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Contents

1 Introduction 17

1.1 Development Environments ............................................................................................ 18

1.1.1 IDLE .............................................................................................................................. 18
1.1.2 Thonny ....................................................................................................................... 19
1.1.3 Spyder ......................................................................................................................... 20
1.1.4 Pip ................................................................................................................................ 21
1.2 The Modules of Python ....................................................................................................... 22
1.2.1 NumPy ........................................................................................................................ 22
1.2.2 Matplotlib ................................................................................................................. 23
1.2.3 SymPy ......................................................................................................................... 24
1.2.4 SciPy ............................................................................................................................ 24
1.2.5 VPython ..................................................................................................................... 25
1.3 The Keywords of Python .................................................................................................... 26

1.4 Your Path through This Book ........................................................................................... 27

2 Program Structures 29

2.1 Linear Program Structures ................................................................................................. 29

2.1.1 Linear Programs without Function Calls ........................................................ 30
2.2 Functions ................................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.1 Built-In Functions ................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2 Functions without Parameters and without Return Values .................... 39
2.2.3 Functions with Parameters and a Return ...................................................... 40
2.2.4 Functions with Multiple Return Values .......................................................... 42
2.2.5 Functions Call Other Functions ......................................................................... 44
2.3 Branching Structures ........................................................................................................... 45
2.3.1 Single Selection ....................................................................................................... 46
2.3.2 Multiple Selection .................................................................................................. 47
2.4 Repetitive Structures ........................................................................................................... 50
2.4.1 The while Loop ........................................................................................................ 50
2.4.2 The for Loop .............................................................................................................. 56

7
Contents

2.5 Data Structures ....................................................................................................................... 63

2.5.1 Tuples ......................................................................................................................... 63
2.5.2 Lists ............................................................................................................................. 66
2.5.3 Dictionaries .............................................................................................................. 72
2.5.4 Sets .............................................................................................................................. 75
2.6 Functional Program Style ................................................................................................... 76

2.7 Object-Oriented Program Style ....................................................................................... 79

2.7.1 Objects and Classes ............................................................................................... 80
2.7.2 Inheritance ................................................................................................................ 84
2.8 Project Task: Dimensions of a Shaft .............................................................................. 86

2.9 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 88

3 Numerical Calculations Using NumPy 91

3.1 NumPy Functions ................................................................................................................... 91

3.1.1 Creating One-Dimensional Arrays Using arange() and linspace() ......... 91
3.1.2 Creating Two-Dimensional Arrays Using array() ......................................... 94
3.1.3 Slicing ......................................................................................................................... 96
3.1.4 Mathematical NumPy Functions ...................................................................... 97
3.1.5 Statistical NumPy Functions ............................................................................... 99
3.2 Vectors ........................................................................................................................................ 101
3.2.1 Addition of Vectors ................................................................................................ 101
3.2.2 Scalar Product .......................................................................................................... 103
3.2.3 Cross Product ........................................................................................................... 105
3.2.4 Triple Product ........................................................................................................... 107
3.2.5 Dyadic Product ........................................................................................................ 108
3.3 Matrix Multiplication .......................................................................................................... 109
3.3.1 Chain Shape with B Parameters ........................................................................ 113
3.3.2 Usage Example: Calculating the Energy of a Rotating Rigid Body
in Space ...................................................................................................................... 114
3.4 Linear Systems of Equations ............................................................................................. 116
3.4.1 Systems of Equations with Real Coefficients ................................................ 116
3.4.2 Systems of Equations with Complex Coefficients ...................................... 118
3.5 Project Task: Lightning Protection System ................................................................ 121

3.6 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 124

8
 Contents

4 Function Plots and Animations

Using Matplotlib 125

4.1 2D Function Plots ................................................................................................................... 125

4.1.1 Basic Structure of a Function Plot ..................................................................... 125
4.1.2 Gridlines .................................................................................................................... 132
4.1.3 Labels .......................................................................................................................... 134
4.1.4 Line Styles ................................................................................................................. 137
4.1.5 Designing Axes ........................................................................................................ 138
4.1.6 Coloring Areas ......................................................................................................... 144
4.1.7 Subplots ..................................................................................................................... 147
4.1.8 Parameter Representation .................................................................................. 154
4.1.9 Changing Function Parameters Interactively ............................................... 158
4.1.10 Contour Plots ........................................................................................................... 163
4.2 3D Function Plots ................................................................................................................... 166
4.2.1 Helical Line ................................................................................................................ 166
4.2.2 Circular Ring ............................................................................................................. 168
4.2.3 Combining a 3D Plot with a Contour Plot ...................................................... 169
4.3 Vectors ........................................................................................................................................ 171
4.3.1 Vector Addition ....................................................................................................... 171
4.3.2 Vector Field ............................................................................................................... 173
4.4 Displaying Figures, Lines, and Arrows .......................................................................... 174
4.4.1 Rectangles ................................................................................................................. 174
4.4.2 Circles and Lines ...................................................................................................... 176
4.4.3 Arrows ........................................................................................................................ 178
4.4.4 Polygons .................................................................................................................... 179
4.4.5 Usage Example: A Metal Rod in a Magnetic Field ....................................... 181
4.5 Animations ............................................................................................................................... 182
4.5.1 A Simple Animation: Shifting a Sine Function ............................................. 183
4.5.2 Animated Oblique Throw .................................................................................... 186
4.5.3 Animated Planetary Orbit .................................................................................... 188
4.6 Project Task: Stirling Cycle ................................................................................................ 190

4.7 Project Task: Animating a Thread Pendulum ........................................................... 197

4.8 Project Task: Animating a Transmission ..................................................................... 201

4.9 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 204

9
Contents

5 Symbolic Computation Using SymPy 207

5.1 Basic Mathematical Operations ...................................................................................... 211

5.1.1 Addition ..................................................................................................................... 211
5.1.2 Multiplication of Terms ........................................................................................ 212
5.1.3 Multiplication of Linear Factors ......................................................................... 213
5.1.4 Division ...................................................................................................................... 214
5.1.5 Exponentiation ........................................................................................................ 215
5.1.6 Usage Example: Analyzing an Electrical Power
Transmission System ............................................................................................ 216
5.2 Multiplying Matrixes ........................................................................................................... 217
5.2.1 Calculation Rule ...................................................................................................... 217
5.2.2 Transmission Function of a Catenary Circuit ................................................ 218
5.3 Equations .................................................................................................................................. 220
5.3.1 Linear Systems of Equations ............................................................................... 221
5.3.2 Nonlinear Systems of Equations ....................................................................... 223
5.4 Simplifications of Terms ..................................................................................................... 226

5.5 Series Expansion .................................................................................................................... 227

5.6 Partial Fractions ..................................................................................................................... 228

5.7 Continued Fractions ............................................................................................................. 231

5.8 Limits ........................................................................................................................................... 234

5.8.1 Limits of Sequences ............................................................................................... 234
5.8.2 Limits of Functions ................................................................................................. 236
5.8.3 Differential Quotient ............................................................................................ 237
5.9 Differentiation ........................................................................................................................ 238
5.9.1 Usage Example: Curve Sketching ..................................................................... 239
5.10 Integrations .............................................................................................................................. 240
5.10.1 Indefinite Integral .................................................................................................. 241
5.10.2 Definite Integral ...................................................................................................... 242
5.10.3 Usage Example: Stored Electrical Energy ....................................................... 243
5.11 Differential Equations ......................................................................................................... 245
5.11.1 Linear First-Order Differential Equations ....................................................... 246
5.11.2 General Solution of a Second-Order Differential Equation ...................... 250
5.11.3 Special Solution of a Second-Order Differential Equation ....................... 252
5.12 Laplace Transform ................................................................................................................. 254
5.12.1 Solving Differential Equations ........................................................................... 255
5.12.2 Analyzing Networks with Transmission Functions .................................... 259
5.13 Project Task: Step Response of a Catenary Circuit ................................................. 262

10
 Contents

5.14 Project Task: Bending a Beam That Is Fixed at One End ...................................... 265
5.14.1 Second Moment of Area ...................................................................................... 265
5.14.2 Equation of the Bending Line ............................................................................. 267
5.15 Project Task: Reaction Kinetics ........................................................................................ 270

5.16 Project Task: Dual Mass Oscillator ................................................................................. 274

5.17 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 277

6 Numerical Computations and Simulations

Using SciPy 279

6.1 Numerical Computation of Zeros ................................................................................... 280

6.2 Optimizations ......................................................................................................................... 282

6.3 Interpolations .......................................................................................................................... 284

6.4 Numerical Differentiation ................................................................................................. 286

6.4.1 Methods of Numerical Differentiation ........................................................... 286
6.4.2 Drawing a Tangent Slope .................................................................................... 287
6.4.3 Derivative of a Sine Function .............................................................................. 289
6.4.4 Usage Example: Free Fall ..................................................................................... 291
6.5 Numerical Integration ......................................................................................................... 293
6.5.1 Methods of Numerical Integration .................................................................. 293
6.5.2 Definite Integral ...................................................................................................... 295
6.5.3 Integrating a Constant ......................................................................................... 296
6.5.4 Usage Example: Free Fall ..................................................................................... 298
6.5.5 Improper Integral ................................................................................................... 300
6.5.6 Calculating Arc Lengths ........................................................................................ 302
6.5.7 Volume and Surfaces of Rotating Bodies ....................................................... 303
6.5.8 Double Integrals ..................................................................................................... 305
6.5.9 Triple Integrals ......................................................................................................... 306
6.6 Solving Differential Equations Numerically .............................................................. 307
6.6.1 Numerical Solution of Differential Equations .............................................. 307
6.6.2 First-Order Linear Differential Equation ......................................................... 312
6.6.3 Second-Order Linear Differential Equation ................................................... 315
6.6.4 Nonlinear Second-Order Differential Equation ............................................ 318
6.6.5 Second-Order Differential Equation System:
Coupled Spring-Mass System ............................................................................. 322
6.6.6 Nonlinear Second-Order Differential Equation System:
Double Pendulum .................................................................................................. 325

11
Contents

6.7 Discrete Fourier Transform ............................................................................................... 328

6.7.1 Basic Use of the Fast Fourier Transform Algorithm .................................... 329
6.7.2 Frequency Spectra of Non-Sinusoidal Periodic Signals ............................. 330
6.7.3 Reconstructing a Noisy Signal ............................................................................ 332
6.8 Writing and Reading Sound Files ................................................................................... 334
6.8.1 Generating and Saving Signals .......................................................................... 334
6.8.2 Reading and Displaying Signals ......................................................................... 335
6.9 Signal Processing ................................................................................................................... 337
6.9.1 Frequency Response of a Butterworth Lowpass .......................................... 337
6.9.2 Frequency Response of a Crossover ................................................................. 339
6.9.3 Filtering Signals ....................................................................................................... 341
6.10 Project Task: Simulation of a Rolling Bearing Damage ........................................ 342

6.11 Project Task: Predator-Prey Model ................................................................................ 345

6.11.1 Exponential Growth .............................................................................................. 346
6.11.2 Logistic Growth ....................................................................................................... 346
6.11.3 Predator-Prey Relationship for Exponential Growth .................................. 346
6.11.4 Predator-Prey Relationship for Logistic Growth .......................................... 347
6.12 Project Task: Simulation of an Epidemic ..................................................................... 349

6.13 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 352

7 3D Graphics and Animations Using VPython 355

7.1 The Coordinate System ....................................................................................................... 356

7.2 Basic Shapes, Points, and Lines ....................................................................................... 358
7.2.1 Cylinder ...................................................................................................................... 359
7.2.2 Cuboid ........................................................................................................................ 361
7.2.3 Points .......................................................................................................................... 363
7.2.4 Lines ............................................................................................................................ 364
7.2.5 Sphere ........................................................................................................................ 366
7.2.6 Penetration ............................................................................................................... 369
7.2.7 Composite Bodies ................................................................................................... 370
7.3 Bodies in Motion .................................................................................................................... 371
7.3.1 Vertical Movement ................................................................................................ 372
7.3.2 Horizontal Movement .......................................................................................... 373
7.3.3 Movement in Space ............................................................................................... 374
7.3.4 Composite Motion ................................................................................................. 377
7.3.5 Rotational Motion .................................................................................................. 378
7.3.6 Random Motion ...................................................................................................... 383

12
 Contents

7.4 Animation of Oscillations .................................................................................................. 385

7.4.1 Simple Pendulum ................................................................................................... 385
7.4.2 Spring Pendulum .................................................................................................... 387
7.5 Event Processing .................................................................................................................... 389

7.6 Project Task: Animation of a Coupled Spring Pendulum ..................................... 392

7.7 Project Task: Animation of Two Coupled Simple Pendulums ........................... 395

7.8 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 398

8 Computing with Complex Numbers 399

8.1 Mathematical Operations ................................................................................................. 400

8.2 Euler’s Formula ....................................................................................................................... 402

8.2.1 Symbolic Method .................................................................................................... 403
8.3 Calculating with Complex Resistors ............................................................................. 403

8.4 Function Plots with Complex Magnitudes ................................................................. 406

8.4.1 Complex Frequency Response of a Series Resonant Circuit .................... 406
8.4.2 Locus Curves ............................................................................................................. 408
8.5 Project Task: Electric Power Transmission System ................................................. 410
8.5.1 Task ............................................................................................................................. 411
8.5.2 Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Three-Phase Power Line ........................ 413
8.6 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 415

9 Statistical Computations 417

9.1 Generating, Saving, and Reading Measurement Values ..................................... 419

9.1.1 Generating Measurement Values .................................................................... 419
9.1.2 Converting a Measurement Series into a Table ........................................... 420
9.1.3 Writing Measurement Values to a File ........................................................... 422
9.1.4 Reading Measurement Values from a File ..................................................... 423
9.2 Frequency Distribution ....................................................................................................... 423
9.2.1 Frequency Tables .................................................................................................... 424
9.2.2 Histograms ............................................................................................................... 425
9.3 Location Parameters ............................................................................................................ 426
9.3.1 Arithmetic Mean ..................................................................................................... 427
9.3.2 Mode, Median, Harmonic Mean, and Geometric Mean ............................ 428

13
Contents

9.4 Dispersion Parameters ........................................................................................................ 430

9.5 Normal Distribution ............................................................................................................. 434

9.5.1 Graphical Representation of the Density Function .................................... 434
9.5.2 Probability Distribution ........................................................................................ 435
9.6 Skew ............................................................................................................................................ 437

9.7 Regression Analysis .............................................................................................................. 439

9.7.1 Computing the Regression Parameters .......................................................... 439
9.7.2 Representing the Scatter Plot and the Regression Line ............................. 442
9.8 Project Task: Simulation of a Quality Control Chart .............................................. 443

9.9 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 448

10 Boolean Algebra 449

10.1 Logical Operations ................................................................................................................ 450

10.1.1 Conjunction .............................................................................................................. 450
10.1.2 Disjunction ............................................................................................................... 451
10.1.3 Negation .................................................................................................................... 452
10.2 Laws of Boolean Algebra .................................................................................................... 453
10.2.1 Simple Postulates ................................................................................................... 453
10.2.2 De Morgan’s Laws .................................................................................................. 454
10.2.3 Distributive Law ...................................................................................................... 455
10.3 Circuit Synthesis ..................................................................................................................... 456
10.3.1 Simplifying Logic Functions by Factoring Out .............................................. 456
10.3.2 Simplification Using the Disjunctive Normal Form .................................... 457
10.3.3 Simplification Using the Conjunctive Normal Form .................................. 460
10.4 Project Task: Seven-Segment Coding ........................................................................... 460
10.5 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 463

11 Interactive Programming Using Tkinter 465

11.1 Interactions with Command Buttons, Textboxes, and Labels .......................... 466
11.1.1 Labels .......................................................................................................................... 467
11.1.2 Textboxes and Command Buttons ................................................................... 468
11.2 The Layout Manager of Tkinter ....................................................................................... 468
11.2.1 The pack Method .................................................................................................... 470

14
 Contents

11.2.2 The grid Method ..................................................................................................... 472

11.2.3 Summary ................................................................................................................... 474
11.3 Selection with Radio Button ............................................................................................. 475

11.4 Slider ............................................................................................................................................ 477

11.5 The Canvas Drawing Area .................................................................................................. 478

11.5.1 Representing Lines ................................................................................................. 478
11.5.2 Function Plots .......................................................................................................... 480
11.5.3 Querying Mouse Coordinates ............................................................................ 482
11.6 Project Task: Rotational Frequency Control of an Externally
Excited DC Motor ................................................................................................................... 484

11.7 Tasks ............................................................................................................................................ 496

Appendices 497

A.1 Glossary: Basic Applied Computer Science Terminology ..................................... 497

A.2 Derivatives of Elementary Functions ............................................................................ 498

A.3 Antiderivative of Elementary Functions ..................................................................... 499

A.4 Fourier Series of Important Electrotechnical Voltage Characteristics ........... 500

A.5 Correspondence Table of Important Inverse Laplace Transforms ................... 500

A.6 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 501

The Author ............................................................................................................................................... 503

Index .......................................................................................................................................................... 505
Service Pages .............................................................................................................................................. I
Legal Notes .................................................................................................................................................. II

15
 Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter provides a brief overview of the extensibility, application
areas, and functionality of the Python programming language.

If you need to perform extensive calculations for your scientific work and also want to
present the results in a graphically appealing way, then you should seriously consider
using Python. Python is a programming language whose functionality is similar to that
of MATLAB when extended with appropriate modules. In addition, Python and all its
extension modules are provided free of charge. Using Python, you can, for example,
solve systems of equations, create function plots, differentiate, integrate, and also
solve differential equations. You can also create graphical user interfaces (GUIs). For
almost every problem in engineering and natural sciences, solutions exist that not
only cover a wide range of applications, but also excel in their user-friendliness and
performance.
The Python programming language was developed in the early 1990s by Dutchman
Guido van Rossum at Centrum voor Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam. Its
name has nothing to do with the snake but refers instead to the British comedy group
Monty Python.
The particular advantages and features of this programming language include the fol-
lowing:
쐍 Python is an easy-to-learn and powerful programming language.
쐍 It provides efficient data structures.
쐍 It also allows object-oriented programming (OOP).
쐍 It has a clear syntax and dynamic typing.
쐍 Python programs are compiled using an interpreter and are therefore suitable for
the rapid development of prototypes.
쐍 Python is available for Linux, macOS, and Windows.
쐍 Python can be extended by modules.

The module concept is the cornerstone and one of Python’s outstanding strengths.
A module is a component of a software system and represents a functionally self-
contained unit that provides a specific service. For a definable scientific problem, a
module that is tailored precisely to this problem is provided in each case. In this book,
I will introduce you to the NumPy, Matplotlib, SymPy, SciPy, and VPython modules.

17
1 Introduction

1.1 Development Environments

A development environment is a software program that consists of a text editor, a
debugger, and an interpreter. The text editor of a development environment supports
a programmer in writing programs, for example, with features like syntax highlight-
ing, automatic indentation of the source code, and so on. The debugger helps pro-
grammers find errors, and the interpreter executes the program’s statements. Of the
many development environments that can be used to develop Python programs, only
the Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE), Thonny, and Spyder
development environments will be briefly presented here.

1.1.1 IDLE
The abbreviation IDLE stands for “Integrated Development and Learning Environ-
ment.” Figure 1.1 shows the user interface for IDLE.

Figure 1.1 The IDLE Development Environment

IDLE is part of the standard Python download. During the installation of Python, IDLE
is installed at the same time as the Pip package manager. You can download the latest
version of Python for the Linux, macOS, and Windows operating systems at https://
www.python.org/downloads/. Then, you’ll need to install the NumPy, Matplotlib,
SymPy, SciPy, and VPython modules individually using the Pip package manager (Sec-
tion 1.1.4). This step may cause problems if you install a new Python version: The mod-
ules can no longer be imported with the new IDLE version, and the programs will no
longer run. I will show you a way to fix this problem in Section 1.1.4. If the installation
of the Python modules fails, I recommend you use the Thonny development environ-
ment.

18
 1.1 Development Environments

When you click Run • Python Shell, the Python shell will open. Next to the >>> input
prompt, you can directly enter Python commands or mathematical expressions, such
as 2+3, 3*5, or 7/5. Note that you must complete each entry by pressing the (Return) key.

1.1.2 Thonny
Compared to the professional solutions, Thonny is a rather simply designed develop-
ment environment with a comparatively small range of functions. However, it is par-
ticularly suitable for programming beginners due to its ease of use. Using Thonny, you
can run and test all the sample programs discussed in this book. Figure 1.2 shows the
user interface.

Figure 1.2 The Thonny Development Environment

Thonny is available for Linux, macOS, and Windows and can be downloaded at https://
thonny.org.
The source code of the program must be entered into the text editor (upper left area).
Once the program has been started via the (F5) function key or by clicking the Start
button, a window opens where you’ll need to enter the file name of the program. The

19
1 Introduction

result of numerical calculations is then output in the Command Line window at the bot-
tom left of the Python shell. Each function plot of Matplotlib programs will be output
in a separate window. In the shell, also referred to as the Python console, you can also
enter Python commands directly. The Assistant in the main window, on the right, sup-
ports you in terms of troubleshooting, although you should temper your expectations
about its capabilities.
A particularly important feature of Thonny is that you can easily install and update the
NumPy, Matplotlib, SymPy, SciPy, and VPython modules. For these tasks, all you need
to do is open the Tools • Manage Packages dialog box, as shown in Figure 1.3. Then, in
the text box in the top-left corner, enter the name of the module you want to install
and click Install or Update.

Figure 1.3 Installing Modules

To remove a module, you must select the corresponding module in the pane on the
left. Then, the Uninstall command button appears to the right of the Install command
button. One notable advantage of the package manager in Thonny is that you can also
test older versions of all available modules. For this task, simply click the ... command
icon to the right of the Install button, which will open a window where you can select
the desired version of the module.

1.1.3 Spyder
Spyder is the development environment of the Anaconda distribution of Python.
Except for VPython, the modules covered in this book—NumPy, Matplotlib, SymPy,
and SciPy—are already built in.

20
 1.1 Development Environments

Figure 1.4 The Spyder Development Environment

Spyder is available as a free download for Linux, macOS, and Windows at https://
www.spyder-ide.org.
To run an animation using a Matplotlib program, you must select Automatic as the
backend in the settings under IPython Console • Graphics. After starting the program, a
separate window will open where the animation will run. Matplotlib programs contain-
ing slider controls can also be executed interactively only with this option.
Spyder is an immensely powerful development environment. However, one disadvan-
tage is that the subsequent installation of modules that are not installed by default,
such as VPython, can be difficult for beginners. For more information on installing
Python modules, see the documentation for Spyder at https://www.spyder-ide.org.

1.1.4 Pip
To use development environments other than Thonny or Spyder, you can install
Python modules using Pip. Pip is not a development environment but the package
manager for Python that installs modules from the Python Package Index (PyPI) (https://
pypi.org/). Pip allows you to download and update modules easily—when you use
Python, Pip is a particularly important tool.
If you have installed Python and want to add only the NumPy module, for example,
you can enter the following command in a terminal on Windows, Linux, or macOS:

21
1 Introduction

pip install numpy

The following command enables you to update an existing NumPy installation:

pip install –-upgrade numpy

If you use IDLE (e.g., version 3.9) and install a new version of Python (e.g., 3.11), then the
previously installed Python modules will no longer be imported into the updated ver-
sion. In this case, you should try installing via pip3.11 install numpy.
For more information about using Pip, see https://pypi.org/project/pip. If the installa-
tion or update of the Python modules fails, I recommend using the Thonny develop-
ment environment instead.

1.2 The Modules of Python

For our first look at the capabilities and features of the module concept in Python, I first
want to describe the five modules in a keyword-like manner. Instead of module, the
terms library or software library are also commonly used. The capabilities of Python are
best illustrated by using short sample programs. Of course, you don’t need understand
the source code shown in this section yet. After all, understanding is what the other
chapters are for.

1.2.1 NumPy
The NumPy module (numerical Python) enables you to perform extensive numerical
calculations. For example, you can solve linear systems of equations, even with com-
plex numbers. Listing 1.1 shows a simple vector calculus program.

01 import numpy as np
02 A=np.array([1, 2, 3])
03 B=np.array([4, 5, 6])
04 print("Vector A:",A)
05 print("Vector B:",B)
06 print("Total A+B:",A+B)
07 print("Product A*B:",A*B)
08 print("Cross product :",np.cross(A,B))
09 print("Scalar product:",np.dot(A,B))

Listing 1.1 A NumPy Program

Output

Vector A: [1 2 3]
Vector B: [4 5 6]

22
 1.2 The Modules of Python

Total A+B: [5 7 9]
Product A*B: [ 4 10 18]
Cross product : [-3 6 -3]
Scalar product: 32

The NumPy module is described in Chapter 3.

1.2.2 Matplotlib
The Matplotlib module allows you to display mathematical functions, histograms, and
many other diagram types as well as to simulate and animate physical processes. The
graphical design options are remarkably diverse and rich in detail. Listing 1.2 shows a
simple example of the function plot of a polynomial.

01 import numpy as np
02 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
03 x=np.arange(-2,6,0.01)
04 y=x**3-7*x**2+7*x+15
05 plt.plot(x,y)
06 plt.show()

Listing 1.2 Function Plot with Matplotlib

Output
Figure 1.5 shows the output of the function plot.

Figure 1.5 A Function Plot Created Using Matplotlib

The Matplotlib module is discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

23
1 Introduction

1.2.3 SymPy
Using SymPy (symbolic Python), you can calculate integrals or derivatives symboli-
cally or solve differential equations symbolically. A simplification of mathematical
terms is also possible (and much more). Listing 1.3 shows a simple example of symbolic
differentiation and integration.

01 from sympy import *

02 x=symbols("x")
03 y=x**3-7*x**2+7*x+15
04 y_1=diff(y,x,1)
05 y_2=diff(y,x,2)
06 y_3=diff(y,x,3)
07 Y=integrate(y,x)
08 print("1. Derivative:",y_1)
09 print("2. Derivative:",y_2)
10 print("3. Derivative:",y_3)
11 print(" Integral :",Y)

Listing 1.3 Symbolic Differentiation and Integration Using SymPy

Output

1. Derivative: 3*x**2 - 14*x + 7

2. Derivative: 2*(3*x - 7)
3. Derivative: 6
Integral : x**4/4 - 7*x**3/3 + 7*x**2/2 + 15*x

The SymPy module is described in detail in Chapter 5.

1.2.4 SciPy
SciPy (scientific Python) allows you to numerically differentiate, integrate, and numer-
ically solve systems of differential equations. SciPy is as comprehensive as it is versa-
tile. The capabilities of SciPy can only be partially described in this book. Listing 1.4
shows a simple example of a numerical integration program.

01 import scipy.integrate as integral

02 def f(x):
03 return x**2
04 A=integral.quad(f,0,5)
05 print("Area A=",A[0])

Listing 1.4 Numerical Integration Using SciPy

24
 1.2 The Modules of Python

Output

Area A= 41.66666666666666

The SciPy module is described in Chapter 6.

1.2.5 VPython
Using VPython, you can display fields in a 3D view or even animate their movements
in 3D space. As of version 7, the animations are displayed in the standard browser after
the program starts. Listing 1.5 shows an example of how you can program the anima-
tion of a bouncing ball.

01 from vpython import *

02 r=1. #radius
03 h=5. #height
04 scene.background=color.white
05 scene.center=vector(0,h,0)
06 box(pos=vector(0,0,0),size=vector(2*h,r/2,h), color=color.green)
07 ball = sphere(radius=r, color=color.yellow)
08 ball.pos=vector(0,2*h,0) #drop height
09 ball.v = vector(0,0,0) #initial velocity
10 g=9.81
11 dt = 0.01
12 while True:
13 rate(100)
14 ball.pos = ball.pos + ball.v*dt
15 if ball.pos.y < r:
16 ball.v.y = -ball.v.y
17 else:
18 ball.v.y = ball.v.y - g*dt

Listing 1.5 Animation of a Bouncing Ball

Output
Figure 1.6 shows a snapshot of the animation. The VPython module is described in
Chapter 7. Of course, not all the capabilities of the Python modules we’ve mentioned
can be treated exhaustively in this book. If you miss a particular topic, I recommend
referring to the online documentation as a supplemental source of information. A
module’s maintainers should have a website where you’ll find tutorials for each mod-
ule to get you started, including complete module descriptions.

25
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