Application Example Verhulst Model:
Corrosion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.6 Mixed Distribution Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.6.1 Alternative Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.6.2 Competing Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8 Distribution Models: Parameter Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.1 Regression Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation Method (Fisher). . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.3 Special Parameter Estimators with Reference
to Specific Distribution Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3.1 Dubey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3.2 Gumbel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.3.3 Tintner and Rhodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9 Confidence Intervals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.1 Introduction Confidence Interval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.2 Confidence Intervals for Estimators with
Normally Distributed Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.2.1 Confidence Interval for Unknown Mean
with Known Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.2.2 Confidence Interval for Unknown Mean
with Unknown Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.2.3 Confidence Interval for Unknown Variance. . . . . . . . . . 161
9.2.4 Application Example: Confidence Interval
for Mean and Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.3 Confidence Interval for Proportion Value
with Binomially Distributed Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.3.1 Approximation via Normal Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . 167
xii Contents

9.3.2 Application Example: Confidence Interval

for a Proportion Value p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.3.3 Approaches Based on Clopper-Pearson
and Fisher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.4 Weibull Distribution Model: Confidence
Intervals of Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.1 Shape Parameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.2 Characteristic Life Span. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.3 Threshold (Threshold, Failure-Free Time). . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.5 Confidence Interval for a Function (Distribution Model) . . . . . . 177
10 Correlation and Regression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.1 Basics of Correlation and Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.2 Correlation Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.2.1 Correlation According to Bravais-Pearson. . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.2.2 Correlation According to Spearman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.3 Regression Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.4 Case Studies on Correlation and Regression Analysis. . . . . . . . . 190
10.5 Spurious Causality and Correlation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11 System Analysis: Function, Fault Tree and Failure
Mode and Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1 Basics of Function and Fault Tree Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1.1 Fault tree: Development and Visualisation. . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.1.2 Boolean Algebra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.1.3 Illustration of System Function
and Failure Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.1.4 Importance Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.2 Application Examples: Function and Fault Tree Analysis. . . . . . 213
11.2.1 Braking System of a Motor Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.2.2 Bridge Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11.2.3 Double Bridge Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.3 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12 Analysis of the Failure Behaviour of Components,
Assemblies, Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.1 Reliability Analysis Based on Damage Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.1.1 Base of Operations and Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.1.2 Data Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.1.3 Mapping of the Failure Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.1.4 Key Indicators for the Characterisation
of the Failure Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
12.1.5 Confidence Intervals for Parameters,
Key Indicators and Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.1.6 Survival Probability and Failure Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Contents xiii

12.1.7 Interpretation of Key Indicators

and Model Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.1.8 Candidate Prognosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.2 Case Study: Analysis of Failure Behaviour
of a Coolant Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.3 Candidate Prognosis in Testing and Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.3.1 Sudden Death Test and Field Data Analytics. . . . . . . . . 252
12.3.2 Johnson Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
12.3.3 Procedure According to Nelson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.3.4 Product Use Profile: Empirical Distribution
Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
12.3.5 Kaplan and Meier Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.3.6 Eckel Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.4 RAPP – Analysis of Serial Damages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
12.4.1 Risk Analysis and Prognosis
of complex Products (RAPP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.4.2 Case Study RAPP: Damage Focus in a Fleet. . . . . . . . . 264
12.5 Case Study Sensor: Failure Behaviour;
Saturation Model Versus Weibull Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
13 Significance Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
13.1 Introduction and Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
13.2 Basics of Significance Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
13.2.1 Performance of Significance Tests, p-Value. . . . . . . . . . 278
13.2.2 Error 1st Kind, Error 2nd Kind
and Test Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
13.2.3 Dependent and Independent Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.2.4 Parametric and Parameter-Free Significance Tests . . . . 283
13.2.5 Overview: Statistical Tests for the One,
Two, Multiple Sample Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13.3 Single Sample Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
13.3.1 Wallis-Moore Test for Randomness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
13.3.2 Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test: Test of
Goodness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
13.3.3 Sign Test: Test for Location Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
13.3.4 Test for Outliers Within an Observation Series. . . . . . . 302
13.3.5 t-Test: Comparison of Sample Mean
Against Reference Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
13.3.6 Cox and Stuart Test: Trend Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
13.4 Two Sample Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.4.1 Mann–Whitney U Test: Comparison
of Two Centroids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.4.2 Siegel-Tukey Test: Dispersion Comparison. . . . . . . . . . 317
13.4.3 t-Test: Comparison of Two Mean Values. . . . . . . . . . . . 324
13.4.4 F-Test: Comparison of Two Variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
xiv Contents

13.5 Multi-Sample Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

13.5.1 Kruskal–Wallis H Test and Conover
Post hoc Analysis: Centroids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
13.5.2 Bartlett-Test: Comparison of Variances. . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.5.3 Meyer-Bahlburg Test: Comparison of Variances. . . . . . 339
14 Prototype Testing and Accelerated Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
14.1 Accelerated Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
14.2 Quantitative Accelerated Testing: Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
14.2.1 Arrhenius Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
14.2.2 Wöhler Test and Damage Accumulation
Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
14.2.3 Inverse Power Law: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
14.2.4 Coffin-Manson Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.2.5 Inverse Power Weibull Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.2.6 Lundberg-Palmgren Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.2.7 Taylor Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
14.2.8 Eyring Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.2.9 Power Acceleration Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.3 Minimum Test Scope in a Prototype Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.3.1 Test Scope on the Basis of Survival Probability . . . . . . 361
14.3.2 Test Scope Based on Failure Behaviour
and Test Duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
14.4 Case Study: Accelerated Testing and Weibull
Distribution Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
14.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
14.4.2 Accelerated Testing: Example Paper
Clip Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
14.5 Qualitative Accelerated Testing: HALT and HASS. . . . . . . . . . . 372
15 Test Process Suitability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
15.1 Basics of the Analysis of Measuring and Testing Processes. . . . 377
15.2 Test Equipment Capability and Test Process Suitability. . . . . . . 381
15.3 Short-Term Test Equipment Capability: Cg-/Cgk-Study. . . . . . . . 384
15.3.1 Basics of the Cg-/Cgk-Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
15.3.2 Application Example Cg-/Cgk-Study:
Cylinder Head Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
15.4 Repeatability and Reproducibility: %GRR Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 387
15.4.1 Basics of the %GRR Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
15.4.2 Application Example %GRR Study:
Engine Piston Rod Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
15.5 Test Process Suitability: Analysis of Measurement
Uncertainty (QMS-/QMP-Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
15.5.1 Analysis of the measurement uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . 392
15.5.2 Notes on the Analysis of Measurement
Uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Contents xv

15.5.3 Application Example QMS-/QMP-Study:

Measurement of Body-in-White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.6 Notes and References: Procedure X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
16 Statistical Process Control (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
16.1 Basics and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
16.1.1 Process suitability analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
16.1.2 Inspection Strategy: Full Inspection versus
Sampling Inspection Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
16.2 Planning and Realization of SPC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
16.2.1 Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
16.2.2 Summary: Scope of Analysis, Indices and Notes . . . . . 412
16.3 Machine and Process Analysis: Capability Indices. . . . . . . . . . . 413
16.3.1 Machine Capability and Preliminary
Process Capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
16.3.2 Process Capability in the Current Series. . . . . . . . . . . . 414
16.3.3 Capability Analysis with Arbitrary
Distribution Model: Quantile Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
16.3.4 Capability Analysis and Interpretation
of Process Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
16.3.5 Case Study: Capability Analysis
of a Machining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
16.4 Multivariate Process Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
16.4.1 Multivariate Process Capability Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
16.4.2 Reject Probability Regarding Characteristic Sets . . . . . 428
16.5 Process Visualization and Control Technology:
Control Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
16.5.1 Basics: Structure of Control Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
16.5.2 Control Charts for Continuous Characteristics . . . . . . . 435
16.5.3 Case Study Engine Piston Rod: Acceptance
and Shewhart Control Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
16.5.4 Control Charts for Discrete Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . 441
16.5.5 Case Study Grey Cast Iron Component
Production: Design of a Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
16.5.6 Analysis of Typical Process Scenarios
by Means of Control Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Introduction
1

A technical product is characterised by a high level of functionality, good usability

and an attractive design, as well as a high level of technical reliability. The techni-
cal reliability of a product is defined as follows:
“Reliability is the probability that a unit will not fail with respect to its func-
tion- and safety–critical characteristics during a defined time interval or interval
related to a time-correlated lifetime variable under given functional and environ-
mental conditions”; cf. in detail Sect. 3.3.
The development and manufacture of reliable products, components and sys-
tems in the various specialist disciplines and industries – such as power plant
engineering, automotive engineering, aerospace engineering, toolmaking and
mechanical engineering, plant engineering, apparatus/plant engineering, consumer
goods industry – takes place under challenges and conditions that have been sub-
ject to dynamic development for decades:

• Increasing product complexity, number of derivatives and variants,

• Continuous expansion of the requirement profile for the range of functions and
functionality,
• Interdependencies between mechanical and electronic components,
• Integration of complex product and process controls: High data volume, com-
plex data compression and focused information appropriation,
• Different product life cycles of mechanical and electronic components,
• Interaction of mechanical components, hardware and software,
• Interaction through networking of products and processes,
• Complex value networks: in-house production versus outsourcing,
• Reduction of product development time due to competitive situation,
• Legislation regarding product safety and product liability.

The technical reliability of a product can be analysed in every phase of the product
development process (concept, series development and production) as well as in

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024 1

S. Bracke, Reliability Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-67446-8_1
Exploring the Variety of Random
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 At no time is general thinning of the hair more marked or more
frequent than after confinements, or in mothers who are nursing
when in a somewhat debilitated condition. Here general tonics are
needed. The following lotion, of a stimulating character, may be
employed with great advantage at the same time: Distilled vinegar, 2
oz.; rum, 1 oz.; glycerine 2 dr.; tincture of lytta, 4 dr.; elder-flower
water, 4 oz.; or tincture of bark, 4 dr.; cherry-laurel water, 4 oz.;
glycerine, 2 dr. It will be seen at once that the treatment of almost
all cases of general thinning of the hair is not merely local but
constitutional, and that we may pour and besmear tons of the most
nutritious liquids and pastes, pomades, and the like upon an
unfortunate head without doing much good. It is necessary that the
machinery itself be given the power to work healthily and happily,
and such power is given from the nutritive organs in the centre of
our bodies, and by the vital fluid that flows in our veins and arteries.
As a remedy for dandriff, a French physician recommends that a
solution of chloral hydrate, containing 5 per cent., should be applied
to the scalp by means of a sponge every morning. The quantity
employed should be ½-1 oz. A slight burning sensation and
reddening of the scalp occurs, disappearing after 2 minutes. If the
hair has fallen off in consequence of the dandriff it will be renewed
in about a month.
A teaspoonful of ammonia, added to 1 qt. of water, is the best
possible agent for cleansing hair brushes.
Shaving.—(a) Soreness from shaving may be cured by anointing
the part with glycerine every night before going to bed, and dusting
it with precipitated Fuller’s-earth after shaving.
(b) Before you begin, study the grain of your beard in the glass,
and do not shave against the grain. In some beards the grain runs
from one ear to the other, instead of both shaping to the chin. In
others the grain runs half way down the neck, and then half way up.
Next wash very thoroughly before you shave in warm water, which
will be lathering No. 1, rubbing the beard with the lump of soap and
fingers with good perseverance. Then commence lathering No. 2,
using the brush with really hot water, aiming to produce as thick a
soapy composition on the skin as possible to fill up the spaces
between the hairs. Dipping the fingers in a little oil softens the
beard, and prevents the lather drying so quick. You cannot lather too
much. Strop your razor on your own hand, and preserve it from
damp by wiping it only on chamois leather. Never lay a razor down
open, and put it away safely in its case. If you will take extra trouble
in the lathering you will get an easy shave. Hairdressers set razors
better than cutlers.
Toothbrushes.—Tap the brush before using it, to see if you can
jerk out any loose bristles. Tap the brush after using it, to shake out
the water, and put it away fairly dry. Do not keep it closely shut up in
a brush tray or dressing-bag bottle. Loose bristles may be found in a
new brush in consequence of the wire having cut the bristles in half
while drawing them into the hole, the knot being too full. Bristles
may project beyond the level of the serge, the knot being too slack;
clip them off; do not withdraw them, and thereby make the knot still
more slack. Bristles will perish if brushes are put away thoroughly
wet, and left for days to get thoroughly dry; after a time, even with
the greatest care, this will happen. Brushes will smell offensively if
closely shut up when wet; they will also become discoloured. Some
people select a brush too soft for their requirement, and make it
harder by pressure, breaking down the bristles, which they would
not do if their brush was sufficiently hard.
Dressing-jackets and gowns.—Under the term “combing jacket,”
people often include, not only the loose garment thrown over the
shoulders while doing one’s hair, but the warm, becoming jacket
required by an invalid sitting up in bed. It is best to distinguish
between the two, and to call the latter a camisole. The combing
jacket should always be of some washing material. A three-quarters
length loose-fitting jacket, with long open sleeves, is best. White
muslins and percales in summer, and white flannels and serges in
winter, are the most suitable materials; but ordinary prints, if the
pattern be pretty, will answer every purpose of home wear. If meant
for invalid wear, they should be made as coquettishly as possible—of
pale-blue cashmere, with jabots of cream-coloured lace falling down
the front.
A very showy little dressing gown, in which one can see servants,
tradesmen, and even friends, is made as follows: Run up a crimson
quilted sateen walking skirt. As this is to form part of the dressing
gown, it must be cut up in front from hem to waist, and fastened
together in the ordinary way with buttons. Then choose some pretty
chintz or Pompadour material and make up a loose polonaise,
separating into two side curtains in front, and bunched up behind.
Fasten the band of your quilted petticoat securely to the waist of
your polonaise, and you are then able to put on the whole
arrangement as you would an ordinary dressing gown. If you make,
in addition, a muslin mob cap, trimmed with crimson ribbon, you will
present a marked contrast to the usual slovenliness of ordinary
dressing gowns.
Undressing.—A certain amount of organic matter gets into the
outer clothing, and, therefore, when these garments are taken off
they should always be hung up in a current of air. It is a common
practice to spread clothing upon the bed, to give additional warmth
during the night; but this practice is really very pernicious, as the
woollen clothes get charged with organic matter, that slowly
putrefies, and gives off not only a nasty fusty smell, but also
dangerous poisonous fumes. Clothes should always be hung upon
pegs.

Dress.—Requirements of clothing.—The object of clothing in cold

climates is to retain and economise the heat which is constantly
being produced within the body by vital processes, such as
digestion, respiration, muscular exercise, and brain work. In hot
countries the body must be covered as a protection against the rays
of the sun. A secondary object of clothing among women is
adornment.
All clothing should be as light as is consistent with sufficient
warmth, and should be so fashioned as not to interfere with the
proper movements of the body. Easy clothes are much warmer than
tight ones, and, paradoxical though it seems, are cooler in warm
weather. Admitting of more perfect ventilation, they do not so readily
become moist with perspiration, and then cling unpleasantly to the
wearer. Some materials permit heat to pass too quickly through
them, and do not sufficiently impede evaporation. Of the various
substances which only admit of gradual radiation or escape of heat
from the body, wool of many different sorts is most generally
suitable; and this is produced in such abundance and at such a price
that all can obtain clothes made from it. In this we only copy the
lower animals which, being exposed to great alternations of
temperature, have a loose open fleece or hairy covering; so a loose,
open-wove porous material makes the warmest garment. Hence
knitted underclothing and fleecy or thick soft cloth for outer wear are
cosiest, though it must be admitted not in all cases the most
durable. The warmth of the dress depends, too, on the way it is
manufactured. It is an established fact that the weight of a material
may be largely diminished without destroying any of its heat-
preserving powers, and this may even in some cases be increased by
manufacturing it very loosely, so as to contain a quantity of air in its
meshes, stationary air being a bad conductor of heat. It is in this
way that the silk and cotton-netted vests, with meshes ½ in. in
diameter, which have been lately introduced, are so warm and
sanitary, as, with the aid of the linen and other garments worn over
them, a stationary layer of warm air is kept continually next the skin.
In warm weather the clothing should be loose, so as to admit freely
of currents of air passing over the surface of the body; in winter it
should be moulded to the figure, but without being tight. Colour, too,
has an influence. If equally thick, dark stuffs are warmest, because
such absorb more of the sun’s rays. Light coloured articles of dress
reflect more of these rays, and hence are cooler. Grey presents a
medium tint which suits our climate well.
Underclothing.—Underclothing should always be of wool, and
every one ought, in this climate, and even in India, at all seasons, to
wear woollen materials next the skin. This is even more imperative
at the two extremes of life; in the cases of infants and aged persons,
whose powers of reducing heat are less active than those of
individuals in the vigour of middle life or of youth, and who are
therefore less able to resist cold. In winter, either hand-knitted
under-vests and drawers, or machine made, in imitation of hand-
knitted, are the best. In summer these woollen under garments
should on no account be entirely laid aside, but when the warm
season has fairly set in, here scarcely ever till June is well advanced,
thinner and lighter ones, made of merino, should replace the thicker
worn in winter and spring. If any article of underclothing is to be
thrown off in summer, it should be the drawers, the under vest never
during the day. Clothing worn in the daytime should invariably be
put off at night, to be replaced by cotton or linen night dresses.
Many wear under-flannels night and day, but the good effects which
result from wearing flannel next the skin are thus much lessened.
Flannel is worn by day when one is actively occupied (and the
perspiration is thereby increased) to prevent becoming suddenly
chilled. This is unnecessary, as a rule, during sleep. Flannel night
dresses are preferable for children to linen or cotton. Children have
less heat-producing powers, and are apt to throw off the bed-
clothes. For them a night dress, made somewhat like a bathing
costume, suits best, as it is then impossible that, though the bed-
clothes are tossed off, the child can be entirely exposed. In old
persons, and in those with strongly developed rheumatic tendencies,
flannel is also the best material for night dresses; but in all these
cases there must be special garments for day and night, each to be
reserved for its proper time and use. At night the feet must be kept
warm, warmed artificially if cold on going to bed, since, unless they
are warm, it is not possible to sleep soundly—in many instances
even to sleep at all.
Underclothing for use in the day should not extend farther down
the arms than half-way to the elbow, for healthy men, as this
permits much greater freedom of movement for the arms; in women
and children it should reach from wrists to toes and be cut with a
high neck. It should never be allowed to become too dirty before
being changed, since this renders it both unwholesome to the
wearer and unpleasant to those around him. It gets loaded with
perspiration and particles cast off from the skin, which, being animal
products, tend readily to decompose. A week is the limit to the time
they should be worn before being changed, and thus an endeavour
should be made to have a sufficient number of underclothes to allow
of this necessary frequency of change. There is no special virtue in
coloured flannel. One often hears red or blue flannel, especially
when new, credited with surprising qualities; but it has a doubtful
advantage in that it does not show dirt so soon as white or cream-
coloured, is assuredly not warmer, and brightly dyed wools are often
the cause of eruptions on the skin.
Intermediate clothing.—The material of which this is made, varies
in the two sexes. Whatever its component parts, it should not be
tight. Were the strict underclothing, that worn next the skin, made
warm enough, perhaps worn double, there would be less need for
the multiplicity of skirts and heavy petticoats still used by some. One
woollen under-garment is not so warm as two, even though the one
be as thick and as heavy, as the two are separated by a layer of air,
and so heat is less rapidly transmitted and lost. Something of what is
known as the Bloomer, or rather the modern combination dress,
might very well replace all but the gown proper. A very warm
material, and not heavy, is found in chamois leather. An under-dress
of this has really reason, besides elegance, on its side.
Much has already been said on the subject of stays and tight
lacing, but with little real effect. Many women complain that they
cannot walk uphill or upstairs without feeling short of breath. This is
largely due to the natural expansive movements of breathing being
limited to a minimum by stays. Their effect, bad in all cases, is worst
in growing girls, whose ribs are still yielding and elastic, and thus
more easily compressed. Parents are now becoming somewhat more
alive to the fact, that there must be for girls as well as boys a due
proportion of free out-door exercise associated with the lessons at
school. In too many girls the natural supports of the spine, the
muscles of the back and chest, have partly been left undeveloped by
want of exercise, partly been wasted and cramped by the pressure
and the artificial support of hard, unyielding, and too often tightly
laced stays. Hence it is that far more girls than boys have twisted
spines. Girls would be as straight as boys are usually had they only
fair treatment. The muscles of the back being weak, the girl sits
habitually to one side or the other, and what was at first merely an
awkward habit, becomes very soon a decided curvature. If
something must be worn to support the figure, a softer and more
pliant article than ordinary stays might easily be devised. The corset
recommended and used at the Girton Ladies’ College is reported to
be such. Though the stays may be loose and easy, or absent
altogether, dresses are often made or become too tight across the
chest. When unbuttoned or unhooked, often a considerable space
exists between the buttons and the button-holes, when the
shoulders are held only properly back. This should not be. Such
dresses prevent the lungs from expanding in the movements of
respiration, interfere with easy and full breathing, narrow the chest
round the shoulders, and favour if they do not directly lead to,
consumption. Dresses for grown up persons should be full across the
chest, for growing girls specially so; and when first made they ought
to have enough cloth laid in to admit of ready enlargement, for a
dress often becomes too small before it is worn out.
Here a few words are needed as to the place from which to hang
the clothing—whether it should be supported from the shoulders or
the hips (not waist). We heartily endorse Dr. Bernard Roth, when he
says that Dr. Richardson is quite wrong in recommending that ladies’
dresses should be made to hang from the shoulders, and not from
the hips. Many cases of spinal lateral curvature may be attributed to
hanging an excessive weight of clothing from the shoulders. Growing
girls and weakly women have sufficient difficulty as it is in holding
themselves erect while carrying the head, neck and trunk, and upper
extremities, without unnecessarily dragging down the shoulders by
the weight of the long and heavy skirts exacted by fashion. It is
much more sensible and scientific to attach the skirts to bands round
the pelvis, where only the solid hip bone is pressed upon. Another
great objection to suspending the skirts from the shoulders is that
the respiratory movements of the upper part of the chest are
unavoidably impeded by this arrangement.
For similar reasons braces are not so beneficial as Dr. Richardson
believes, even for men who are not over-strong, and who would
stoop less and find their chests freer by wearing braceless trousers
fitted with an elastic band round, but not above the hip bones. Who
among us would do heavy work or exercise in braces and no belt?
Every labourer and every athlete discards braces for a waistbelt
when actively engaged. At the same time the belt must not
compress the inside—the trousers should hang from the hip bones.
There is an additional value in the waistbelt, if it take the form of a
woollen or silk sash, that it protects the viscera from sudden chills,
and this is deemed of high importance in fever and cholera
countries.
As to the question between trousers and knee-breeches, there can
be no doubt that knee-breeches are on the whole more seemly and
convenient than trousers. Certainly all callings which entail much
physical exertion would profit by the change. In particular, this is
true of labour in the open air. In this form of work especially, where
there is frequent and prolonged movement of joint and muscle, the
weight of surplus clothing soon occasions weariness, and the
surroundings are not the most cleanly. The labourer if knee-
breeched and gaitered would be disencumbered of as much heavy
moleskin or corduroy as would otherwise fall below the knee, a part
of his clothing would not then as now flap about the feet for no
good purpose but to be soiled by the mire of his work, or in wet and
cold weather to lead to illness by chilling or freezing on his legs.
Gaiters of some close and not too heavy material might be worn
over the stockings. They would be comparatively out of the way of
dirt, would maintain warmth, would brace the muscles by equal and
moderate pressure (a noteworthy consideration with men who are
much on their feet), and if wetted might be easily removed and
replaced by another pair. (Lancet.)
 Though in summer cotton socks are cool and pleasant, when one
can wear thin shoes, and there does not exist any necessity for
walking a long distance, woollen stockings are actually much more
suitable at all seasons. Woollen stockings woven of coarse yarn
absorb the perspiration and preserve the feet from blistering, and
are cooler than cotton ones on a long walk. Tight garters are
frequently worn below the knee by women. Garters in any position
are bad, but if used they should be worn above the knee, as the two
tendons to be felt at the back of the joint receive the pressure and
act as a bridge to the veins which pass beneath. The garters as
usually worn are a frequent cause of enlarged veins in the leg, and
by interfering with the blood supply of the foot also favour the
development of chilblains. Stocking suspenders bearing on the hips
are far better.
Boots.—Boots and shoes must be easy, broad in the toes and sole
generally, while the waist should have some degree of elasticity and
not be absolutely rigid. High and narrow heels give an insecure hold
of the ground, and throw the weight, which ought to be distributed
over the sole, forward on the front part of the base of the toes. This
unnatural position, besides rendering the risk of sprained ankles
much greater, stretches the fibrous bands which bind the various
and complicated bones of the instep into a beautiful arch, strong yet
springy. The tough fibres yield, the foot flattens, elasticity and grace
of movement disappear to a large extent, and aching pains are
complained of. If we wish to walk elegantly, comfortably, far, and
with ease, straight broad soles and low heels must be worn.
Attention should constantly be paid to children’s boots and shoes, so
as to have them lengthened or renewed as soon as they become
short. The foot elongates considerably in walking, so all boots should
have a full ½ in. or more of spare length to permit of this. Women’s
boots and shoes are generally far too thin. Besides being worn
thicker, the addition of an inner sole of cork covered with felt
excludes damp from the ground or pavement, and aids in keeping
the feet warm. These soles should, however, be taken out and dried
at night or when the boots are laid aside. Lacing boots are better
than elastic side ones, though in some ways the latter are more
convenient. Patent leather boots are only suitable for occasional
wear; like galoshes, they do not allow the escape of perspiration,
hence are unhealthy, and if worn constantly engender habitual cold
feet.
Do not purchase boots the uppers of which are formed of leather
possessing an artificial grain. This is easy to detect; the rollers from
which the skins receive their impressions are of too even a pattern,
and the imitation is struck deeper than the real. Good upper leathers
should handle mellow; leather destitute of suppleness and soft
silkiness, or that leaves a decided line whenever pressed into a
crease, should, in all instances, be avoided. With regard to the soles
of boots, great precautions should be used to see that they are of
the thickness they seem to be. It has become a practice with cutting
manufacturers to use an outer sole of extremely light substance,
making up the deficiency by means of an extra inserted welt. By this
plan a box is formed between the inner and outer sole, the
hollowness of which is filled in with scraps of leather, cardboard, or
any foreign substance that is easily procurable and is fitted for the
purpose. When sole leather has been cut and affixed as soles, the
distinguishing marks that characterise good and bad leather are
hidden from sight, so that the means of detecting that which should
be avoided are few, and difficult to point out to a tyro. Sole leather
being placed to resist moisture, it should not be too porous; in other
words, it should be close in its grain, and possessed of a full share of
firmness. The firmness here spoken of is something entirely distinct
from brittleness. There can be solidity without brittleness, and this
should be easily distinguished.
A boot should have a good and sufficient stiffener inserted at the
heel to strengthen its back, and facilitate the getting of it on or off.
This should be carefully inserted, and be shaped away so as to offer
no resistance to the entrance of the foot. The top portion should be
firmly secured to the back that it is meant to strengthen; so much so
that there should be no possibility of its rucking down upon the
insertion of the foot. It should be observed whether there is a
superfluity of leather in the waist of the foot, that is, under the arch
of the foot. The existence of such useless leather is a sure sign that
the boot has been badly lasted, and that it has little or no spring in
it, and that it will consequently give little or no support to the arch of
the foot it covers. The buttonholes of a boot upper, if it have any,
should be well and carefully stitched, and they will be found to wear
much better if they are protected by the insertion of a cord. This
cord sustains the drag or strain that the unprotected leather would
otherwise have to bear. The channel is that portion of a hand-sewn
boot in which the thread that attaches the outer sole to the welt lies
hidden. Care should be taken by the purchaser to see that this
channel is well and sufficiently closed over, otherwise it is easy to
perceive that the sole has lost more than half its resisting power to
damp or wet, and that the stitches will get soaked and speedily rot.
The “seat” of a boot is that portion just above its heel. Look at this
carefully. If it is likely to tread over by failing to resist the pressure it
will be called upon to bear, do not by any means be persuaded to
become the purchaser of boots with this defect. The reason why the
front part of the upper of a boot is cut in two portions is because
that practice conduces to economy. In selecting a pair of boots great
care should be taken to avoid those in which the join falls over the
great-toe joint.
Some time ago a correspondent of The Field gave an excellent
and simple method of treating the soles of boots to make them last
as long as the “uppers.” The plan was to apply to them when new as
many coats of coachmaker’s varnish as the leather would soak up. In
varnishing the soles the following hints are of value, though,
however roughly the operation is performed, they will become
waterproof and durable:—(a) See that the soles are dry before using
the varnish; also scrape off the black polish from the face of the
heels; (b) thin the varnish according to circumstances; 1
tablespoonful turps to ½ pint varnish will usually be the right
proportions; (c) place the boots, soles upwards, in a dry place, and
give soles and heels 3 copious coats of varnish the first day, 2 the
second day, and one coat each day after that until the leather will
absorb no more; (d) do not miss a day, or the soles will harden and
no more varnish will go into the leather; (e) 2 days after the last
coat the boots should be worn, so that the soles may get shaped to
the feet whilst moist. These directions may appear elaborate, but
they are really very simple; and however badly the varnishing is
done, the results will, to a certain extent, be good.
Ladies who have much walking are strongly advised to have kid
leggings made at a bootmaker’s to button on from the tops of their
boots to their knees; they can then go out in wet, damp, or
extremely cold weather with perfect impunity. For girls who walk to
and fro to attend school, or for those who are forced to go out in all
weathers, the plan is a good one and well worthy of trial. The
leggings are no weight, they are very warm, and will keep out damp
and cold; whilst they are small enough to be carried about in a
pocket, and put on or left off at a moment’s notice; so that they
need only be worn when extra protection is absolutely needed.
Squeaky boots may be cured by the injection of powdered French
chalk through a perforation in the inner sole; the free use of the
same substance between the soles when boots are being made will
effectually prevent any trouble of this nature.
Gloves.—In winter, at least, woollen gloves should be worn, as
best preserving the proper circulation of the blood in the hands, and
lessening the chance of chilblains. In the warm seasons silk or
cotton ones are preferable to kid.
Head-gear.—Were it possible to form a covering for men’s heads
which would admit both light and air in due proportions, a great
problem would be solved, and baldness would be reduced to a
minimum. Since hats are a necessity, they should be very light,
pliant as far as may be, well ventilated, and with a soft band which
will compress the arteries of the temple as little as possible. The hat,
too, should only be worn when it cannot be laid aside—not
constantly, or when in the house. Ventilation is best secured by
having a slight space between the band and the hat proper in front
and behind, the hat being close to the head at the sides, to avoid
conveying the impression of being over large. In addition, there
should be a hole in the crown for cold weather, and in the sides and
crown in summer. As to women’s bonnets, any advice would be a
mere waste of words.
Veils, especially those ornamented with spots, &c., have a bad
effect on the eyes. Persistent mischief is done by the practice of
binding a veil tightly round the face in such a way that not only is
the sight obscured, but the eyes are mechanically irritated by the
fabric clouding them.... Veils of to-day are semi-transparent eye-
bandages, and must tend to disturb the vision, as well as to set up
irritation in the eye-lids. (Lancet.)
Waterproofs.—It is highly important that the public should clearly
understand the manner in which waterproof garments may prove
injurious to health, and how any effect of this kind may be
prevented. A mackintosh is perspiration-proof as well as rain-proof,
and, consequently, when one is worn the perspiration, being unable
to escape, accumulates in the clothes, and they become damp. Upon
its removal, the evaporation of this fluid—in other words, the drying
process—commences, with its attendant loss of heat and well-known
risk of “chill.” The retention of this heat, which would otherwise be
gradually lost, makes the mackintosh invaluable during a long drive
on a cold winter’s day. The disadvantage of this garment is, not that
it inflicts any injury while it is on; but that our clothes being damp,
we may catch cold upon its removal, unless our dress be changed at
the same time; and when the dampness is very decided this
precaution should certainly be taken. Endeavour to avoid excessive
perspiration by walking slowly when you have a mackintosh on, and
do not wear it in hot weather except for driving. (Dr. P. Foster.)
How to Buy Clothes.—Low-priced materials do not wear so well as
those for which a fair amount is paid; but it is not in the power of
every woman to purchase materials which are necessarily expensive.
The woman of small means will do well to confine her purchases to
some well-established shop, famed rather for the soundness of its
goods than for their apparent cheapness.
 Ladies’ boots and shoes cannot be well made and of good
materials for a little money; 21s. to 25s. for boots, 16s. to 18s. for
walking shoes, suited for town wear, is about the lowest price for
which a really good serviceable article can be obtained; but each of
these will wear out three so-called cheap ones, and will look well to
the last, after being twice soled. No boot or shoe will last if the
servant is allowed to scrape the dirt off with a knife, put blacking on
soft kid, or smear it over with some patent satin polish or peerless
gloss. See to the cleaning of your boots and shoes yourself—that is,
only have the dirt wiped off, and the kid well rubbed dry by the
servant, and put on the polish yourself if it must be used. Evening
shoes of a colour suitable for any dress can scarcely be had good for
anything under 10s. 6d. or 12s. 6d., but they will wear out several
cheaper pairs, and look well to the last.
The greatest mistake is to be perpetually attempting to keep pace
with “fashion.” The best-dressed women are never “in the fashion,”
as it is represented in young ladies’ journals. For economical
dressing without dowdiness, the golden rule is to buy the best and
soundest materials possible for your means, to keep to such quiet
colours as will enable you to wear your dresses long without getting
tired of them or tiring your friends; to buy a mantle, for instance,
which is too good to need changing at the end of the year, but which
is handsome enough to wear two seasons, and to bear retrimming
or altering the third.
Many ladies now make their own dresses, and make them well;
but where this is not the case, it is cheaper in the long run to have a
good material well made than to have it spoiled in the cut and made
by an inferior workwoman. Many find it economical to have one
good dress every year from a first-class dressmaker: this lasts and
makes up again in many new forms, and serves as a model for
making others less expensively, either by themselves or by a
workwoman. A clever-handed woman can generally make up or trim
her own hats and bonnets, and if she carries out the same system of
only buying what is really good, and taking care of it, she will find it
at the end of the year a really small item in her expenditure. Much
depends also on keeping up the supply of underclothing by constant
small additions, rather than by allowing them to wear out altogether,
when a renewal of the whole stock will form a serious item. Gloves,
again, are things which there is no cheapness in buying at a low
price; 2 or even 3 of them will wear out before one pair bought at a
good shop and at a fair price; by this means they cost far more, and
always spoil the whole dress.
Persons of moderate means should as a rule, dress in black, or
dark colours, as such are not conspicuous, and consequently do not
tell their date as lighter articles do. In selecting a hat or bonnet, be
sure to ascertain that the shape suits you, and that it fits your head
comfortably. Do not indulge in feathers, still less in flowers, unless
your means are such as to enable you to procure the best, as
nothing is more vulgar than cheap finery. For a windy day there is
nothing half so comfortable as a tightly-fitting toque, but it must be
neat and faultlessly made. A well-made toque is graceful, becoming,
and comfortable, and, with a neat veil of spotted net closely
adjusted over the face and fastened securely behind, will enable the
wearer to brave the most stormy elements without fear of having
her head-covering blown away or even misplaced. It is a great
improvement, if a dark-coloured toque be worn, to stick a bright pin
carelessly in front in a slanting direction, as though securing the top
of the veil. To a youthful face it is always becoming, as it takes off
the too sombre appearance and lightens up the general effect.
Jackets should not be worn quite tight, unless the figure is
particularly good, and without this important “unless” Newmarkets
should not be worn at all. Better be content with well-made ulsters,
except in cases where the figure is slight and graceful, and the purse
is long enough to admit of 7 or 8 sovereigns being paid for a tailor-
made article. For travelling or walking there are few costumes more
comfortable, nor any which look better on young slight figures, than
dark green or brown cloth Newmarkets, with felt hats to correspond,
and white or light coloured satin scarfs, with gold or pearl pins stuck
neatly through. These coats cannot look well if worn over a dress.
The following plan is good and extremely simple. Get your tailor,
when measuring for your coat, to make you a perfectly close-fitting
garment of the same coloured satin—made without ¼ in. of
superfluous material—Princesse shaped, the long straight skirt just
reaching a shade below the garment to be worn over it, and finished
off at the tail with a tiny plaiting of satin, which, appearing from
beneath the Newmarket, detracts from the manly appearance of this
species of muffle. The advantages are manifold; not having any
pouffes behind, the set of the coat is not interfered with; being of a
slippery nature the utmost care is experienced in putting on and
taking off the covering, and should necessity or inclination call for a
removal of the coat, a perfectly neat and becoming garment is
visible underneath.
The most economical dress for everyday wear is a dark navy-blue
serge, and for evening a good white silk. Morning dresses made with
double-breasted bodices are the most becoming, and the warmest;
for evening the square-cut bodice and tight elbow-sleeve are the
most distingué. Bodices gathered back and front (“shirred”) are very
pretty, and suit slight figures well, but should never be worn except
by such. Many ladies spoil the fit of their dresses in winter by
wearing under-vests. This is a bad habit, as, if the vest be left off of
an evening, a cold is sure to follow. It is an excellent plan to tack a
piece of soft warm flannel around the back and shoulders of the
bodice about midway from the neck, and properly shaped to the
lining; this imparts a comfortable warmth, and, as a similar piece can
be adjusted to the back of an evening bodice, the danger of cold is
obviated.
For wearing around the throat with morning dress plain collars
have rather a stiff appearance; tulle or lisse frillings toss
immediately, and are unsatisfactory as well as expensive. It is a
good plan to purchase a few yards of really good washing lace about
1½ in. deep; a few minutes will quill or plait it; it can then be cut
into suitable lengths and tacked around the necks of dresses, being
easily removed and renovated when soiled. A piece of soft black
Spanish lace, folded loosely around the throat, close to the frilling
but below it, looks very well, especially if a natural or good artificial
flower be worn amongst the folds. Another effective arrangement
can be adopted thus: Buy 3 yd. scarf lace—a good kind, of course—
trim the ends with quillings to match, place it around your neck,
leaving nearly all the length in your right hand, the end lying upon
the left shoulder, being about ½ yd. long. Wind the longer piece
twice round the throat, in loose soft folds; and as you will still have
1½ yd. or more to spare, festoon it gracefully in front with the aid of
a few concealed pins, and fasten a brooch or flower at the side.
Tan gloves are the best for wear. Long silk mittens are extremely
pretty in the evening, and shorter ones midway to the elbow, look
nice in the house with the half-long sleeves. To keep the feet warm,
wear a pair of soft woollen stockings, with silk ones drawn over. This
hint is invaluable to those who ride, as it is not unusual, on hunting
days, to experience a severe chill, if riding a tired horse homeward
at a slow pace after a hard day. One word about fur-lined cloaks.
They seem to be a sort of muffle, quite unsuited for walking, and
only fit to be worn as a wrap, in a vehicle, on a cold day. Apparently
made for warmth, they let in every breath of chill air, unless held
carefully across; and it is not easy thus to hold them, if one has an
umbrella or a parcel to carry, or a muff to hold in the hands. Here is
a valuable hint. Take the pattern of the sleeves of your Mother
Hubbard cloak, and the precise measurement of the spot in which
they are placed—copy them exactly, and insert them in the fur-lined
mantle, binding the inner edges neatly with ribbon to prevent the
fur, which is cut, from coming loose. Then remove the hood, place a
neat full frilling of cashmere and satin around the neck, and a full
bow, with long ends, at the back. Next put 5 rows of gathers at the
back of the waist, to which attach, on the inner side, a band of ½ in.
black elastic, with a strong hook and eye. This, when fastened,
draws the cloak close to the figure and gives it a becoming shape.
The band is preferable to a ribbon-string, as it is more readily
adjusted and can never get into a knot. In making the gathers, small
fragments of the fur may pull with the thread and show on the
outside; these should not be plucked at, but simply blackened over
with a little ink. To utilise the hood for going out at night, or for
variety to wear with the cloak by day, bind it nicely with black
ribbon, leaving long ends for strings to tie in front. The materials
required to effect this transformation are: ¾ yd. cashmere, 1 yd.
black satin, 5 yd. ribbon for back and sleeve bows, and 3 yd. binding
ribbon.
An important consideration is how to dress so as to suit individual
peculiarities. Thus, a short stout figure should have perpendicular
trimmings to her dress, the eye being thus carried to lines marking
the height, not the breadth, of her person. A tall figure, on the
contrary, may have bands of trimming or tucks running across the
skirt; this reduces the apparent height. Stout people, be they tall or
short, should remember that they require almost no trimmings or
puffings. They look handsomely dressed in quite a plain garment, if
it be well cut and rich in texture. Thin people, on the contrary, take
any amount of trimming and puffing to give them a sufficiently
clothed appearance. The first study in every case is what is
becoming, not what is fashionable. The principal idea should be to
attract attention to the wearer, not to the dress.
It is safer to dress rather older than younger than your age, it
generally makes women past 30 look younger to dress thus; but
much depends on the colours used. It is easy to lay down rules of
colour for decided brunettes or decided blondes, but much more
difficult to fix rules for those who belong to neither class, and who
compose the majority. It used to be an old rule with portrait painters
that the colour of a woman’s eyes ought to be repeated in some part
of her head-dress. It is a much safer rule to repeat the colour of the
hair in the dress. This is why fur is so often more becoming than
anything else, it is often an exact colour of the hair. The only case in
which matching the hair would not be suitable, is when the hair is
unmistakably red. Then nothing but the quietest colours should be
worn, with a good deal of white at the neck. Very dark shades of red
and brown go best with it, but they must be chosen with the
greatest discrimination. It is a safe axiom to lay down that all very
bright colours should be kept away from the face; only the finest
complexions can stand them in close proximity to the skin. The idea
that pink is becoming to dark people is a mistake: only a very fair
blonde can bear it. Maize is also most becoming to a fair skin,
though it is also suitable, occasionally, to dark-haired people. Half-
tints are the safest wear in the long run, and dark-coloured plushes,
velvets, and satins, with their lovely reflection, are becoming to all. A
slight knowledge of what are called “complimentary colours” in
optics is useful, for it teaches the effect of certain colours on the
skin. Thus bright blue makes the skin look yellow; mauve makes it
look orange-tinted; bright yellow gives it an ashen-blue look; bright
vermilion-red makes the skin look green. Thus it will be seen that
half-tints will not be so mischievous in their effects. Many elderly
ladies have a preference for violet or purple. Nothing could be more
unfortunate. As people get on in life, the skin assumes quite enough
of a yellow tint, without adding to it by wearing its complimentary
colour—purple. Transparent materials, such as lace or tulle, are the
most becoming settings to old faces. For younger people, harmony
in colour is everything. Brown may have points of yellow or paler
brown; dark red, a carefully selected pink. If grey is worn, a little
pale blue may be worn in the bonnet. Then gold ornaments look
best with brown and red, silver ornaments with grey and blue. In
combining materials for a dress, it will be found that too soft or too
stiff materials are more difficult to drape gracefully than one of each
kind. Silk and cashmere make a very good combination, and a cheap
and effective imitation of these can be made in merino and good
alpaca. Short people should have outdoor mantle and dress of the
same colour, as a contrast in these takes away from their height. But
they may wear with great advantage a pelerine, or long mantle,
which comes to within 2 in. of the bottom of the skirt; in that case
the dress does not much matter. The fashion of tight sleeves and
cuffs is very unbecoming to the hands unless they are small. The
cuff ought to measure the same as the hand across the knuckles;
dressmakers generally only measure the wrist, which is quite a
mistake, as it is often out of proportion to the hand. A frill at the
wrist is always becoming to the hand, but not always becoming at
the throat. Short necked, plump-faced people do not look well in
frills round the throat. A piece of lace laid on flat is better for them.
Thin, long-necked people, on the contrary, ought invariably to wear
frills at neck and wrist. Belts are unbecoming to all waists over 25 in.
Tippets and fur collarettes should not be worn by high-shouldered
people. The great secret of dressing well is to know what to avoid.
To know where advantage can be taken of a good point is well, but
to know how to hide a bad one is better. Frequently the best-dressed
women we see are those whose own deft fingers have put the
finishing touches to their toilettes.
Clothes for Foreign Boarding School.—(a) At Lausanne. Take 2
warm winter dresses (one for school, and one for church, &c.), 2
evening dresses, one light cashmere or beige dress, and 4 or 5
washing dresses. Two jackets (one for winter, and one for summer),
a cloak or ulster, and a mackintosh. Much the same underclothing as
one would take to an English school, with plenty of warm vests, &c.,
as the winter in Lausanne is colder than in England. Take a warm
travelling rug, as sometimes in winter the “duvets” on the bed are
not sufficient covering, and the rug will be very acceptable. July and
August are the hottest months, but most people go to the mountains
then. Take with you all in the way of clothes that you will require for
the year, as dresses, hats, &c., are costly, and there is scarcely any
choice there. Pack the things in 2 small basket trunks, rather than
one large. Put such things as you will require immediately into one,
and taking that with you, send the other and heavier one on by slow
goods train. This will be found cheaper than taking all the luggage
with you, as only 56 lb. of luggage is allowed free.
(b) In South Germany. For luggage, provide 2 leather-covered
basket trunks and a black travelling bag, with necessaries for the
voyage. If household linen has to be taken, pillow cases are best
supplied at the school, being larger and different in shape from
English ones; allow two large bath towels and a clothes bag, in
addition to what is required. For dress, 2 thick blanket serge
costumes, in addition to 2 cashmere dresses, fur cloak, eiderdown
skirt, 2 knitted skirts, princess petticoats, high necked, in thick stuff,
for winter wear, Galatea or white for summer; 2 short jackets, one
thick cloth; also a shawl, as the passages are very cold, and a wrap
is required for leaving the schoolrooms, as these again are rather
over heated; white dress and pretty lace aprons and frills, for
evening wear, when the young ladies are required to sit in the
salons. Painting requisites had better be taken, for they are
expensive; no school books, beyond church service and dictionary;
add a few simple articles as suitable birthday presents for school
friends, as the girls are expected to give on these occasions to
mistresses and boarders, and it is tax on a girl’s pocket money.
About 4 gingham housemaid dresses and 2 white cambric ones will
be required for summer wear. Boots and furs are in comparison
cheap in Germany. Seal fur caps are usual for winter wear.
Bathing and Swimming Dresses.—There are 3 main points to
consider before deciding on the make of a bathing dress: (a) the
place at which it is to be worn, whether an English or a Continental
watering place; (b) whether the wearer swims or merely bathes; (c)
whether the wearer is a child, a girl, or a middle-aged woman. The
best materials for bathing dresses are summer serge, cashmere
serge, alpaca, wool bège, and twill flannel; give preference to the
first two, because they are soft, pliable, and light, do not cling
objectionably to the figure when wet, and may be obtained in almost
any colour. Alpaca is recommended for its lightness to swimmers
especially, but both this material and wool bège can only be had in
black and neutral tints; whilst twill flannel can be bought in all
colours, is very comfortable and warm, especially for children, and
has only one drawback—that its woolliness prevents it from being
allowed in most fresh-water swimming baths, and renders it, for this
reason, an unwise investment for one who wishes to frequent baths
on return to town.
The best way to make a swimming dress for use in England, to
ensure comfort and ease, is to have a loose bodice to the waist
fastened into a broad band, from which the drawers are suspended,
the bodice fastening down the centre, the drawers on the left side.
The combination style of garment, i.e., all one piece from the neck
to the knees, has one great objection, viz., that any mishap with the
buttons is very awkward when there is no skirt. This need never be
feared when the bodice and drawers are made separately and
fastened at the side, and the only way to avoid it in the combination
style is to make the dress open to the waist and then have it cut
straight across and down the side of the hips for 5-6 in., so that it
can be buttoned up on to the waist-band. A dress intended for
swimming only should be as simple as possible. It should not come
over the knees, and not be trimmed with a large collar or elaborate
sleeves. Deep white cotton fringe or Torchon lace will be found to
give quite sufficient finish. 3 yds. of 24 in. material will be found
ample to make a dress of this description for a girl about 20.
Where ladies bathe with gentlemen their dress must come below
the knees, must have a skirt from the waist, and must have sleeves
of some kind, and these, whether long or short, or however loose,
are always uncomfortable for swimming, as they cling and impede
the movements of the arm, whilst the whole dress is made heavier
by these additions. The only way to make such a dress more
comfortable is in the first place to avoid making the skirt too heavy
or too deep, and next to make the drawers longer than is really
needed, and to fasten them in at the knee, so that the legs may be
moved comfortably.
Children’s bathing dresses are best made in the “combination”
style, of bège or some warm material, for the shivering cold feeling
some children get in the water when they are not able to swim is
one of the chief causes of their dislike and fear of sea bathing.
Bathing dresses for matrons may be made in almost any style,
however elaborate or heavy. A very comfortable dress for ordinary
wear in England may be made with drawers reaching either to the
knee or ankle, and gathered in by a band of turkey red or material
with which the dress is trimmed, running alternately in and out of
inch-deep slips made for the purpose; the upper part being simply a
long loose blouse made either with a yolk, sailor collar, gauging, or
any other design at the neck, and fastened at the waist with a broad
band, so as to leave the skirt loose to the knees. A dress made in
this way will take about 5 yd. of 24 in. material. Another kind of
bathing dress is made with combination bodice and drawers, with
the addition of a deep cape plaited into the neck and reaching to the
elbows, and a skirt from the waist. Colour and trimming are the chief
points in the finish of a bathing dress. Only those who really have a
good appearance should choose a brilliant colour like red, blue, pink,
or yellow, charming as these colours are in the water.
To avoid looking conspicuous, have some neutral tint or dark
colour, and bright trimming. Black is particularly becoming for
bathing costumes, as it shows up the whiteness of the skin, and it is
convenient besides, because it can be trimmed with any colour or
design.
Plain white canvas shoes laced with a colour to match the dress
are perhaps the best; but straw or cork soles, with an upper piece of
the same material as the dress, laced with broad strips of braid to
match the trimming, are also good. The upper part should be cut
from the pattern of a gentleman’s slipper, fitted, sewn on to the sole,
and pierced with 3 holes along each side. The braid is fastened each
side of the holes nearest the toe, laced across into the others, and
continued sandalwise up to the knee. It is useless to think of
keeping the head dry, so caps should always be made to allow for
wetting. One good plan is to take a plain straight piece of stuff like
the dress, about ½ yd. long and ¼ yd. wide; place it straight round
the head, and fasten or tie it underneath the hair at the back so as
to leave the rest in loose folds. A cap the same shape as a brewer’s
is very pretty, placed on the head, with the point twisted once and
fastened on the left side. When bathing, a Japanese parasol will
prevent getting sunburnt. (E. M. B.)
Mourning.—The tendency of the day is towards shorter periods of
mourning and deepening the mourning, so that half-mourning for
aunts, cousins, &c., is almost abandoned, and only resorted to in
longer periods of mourning. Crape is absolutely inadmissible with
velvet, satin, lace, bright or glacé silks, embroidery, fringe, excepting
the special “crape fringe,” or, indeed, with anything but mourning
silk, paramatta, merino, cashmere, woollen barège or grenadine, or
barathea. A widow’s mourning is the deepest, and continued
longest. For the first 12 months the dress and mantle must be of
paramatta, the skirt of the dress covered with crape, put on in one
piece to within an inch of the waist; sleeves tight to the arm, bodice
entirely covered with crape, deep, tight-fitting lawn cuffs with broad
hems, and deep lawn collar. The mantle or jacket, of the same
material as the dress, is very heavily trimmed with crape. The
widow’s cap must be worn for a year, but not beyond the year. The
bonnet is entirely of crape; it has a widow’s cap tacked inside, and is
worn with a crape veil with a deep hem. When the crape on the
dress requires renewing, it must be put on precisely as at first until
the first 9 months have expired, after which, if preferred, it may be
put on in 2 deep tucks, with about 1 in. space between them. Crape
cloth is permissible, and well adapted for a rough or walking dress
for the country; it wears well, and is not very easily distinguishable
from crape at a distance. After the expiration of the first year,
“widow’s silk” may be substituted for paramatta; but it must be
heavily trimmed with crape. This is worn for 3 months, when the
crape may be very sensibly lightened, and for the next 3 months jet
passementerie and fringe may be used. At the end of the 6 months
(18 months in all) crape may be left off, and plain black worn for 6
months; and 2 years complete the period of mourning. For the first
year, while a widow wears her weeds, she can, of course, accept no
invitations; and it is in the worst possible taste for her to be seen in
any place of public resort. After the first year she can, if so disposed,
gradually resume her place in society. It is usual for the pocket
hankerchiefs to have broad black edges, and no jewellery of any
kind, with the exception of jet, can be worn.
The mourning of a parent for a child, or a child for a parent, is the
next degree and lasts for 12 months. For the first 3, paramatta,
merino, coburg, woollen grenadine, or some similar material heavily
trimmed with crape, usually in 2 deep tucks, is worn; for the next 3,
silk mourning, with less crape, the latter arranged more
ornamentally in plaits, folds, or bouillonnés, is admissible. The crape
bonnet may have jet upon it, and the veil may be of net, with a deep
crape hem. Linen collars and cuffs cannot be worn with crape. Crèpe
lisse frills are de rigueur. Sable or any other coloured fur must be left
off; plain, untrimmed sealskin is admissible, but it never looks well in
really deep mourning. After 6 months, crape may be left off, and
plain black, with jet ornaments and black gloves, worn for 2 months.
For the next 2, black dresses, with gold or silver, pearl or diamond
ornaments, and grey gloves, sewn with black. After this, half-
mourning—such as black dresses with white flowers or lace; white
dresses, with black ribbons; or grey dresses, trimmed with black.
There is a very prevalent notion that red is a sort of mourning,
and that red flowers or ribbons may be worn with black for slight
mourning; but it is not in good taste. Only jet ornaments are
permissible with crape; neither gold, silver, nor precious stones can
be worn with it, neither can lace be in any way intermingled with it.
This is a fact which seems to be very imperfectly comprehended.
Society must be relinquished for 2 months, and it is in far better
taste to avoid balls so long as crape is worn. For grandparents, the
mourning is now only 6 months, 2 in silk and slight crape, 2 in black,
and 2 in half-mourning.
For brothers and sisters the mourning, is now usually 3-4 months.
It is correct to wear crape tolerably deep for 2 months, and plain
black for 2. For an uncle or aunt 6 weeks is the orthodox time, and
crape is not required. Black is generally worn the whole time, for the
first month with jet, afterwards with gold, silver, pearls or diamonds;
no coloured stones. For a great uncle or aunt 5 weeks, 2 in black, 3
half-mourning. For a first cousin, a month, generally the whole time
in black. It is not usual to wear mourning at all for a second cousin,
but if done 3 weeks are sufficient. Relations by marriage are
mourned for precisely in the same degree as real ones: thus a wife
wears exactly the same mourning for her husband’s relations as she
would for her own. There are, however, exceptions. For instance, a
lady would mourn for her uncle by marriage for 6 weeks if his wife
(her aunt) were alive; but if she were dead the mourning for the
uncle might be curtailed to a month. A few remarks may be made on
“complimentary mourning.” For instance, when a man has married a
second time, his second wife must wear slight mourning for 3
months on the death of his first wife’s parents, and for 6 weeks on
the death of her brothers or sisters, if any intimacy has been kept
up. This is not de rigueur like real mourning for absolute relatives,
but it is good taste, and usual in society. So also it is usual for a
mother, whose married son or daughter loses a parent-in-law, to
wear black—of course without crape—for one month, and half-
mourning for another.
There are some additional points of etiquette connected with
mourning. Black-edged envelopes and paper must be used. The
width known as “extra broad” is the deepest that should ever be
used, even by widows, the “double broad” being too much. Even for
widows the simple “broad” is in better taste than either; “middle” is
the proper width in mourning for parent or child; “narrow” for
brothers or sisters; “Italian” for all other relatives. Visiting cards are
only edged with black when crape is worn, so black-edged cards are
not requisite for an uncle or aunt. The edges should be of the same
width as that adopted for the paper. Cards returning thanks for the
kind inquiries of those who have either called or sent to inquire,
should not be sent out till the mourners feel equal to again receiving
visitors; it is the accepted token of their being once more visible.
Letters of condolence should be written on paper with a slight black
edge, and offence should never be taken if they are left
unanswered. Many people consider it correct to wear black on a first
visit to a house of mourning, and though this is not absolutely
necessary, it is certainly in better taste to avoid brilliant colours on
such an occasion. (The Queen).
Travelling Dress.—(a) The fewer dresses to take for positive
travelling, the better. A black silk, fashionably made, is almost
indispensable. This should be accompanied by one or two stylish
muslin fichus and lace collarettes to wear on any dress occasion, as
it is tiresome not to be able to put in an appearance for lack of
suitable attire. It is a good plan to have this silk made with a bodice
separate from the skirt; and a white washing silk polonaise will be
found very useful. For travelling nothing is so suitable as a light
serge, and dark blue is the best colour. This should be made with a
plain skirt and polonaise, and have a jacket also to wear when
required; the plainer the better. Also take an alpaca costume, or one
of a light woollen stuff, and 2 dark blue linen ones; these are cool if
the weather prove hot. But to ensure real comfort in travelling, the
point is not the quantity of dress nor the kinds, but to have them in
working and wearable condition. They should be arranged to loop up
when required, and to fit well, &c. Thick kid gloves, and gloves with
gauntlets, are necessary; and a waterproof petticoat, and one or two
others. Always carry a waterproof dress in your wraps; perhaps a
good ulster would best replace it; there never was so comfortable a
garment for travelling. Plenty of rugs, shawls, and, above all, a fur
boa are desirable. Bonnets are not necessary, and a felt hat is the
best, with a good supply of veils, a gauze one particularly. Thick
boots are essential, and for climbing, the new Hygeia boots of
Marshall’s are real comforts. All the dresses taken should be nearly if
not quite new; travelling soon reduces a half-worn dress to
shabbiness. Paper collars and cuffs are invaluable; they are as cheap
as getting them washed, save an infinity of trouble, and are sold in
compact boxes taking little room. If it is possible, pack in portable
luggage; it will be found a great comfort, for thereby many
wearisome waiting hours are saved at foreign railway stations. A
Gladstone bag, or one of the portable portmanteaus, holds almost all
you require, with a travelling bag and wraps.
(b) For a rough travelling dress select a dark blue bège or thin
serge, made with a short full plain skirt, and a rather long coat,
shaped, but not tight fitting, so that, if required, a bodice could be
worn underneath. For out-of-the-way travelling have the skirt put
into a very deep band, to fit tightly over the hips, and the full
gathers put into that; it will be found lighter, more becoming, and
better for the appearance of both skirt and jacket. The band is of the
same material. The bodice is made like a skirt, full and tolerably
loose, with straight neckband and coat sleeves, over which are
turned black lace, first tacked inside, turned over, and lightly tacked
down. Have a scarf of the dark blue material, 2½ yds. long, and a
little over ½ yd. wide, and use this to pass round the hips and loop