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 Introduction to
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
with MATLAB®
 Introduction to
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
with MATLAB®

Shashi Kant Mishra

Bhagwat Ram
MATLAB • is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant
the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB • software or related
products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach
or particular use of the MATLAB • software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20170726

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mishra, Shashi Kant, 1967- author. | Ram, Bhagwat, author.

Title: Introduction to linear programming with MATLAB / Shashi Kant Mishra
and Bhagwat Ram.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017016988| ISBN 9781138092266 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9781315104003 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Linear programming--Data processing. | MATLAB.
Classification: LCC T57.74 .M57 2018 | DDC 519.7/2028553--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017016988

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Contents

Foreword vii

Preface ix

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xiii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 History of Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Vector Spaces and Matrices 5

2.1 Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 MATLAB 21

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Basic Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Basic Operations in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Selection Statements and Loop Statements . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 User-Defined Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 MATLAB Functions Defined in This Book . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Introduction to Linear Programming 45

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Simple Examples of Linear Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Convex Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Programming Problem . . . . . 52
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

v
vi Contents

5 The Simplex Method 69

5.1 Standard Form of Linear Programming Problem . . . . . . . 69

5.2 Basic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3 Properties of Basic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Simplex Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Two-Phase Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

6 The Revised Simplex Method 137

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6.2 Matrix Form of the Revised Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3 The Revised Simplex Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

7 Duality 175

7.1 Dual Linear Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

7.2 Properties of Dual Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.3 The Dual Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

8 The Transportation Problem 213

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

8.2 Balanced Transportation Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.3 Northwest Corner Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.4 Least Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.5 Vogel’s Approximation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.6 Optimal Solution from BFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

9 The Assignment Problem 273

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

9.2 Hungarian Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Answer Key 305

Bibliography 309

Index 311
Foreword

Writing the foreword for this introductory textbook on linear pro-

gramming with MATLAB by Professors Shashi Kant Mishra and
Bhagwat Ram at Banaras Hindu University has brought me back
to the memory of the Fall Quarter, 1989, at Stanford University,
where the famous Professor George Dantzig was teaching the PhD
course, Linear Programming, in the Operations Research Depart-
ment. It was a four-unit course with a one-hour lab. One of the lab
projects was to develop codes for solving linear programming prob-
lems. At that time, most of my classmates handed in the codes in
Fortran or C++. I remembered that difficult time during the com-
piling stage, making debugs and correct Do-loops, data structures,
etc. using Fortran. Having gone through the project, I learned all
the details from theories to the programming parts in linear pro-
gramming. Later on, there was a period where some scholars were
developing convenient software over a spreadsheet environment
(like Solver in Excel) for students (especially MBAs) to simply
just input the data and hit the return to get sheets of the solu-
tion reports. Learning like this may treat the Simplex method as
a black box. This may be another extreme way to learn linear pro-
gramming.
Professors Mishra and Ram write this introductory textbook
in a clever way; with very light background in linear algebra and
MATLAB, the students will be brought to the theory parts quickly.
Friendly examples are given to illustrate the theory sections,
and MATLAB codes are provided to demonstrate the results.
MATLAB is useful here because of its interpreter feature, which
allows students to verify step-by-step in the simplex method with-
out the need of compiling the codes. The authors also provide
convenient “functions”, which are the main steps in the simplex
method. Students can simply call the functions to implement some
steps in the simplex methods. In this way, the Simplex method is

vii
viii Foreword

no longer a black box for our students. For the undergraduates,

the authors make a very nice trade-off among learning theories,
coding parts, and self-assessment of understanding the subject.
Linear programming has long been recognized with beautiful
theories as well as wide applications in the practical world. Using
MATLAB gives students the chance to “learn by doing”, one of
the effective learning strategies emphasized in our modern educa-
tion, in assessing themselves the level of understanding of the linear
programming subject. We strongly believe that students who learn
the linear programming with MATLAB will definitely understand
the subject much better in theories and practical applications.

Sy-Ming Guu
Professor,
Graduate Institute of Business and Management
Dean, College of Management,
Chang Gung University,
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Ph.D. in Operations Research,
Stanford University
Preface

George B. Dantzig formulated a linear programming problem and

developed the simplex method to solve it. This new mathematical
technique found a wide range of practical applications. This is an
introductory textbook on linear programming with MATLAB R ,
written mainly for students of mathematics, computer science, en-
gineering, economics, management science and agriculture. The
textbook is based on the lecture notes and experience of the first
author while teaching mathematics Bachelor of Science students
at the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India for several years.
A large number of available textbooks have been a source of inspi-
ration for introduction of concepts and problems. We are thankful
to the authors of those books for their indirect help.
There are many textbooks on linear programming but very
few on linear programming with MATLAB. Moreover, among the
available textbooks on linear programming with MATLAB, there
is a lack of student-friendly textbooks. There was a desperate need
of a textbook on linear programming with MATLAB for the begin-
ner of such a course. The purpose of this textbook is to introduce
linear programming and use of MATLAB in the formulation, so-
lutions and interpretation of linear programming problems in a
natural way. The textbook has been written in a simple and lu-
cid language so that a beginner can learn the subject easily. A
prerequisite is a standard single-variable calculus and introduc-
tory linear algebra course. Although some background knowledge
of multivariable calculus and some experience with formal proof
writing are helpful, these are by no means essential.
The textbook has been organized in nine chapters. The first
three chapters are an introduction, background of linear algebra
needed in the sequel and basic knowledge on MATLAB. Chapter
4 is on simple examples of linear programming problems, concept
of convex sets and graphical solution of linear programming prob-

ix
x Preface

lems. Chapters 5 and 6 are on Simplex method with illustrative

examples that are solved manually and several examples are solved
using MATLAB. Chapter 7 is on duality results and dual simplex
method, and the last two chapters are on transportation and as-
signment problems with a sufficient number of examples. A good
number of suitable exercises is also given on each method and with
answers at the end of textbook. The textbook contains 80 solved
examples to illustrate various methods and applications, and out
of these, 42 examples are solved manually and 38 examples are
solved using MATLAB.
We have written 18 user-friendly functions which show the step-
by-step solution of linear programming problems. This will be an
effective concept to those learners who want to learn the program-
ming concept in linear programming.
We are thankful to Prof. Niclas Borlin, Department of Comput-
ing Science, Ume University, Sweden who permitted us to use his
MATLAB function: hungarian.m. We are also thankful to Senior
Acquisitions Editor of CRC, Mrs. Aastha Sharma, for guiding us
during the development of this book in LaTex.

Shashi Kant Mishra

Bhagwat Ram
Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India

MATLAB R and Simulink R are registered trademarks of The

MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact: The
MathWorks, Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 01760-
2098 USA; Tel: 508 647 7000; Fax: 508-647-7001, E-mail:
info@mathworks.com; Web: www.mathworks.com.
List of Figures

1.1 J. L. Lagrange (1736–1813) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Joseph B. Fourier (1768–1830) . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Mikhail Ostrogradsky (1801–1862) . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Julius Farkas (1847–1930) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Leonid Vitalievich Kantorovich (1912–1996) . . . 3
1.6 T. C. Koopmans (1910–1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 George B. Dantzig (1914–2005) . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Cleve Barry Moler (August 17, 1939) . . . . . . . 4

4.1 Line segment PQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.2 Triangle ABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 A convex set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 A nonconvex set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 Graphical solution of Example 4.6 . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6 Graphical solution of Example 4.6 in MATLAB . 54
4.7 Graphical solution of Example 4.7 . . . . . . . . . 55
4.8 Graphical solution of Example 4.7 in MATLAB . 56
4.9 Graphical solution of Example 4.8 . . . . . . . . . 57
4.10 Graphical solution of Example 4.8 in MATLAB . 58
4.11 Graphical solution of Example 4.9 in MATLAB . 59
4.12 Graphical solution of Example 4.10 . . . . . . . . 59
4.13 Graphical solution of Example 4.10 in MATLAB . 60
4.14 Graphical solution of Example 4.11 . . . . . . . . 61
4.15 Graphical solution of Example 4.11 in MATLAB . 61
4.16 Graphical solution of Example 4.12 in MATLAB . 62
4.17 Graphical solution of Example 4.13 in MATLAB . 63
4.18 Graphical solution of Example 4.14 . . . . . . . . 64
4.19 Graphical solution of Example 4.14 in MATLAB . 65

xi
List of Tables

3.1 Types of Specifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2 Numeric Display of Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1 Production Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2 Hotel Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 History of Linear Programming

We are presenting a theory whose official
birth was at the heart of the twentieth century
and in fact in the years right after the Second
World War. However, all the readers are fa-
miliar with the method of Lagrange multipli-
ers from Calculus, named after Joseph Louis
Lagrange (1736–1813) who considered equal-
ity constrained minimization and maximiza-
tion problems in 1788, in the course of the FIGURE 1.1: J. L. La-
grange (1736–1813)
study of a stable equilibrium for a mechanical
system.
The famous French mathematician Joseph
B. Fourier (1768–1830) considered mechani-
cal systems subject to inequality constraints,
in 1798, though Fourier died before he could
raise any real interest of his new findings
to the mathematical community. Two stu-
dents of Fourier—the famous mathematician,
FIGURE 1.2: Joseph B.
Fourier (1768–1830) Navier, in 1825, and the equally famous math-
ematical economist, Cournot, in 1827, with-
out mentioning the work of Fourier—rediscovered the principle of
Fourier, giving the necessary conditions for equilibrium with ad
hoc argument which make specific reference to the mechanical in-
terpretation.
In 1838, the Russian mathematician Mikhail Ostrogradsky
(1801–1862) gave the same treatment in the more general terms.
He asserted without referring to Joseph B. Fourier, that at the min-

1
2 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R

imizer the gradient of the objective function can be represented as

a linear combination, with nonnegative multipliers of the gradients
of the constraints.
It is worth noticing that Ostrogradsky was
a student in Paris before he went to St. Pe-
tersburg, and he attended the mathemati-
cal courses of Fourier, Poisson, Chauchy and
other famous French mathematicians.
The Hungarian theoretical physicist Julius
Farkas (1847–1930) focused on the mathemat- FIGURE 1.3: Mikhail Os-
ical foundation and developed a theory of ho- trogradsky (1801–1862)
mogeneous linear inequalities which was pub-
lished in 1901. However, the first effective acknowledgment of the
importance of the work of Farkas was given in the Masters thesis of
Motzkin in 1933. But, the Farkas Lemma has to wait almost half a
century to be applied. American mathematicians also started de-
veloping a theory for systems of linear inequalities followed by a
paper on “preferential voting” published in The American Math-
ematical Monthly in 1916.
Note that the theory of linear program-
ming did not just appear overnight. Lin-
ear programming depends on development of
other mathematical theories and mathemat-
ical tools, one of these is of course Convex
Analysis, which was not known well before.
The birth of the linear programming theory
took place in two different, equally developed
FIGURE 1.4: Julius Farkas countries: the USSR and USA, but the moti-
(1847–1930)
vating forces were also entirely different.
In the USSR, the father of linear programming is Leonid Vi-
talievich Kantorovich (1912–1996) and he is well known in the
mathematical community for his achievements in linear program-
ming, mathematical economics and functional analysis. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1975 together with T. C. Koopmans
(1910–1985).
 Introduction 3

In the year 1939, Kantorovich was a young

professor at the Leningrad University. A state
firm that produced plywood and wished to
make more efficient use of its machines con-
tacted Kantorovich for a scientific advice. The
aim was to increase the production level of
five different types of plywood, carried out by
eight factories, each with different production FIGURE
talievich
1.5: Leonid Vi-
Kantorovich
capacity. Kantorovich soon realized that this (1912–1996)
problem has a mathematical structure.
In 1939, Kantorovich discussed and numerically solved the op-
timization problem under inequality constraints, in his small book,
which was translated to English in 1960. In this book, Kantorovich
presented several microeconomic problems from the production
planning of certain industries. But, till 1958, economists in the
USSR were not in favour to use the theory given by Kantorovich.
In 1960, at the Moscow Conference, economists discussed for the
first time the use of mathematical methods in economics and plan-
ning, and later in 1971 for optimal planning procedures.
The work of Kantorovich was available to
the rest of the world in 1960, when Tjalling
Carles Koopmans (1910–1985) published an
English translation of Kantorovich’s work in
1939.
Meanwhile, a similar line of research on in-
equality constrained optimization took place
in the USA independent of the work of the
FIGURE 1.6: T. C. Koop- Russians. During the Second World War from
mans (1910–1985)
1942 to 1944, Koopmans worked as a statis-
tician at the “Allied Shipping Adjustment Board” and was con-
cerned with some transportation models.
In the same period, George B. Dantzig (1914–2005), who is
recognized as the Western Father of Linear Programming, collab-
orated with the Pentagon as an expert of programming methods,
developed with the help of desk calculators. Dantzig finished his
studies and became a PhD in mathematics soon after the war
ended.
4 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R

Job opportunities came from the Univer-

sity of California at Berkeley and from the
Pentagon. The simplex method discovered by
Dantzig to solve a linear programming prob-
lem was presented for the first time in the
summer of 1947. In June 1947, Dantzig in-
troduced the simplex algorithm to Koopmans
who took it to the community of economists FIGURE 1.7: George B.
Dantzig (1914–2005)
namely, K. J. Arrow, P. A. Samuelson, H. Si-
mon, R. Dorfman, L. Hurwiez and others, and the Simplex method
became quite a potential method. The Simplex algorithm has been
declared as one of the best 10 algorithms with the greatest influ-
ence on the development and practice of science and engineering
in the twentieth century.
Cleve Barry Moler, the chairman of the
Computer Science department at the Uni-
versity of New Mexico, started developing
MATLAB in the late 1970s. He designed it
to give his undergraduate students for access-
FIGURE 1.8: Cleve Barry ing LINPACK (Linear Algebra Subroutines
Moler (August 17, 1939) for Vector-Matrix operations) and EISPACK
(To compute eigenvalues and eigen vectors)
general purpose libraries of algoritms. It soon became popular to
other universities also and found a strong interest among the stu-
dents of applied mathematics. Jack Little and Steve Bangert at-
tracted with this new programming environment and rewrote sev-
eral developed MATLAB functions in C. Moler, Little and Bangert
founded the Mathworks, Inc., in 1984.
MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in
control engineering, Little’s specialty, but quickly spread to many
other domains. It is now also used in education for learning and
teaching.
Chapter 2
Vector Spaces and Matrices

2.1 Vector
An n vector is a column array of n numbers, denoted as
a1
 
 a2 
a=  ...  .
 (2.1)
an

The number ai is called the ith component of the vector a. For
1
example, a =  2 is a column vector of size n = 3. Similarly, an
−3
n vector is a row vector of n numbers as
 
a = a1 a2 . . . an . (2.2)
 
For example, a = 1 2 −3 is a row vector of size n=3. We
denote R as the set of real numbers and Rn is the set of col-
umn or row n-vectors with real components. We can say Rn as
n-dimensional real vector space. We can denote the vectors by
lowercase letters such as a, b, c, etc. The components of a ∈ Rn
are denoted as a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
The transpose (denoted as T ) of a given column vector (2.1) is a
row vector (2.2). Therefore, we can write
 T
a1
 a2   
 .  = a1 a2 . . . an .
 .. 
an

5
6 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R

The transpose of a row vector (2.2) is a column vector (2.1).

a1
 
 T  a2 
a1 a2 . . . an = 
 ...  ,


an
that is
a1
 
 a2 
aT = 
 ...  .


an
Note that the set of all row vectors forms a vector space called
“row space”, similarly the set of all column vectors forms a vector
space called “column space”.
A vector space V is a collection of vectors, which is closed under
the operations of addition of two vectors a, b ∈ V , and multiplica-
tion by a scalar, α ∈ R, then the following properties hold:
1. Commutativity of vector addition: for vectors a, b ∈ V
a + b = b + a.

2. Associativity of vector addition: for vectors a, b, c ∈ V

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.

3. Existence of zero vector: for vector a ∈ V , we have

a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

4. Distributivity: for vectors a, b ∈ V and scalars α, β ∈ R, we

have
α(a + b) = αa + αb,
(α + β)a = αa + βa.

5. Associativity of multiplication: for vector a ∈ V and scalars

α, β ∈ R, we have
α(βa) = (αβ)a.
 Vector Spaces and Matrices 7

6. Unitarity: for vector a ∈ V , we have

1a = a.

7. The scalar 0 satisfies: for vector a ∈ V , we have

0a = 0.

8. Any scalar α ∈ R satisfies:

α0 = 0.

9. Existence of negatives: for a ∈ V , we have

(−1)a = −a.
 T  T
Two vectors a = a1 a2 . . . an and b = b1 b2 . . . bn are
equal if and only if ai = bi , for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
We can add two vectors a and b as
 T
a + b = a1 + b1 a2 + b2 . . . an + bn .
We can subtract two vectors a and b as
 T
a − b = a1 − b1 a2 − b2 . . . an − bn .
The vector 0 − b is denoted as −b.
 T
Suppose that x = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is a solution to a + x = b.
Then,
a1 + x 1 = b 1 ,
a2 + x 2 = b 2 ,
..
.
an + x n = b n ,
and thus
x = b − a.
We can say that vector b − a is the unique solution of the vector
equation a + x = b.
8 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R

We define an operation of multiplication of a vector a ∈ Rn by

a real scalar α ∈ R as
 
αa = αa1 αa2 . . . αan .
Note that αa = 0 if and only if α = 0 or a = 0. To see this,
observe that αa = 0 is equivalent to αa1 = αa2 = · · · = αan = 0.
If α = 0 or a = 0, then αa = 0. If a 6= 0, then at least one of its
components ak 6= 0. For this component, αak = 0, and hence we
must have α = 0. Similar arguments can be applied to the case
when α 6= 0.
Definition
 2.1 (Linearly Independent). A set of vectors S =
a1 , a2 , . . . , ak is said to be linearly independent if the equal-
ity α1 a1 + α2 a2 + · · · + αk ak = 0 implies that all coefficients
αi ∈ R, where i = 1, 2, . . . , k are equal to zero.
   
1 0
Example 2.1. Prove that the vectors a1 = 0 , a2 =    1 ,
1 −1
 
0
a3 = 0  are linearly independent.

−1
We apply definition of linear independent. We must show that
the linear combination of vectors a1 , a2 and a3 are equal to zero in
which all the coefficients α1 , α2 , and α3 should be zero. Therefore,
we can write as
       
1 0 0 0
α1 0 + α2  1  + α3  0  = 0 .
1 −1 −1 0
Equating the corresponding coordinates of the vectors on the left
and right side, we get the following system of linear equations:
α1 = 0,
α2 = 0,
α1 − α2 − α3 = 0.
Solving the above equations, we get α1 = α2 = α3 = 0. Thus,
vectors a1 , a2 , and a3 are linearly independent.
 Vector Spaces and Matrices 9

Definition
 2.2 (Linearly Dependent). A set of the vectors S =
a1 , a2 , . . . , ak is said to be linearly dependent if there exists co-
efficients αi ∈ R, where i = 1, 2, . . . , k not all of which are zero
such that α1 a1 + α2 a2 + · · · + αk ak = 0.
   
1 1
Example 2.2. Show that the vectors a1 = 2 , a2 = −1, and
  
1 2
 
3
a3 = 3 are linearly dependent.

4
The vectors a1 , a2 , a3 are linearly dependent because 2a1 + a2 −
a3 = 0, where αi 6= 0, i.e., α1 = 2, α2 = 1, and α3 = −1.

Theorem 2.1. A set of vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , ak is linearly depen-
dent if and only if one of the vectors ai from the set is a linear
combination of the remaining vectors.

Proof. Using definition (2.2), since a1 , a2 , . . . , an is linearly de-
pendent, there exists coefficients αi ∈ R, not all zero such that

α1 a1 + · · · + αi ai + · · · + αk ak = 0. (2.3)

Suppose αi 6= 0 for some i, that is

α1 α2 αi−1 αi+1 αk
ai = − a1 − a2 − · · · − ai−1 − ai+1 − · · · − ak .
αi αi αi αi αi

Conversely, for some i, ai can be expressed as a linear combination

of other vectors. That is,
ai = α1 a1 + · · · + αi−1 ai−1 + αi+1 ai+1 + · · · + αk ak ,
then we can write

α1 a1 + · · · + (−1)ai + αi+1 ai+1 + · · · + αk ak = 0.


Since αi =–16= 0, thus, the set of vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , an is linearly
dependent.
10 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R

2.2 Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, commonly denoted
by uppercase bold letters (e.g., A,B, etc.). A matrix with m rows
and n columns is called an m × n matrix, and we write
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A=  ... .. .. ..  .
. . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The real number, aij , located in the ith row and j th column is called
the (i, j)th entry. We can think of A in terms of its n columns, each
of which is a column vector in Rm . Alternatively, we can think of
A in terms of its m rows, each of which is a row n-vector. The
transpose of matrix A, denoted as AT , is the n × m matrix.
a11 a21 . . . am1
 
 a12 a22 . . . am2 
AT = 
 ... .. . . ..  .
. . . 
a1n a2n . . . amn
We see that columns of A are the rows of AT and vice versa.
Note that the symbol Rm×n denotes the set of m × n matrices
whose entries are real numbers. We treat column vectors in Rn as
elements of Rn×1 . Similarly, we treat row n-vectors as elements of
R1×n .

2.3 Linear Equations

Consider m linear equations in n unknowns namely of
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn as:
 Vector Spaces and Matrices 11

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .
Equivalently,
Ax=b.
Associated with this system of equations is the matrix:

A = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ].
Consider the m × n matrix
a11 a21 . . . am1
 
 a12 a22 . . . am2 
A= 
 ... .. ... ..  .
. . 
a1n a2n . . . amn
We can apply elementary row operations in the matrix A to get
the matrix in reduced form.

An elementary row operation on the given matrix A is an al-

gebraic manipulation of the matrix that corresponds to one of the
following:
1. Interchanging any two rows such as the pth and the uth rows
of the matrix A;
2. Multiplying one of its rows such as the pth row by a real
number α where α =6 0;
3. Adding one of its rows such as the uth row to the β times pth
row.
Rank of Matrix

The number of nonzero rows in the row reduced form of a ma-

trix A is called a rank of the matrix A, denoted as ρ(A). It is read
as ‘rho of A’. Note that if the matrix A is of order m × n and
ρ(A) = m, then A is said to be of full rank.
12 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R
 
2 2 2 −2
Example 2.3. Find the rank of the matrix A = 1 2 3 4 .
3 4 5 2
 
2 2 2 −2
 
 1 2 3 4 
3 4 5 2
R1 → 12 R1
 
1 1 1 −1
 
 1 2 3 4 
3 4 5 2
R2 → R2 − R1
 
1 1 1 −1
 
 0 1 2 5 
3 4 5 2
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 
1 1 1 −1
 
 0 1 2 5 
0 1 2 5
R3 → R3 − R2
 
1 1 1 −1
5 .
 
 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
Therefore, ρ(A)=Number of nonzero rows=2.

Example 2.4. Find the rank of the matrix.

 
0 1 −3 −1
 
 1 0 1 1 
 .
 3 1 0 2 
 
1 1 −2 0
 Vector Spaces and Matrices 13

Applying elementary row operations,

 
0 1 −3 −1
 
 1 0 1 1 
 
 3 1 0 2 
 
1 1 −2 0
R2 ↔ R1
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
 
 3 1 0 2 
 
1 1 −2 0
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
 
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
1 1 −2 0
R4 → R4 − R1
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
 
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
0 1 −3 −1
R3 → R3 − R2
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 
 
0 1 −3 −1
R4 → R4 − R2
14 Introduction to LINEAR PROGRAMMING with MATLAB R
 
1 0 1 1
 
 0 1 −3 −1 
 .
0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 0
Therefore, ρ(A)=Number of nonzero rows=2.

The system of linear equations is said to be

1. Consistent if ρ(A) = ρ(A|b), then
(a) The system has a unique solution if ρ(A) = ρ(A|b)
=Number of variables.
(b) The system has infinitely many solutions if ρ(A) =
ρ(A|b)<Number of variables.
2. Inconsistent if ρ(A) 6= ρ(A|b), then the system has no solu-
tion.
Example 2.5. Solve the following system of equations.

2x + 6y = −11,
6x + 20y − 6z = − 3,
6y − 18z = − 1.

We can write system of linear equations as an augmented matrix:

 
2 6 0 −11
 
 6 20 −6 −3 
 
0 6 −18 −1

We proceed with elementary row operations.

R2 → R2 − 3R1
 
2 6 0 −11
 
 0 2 −6 30 
 
0 6 −18 −1
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Dieu lui-même, Dieu sort de son profond repos.

And so, makes an epicurean God, of the Governor of the universe.

M. de Crousaz does not spare this expression of God's coming out of
his profound repose. "It is," says he, "excessively poetical, and
presents us with ideas which we ought not to dwell upon," &c. and
then, as usual, blames the author for the blunder of his translator.
Comm. p. 158.
Ver. 109. Nor God alone, &c.] These words are only a simple
affirmation in the poetic dress of a similitude, to this purpose: "Good
is not only produced by the subdual of the passions, but by the
turbulent exercise of them,"—a truth conveyed under the most
sublime imagery that poetry could conceive or paint. For the author
is here only showing the providential issue of the passions, and how,
by God's gracious disposition, they are turned away from their
natural destructive bias, to promote the happiness of mankind. As to
the method in which they are to be treated by man, in whom they
are found, all that he contends for, in favour of them, is only this,
that they should not be quite rooted up and destroyed, as the stoics,
and their followers, in all religions, foolishly attempted. For the rest,
he constantly repeats this advice,

The action of the stronger to suspend,

Reason still use, to reason still attend.

Ver. 133. As man, perhaps, &c.] "Antipater Sidonius Poeta omnibus

annis uno die natali tantum corripiebatur febre, et eo consumptus
est satis longâ senectâ." Plin. 1. vii. N. H. This Antipater was in the
times of Crassus, and is celebrated for the quickness of his parts by
Cicero.
Ver. 147. Reason itself, &c.] The Poet, in some other of his epistles,
gives examples of the doctrines and precepts here delivered. Thus,
in that Of the Use of Riches, he has illustrated this truth in the
character of Cotta:

Old Cotta shamed his fortune and his birth,

Yet was not Cotta void of wit or worth.
What though (the use of barb'rous spits forgot)
His kitchen vied in coolness with his grot?
If Cotta lived on pulse, it was no more
Than bramins, saints, and sages did before.

Ver. 149. We, wretched subjects, &c.] St. Paul himself did not choose
to employ other arguments, when disposed to give us the highest
idea of the usefulness of christianity (Rom. vii.) But it may be, the
poet finds a remedy in natural religion. Far from it. He here leaves
reason unrelieved. What is this, then, but an intimation that we
ought to seek for a cure in that religion, which only dares profess to
give it?
Ver. 163. 'Tis hers to rectify, &c.] The meaning of this precept is,
That as the ruling passion is implanted by nature, it is reason's office
to regulate, direct, and restrain, but not to overthrow it. To reform
the passion of avarice, for instance, into a parsimonious dispensation
of the public revenues: to direct the passion of love, whose object is
worth and beauty,

To the first good, first perfect, and first fair,

the το καλον τ' αγαθον, as his master Plato advises; and to restrain
spleen to a contempt and hatred of vice. This is what the poet
meant, and what every unprejudiced man could not but see he must
needs mean, by rectifying the master passion, though he had not
confined us to this sense, in the reason he gives of his precept in
these words:
 A mightier pow'r the strong direction sends,
And several men impels to several ends;

for what ends are they which God impels to, but the ends of virtue?
Ver. 175. Th' eternal art, &c.] The author has, throughout these
epistles, explained his meaning to be that vice is, in its own nature,
the greatest of evils, and produced through the abuse of man's free
will:

What makes all physical and moral ill?

There deviates nature, and here wanders will:

but that God in his infinite goodness, deviously turns the natural bias
of its malignity to the advancement of human happiness. A doctrine
very different from the Fable of the Bees, which impiously and
foolishly supposes it to have that natural tendency.
Ver. 204. The god within the mind.] A Platonic phrase for
conscience; and here employed with great judgment and propriety.
For conscience either signifies, speculatively, the judgment we pass
of things upon whatever principles we chance to have, and then it is
only opinion, a very unable judge and divider; or else it signifies,
practically, the application of the eternal rule of right (received by us
as the law of God) to the regulation of our actions; and then it is
properly conscience, the god (or the law of God) within the mind, of
power to divide the light from the darkness in this Chaos of the
passions.

Ver. 253. Wants, frailties, passions, closer still ally

The common interest, &c.]
As these lines have been misunderstood, I shall give the reader their
plain and obvious meaning. To these frailties, says he, we owe all
the endearments of private life; yet when we come to that age,
which generally disposes men to think more seriously of the true
value of things, and consequently of their provision for a future
state, the consideration, that the grounds of those joys, loves, and
friendships, are wants, frailties, and passions, proves the best
expedient to wean us from the world; a disengagement so friendly
to that provision we are now making for another state. The
observation is new, and would in any place be extremely beautiful,
but has here an infinite grace and propriety, as it so well confirms,
by an instance of great moment, the general thesis, that God makes
ill, at every step, productive of good.
Ver. 270. the poet in his muse.] The author having said, that no one
could change his own profession or views for those of another,
intended to carry his observations still further, and show that men
were unwilling to exchange their own acquirements even for those
of the same kind, confessedly larger, and infinitely more eminent in
another. To this end he wrote,

What partly pleases, totally will shock:

I question much, if Toland would be Locke.

But wanting another proper instance of this truth, he reserved the

lines above for some following edition of this Essay, which he did not
live to give.
Ver. 280. And beads and pray'r-books are the toys of age:] A satire
on what is called, in popery, the Opus operatum. As this is a
description of the circle of human life returning into itself by a
second childhood, the poet has with great elegance concluded his
description with the same image with which he set out, "And life's
poor play is o'er."
Ver. 286. And each vacuity of sense by pride:] An eminent casuist,
Father Francis Garasse, in his Somme Théologique, has drawn a very
charitable conclusion from this principle, which he hath well
illustrated: "Selon la justice," says this equitable divine, "tout travail
honnête doit être recompensé de louange ou de satisfaction. Quand
les bons esprits font un ouvrage excellent, ils sont justement
recompensés par les suffrages du public. Quand un pauvre esprit
travaille beaucoup, pour faire un mauvais ouvrage, il n'est pas juste
ni raisonnable, qu'il attende des louanges publiques; car elles ne lui
sont pas dues. Mais afin que ses travaux ne demeurent pas sans
recompense, Dieu lui donne une satisfaction personelle, que
personne ne lui peut envier sans une injustice plus que barbare; tout
ainsi que Dieu, qui est juste, donne de la satisfaction aux grenouilles
de leur chant. Autrement la blâme public, joint à leur
mécontentement, seroit suffisant pour les réduire au désespoir."

NOTES ON EPISTLE III.

Ver. 3. superfluous health,] Immoderate labour and immoderate
study are equally the impairers of health. They whose station sets
them above both, must needs have an abundance of it, which not
being employed in the common service, but wasted in luxury and
folly, the post properly calls a superfluity.
Ver. 4. impudence of wealth,] Because wealth pretends to be
wisdom, wit, learning, honesty, and, in short, all the virtues in their
turns.
Ver. 3-6.] M. du Resnel, not seeing into the admirable purpose of the
caution contained in these four lines, hath quite dropped the most
material circumstances contained in the last of them; and what is
worse, for the sake of a foolish antithesis, hath destroyed the whole
propriety of the thought in the two first; and so, between both, hath
left his author neither sense nor system.

Dans le sein du bonheur, ou de l'adversité.

Now, of all men, those in adversity have least needs of this caution,
as being least apt to forget, that God consults the good of the
whole, and provides for it by procuring mutual happiness by means
of mutual wants; it being seen that such who yet retain the smart of
any fresh calamity, are most compassionate to others labouring
under distresses, and most prompt and ready to relieve them.
Ver. 9. See plastic nature, &c.] M. du Resnel mistook this description
of the preservation of the material universe, by the quality of
attraction, for a description of its creation; and so translates it

Vois du sein du Chaos éclater la lumière,

Chaque atome ébranlé courir pour s'embrasser, &c.

This destroys the poet's fine analogical argument, by which he

proves, from the circumstance of mutual attraction in matter, that
man, while he seeks society, and thereby promotes the good of his
species, co-operates with God's general dispensation; whereas the
circumstance of a creation proves nothing but a Creator.
Ver. 12. Formed and impelled, &c.] Formed and impelled are not
words of a loose, undistinguishable meaning thrown in to fill up the
verse. This is not our author's way; they are full of sense, and of the
most philosophical precision. For to make matter so cohere as to fit
it for the uses intended by its Creator, a proper configuration of its
insensible parts is as necessary as that quality so equally and
universally conferred upon it, called attraction. To express the first
part of this thought, our author says formed; and to express the
latter, impelled.
Ver. 19, 20. Like bubbles, &c.] M. du Resnel translates these two
lines thus:

Sort du néant, y rentre, et reparoit au jour.

He is here, indeed, consistently wrong: for having, as we said,

mistaken the poet's account of the preservation of matter for the
creation of it, he commits the very same mistake with regard to the
vegetable and animal systems; and so talks now, though with the
latest, of the production of things out of nothing. Indeed, by his
speaking of their returning into nothing, he has subjected his author
to M. de Crousaz's censure: "Mr. Pope descends to the most vulgar
prejudices, when he tells us that each being returns to nothing: the
vulgar think that what disappears is annihilated," &c. Comm. p. 221.
Ver. 22. One all-extending, all-preserving soul,] Which, in the
language of Sir Isaac Newton, is "Deus omnipræsens est, non per
virtutem solam, sed etiam per substantiam: nam virtus sine
substantiâ subsistere non potest." Newt. Princ. Schol. gen. sub fin.
Ver. 23. greatest with the least;] As acting more strongly and
immediately in beasts, whose instinct is plainly an external reason;
which made an old school-man say, with great elegance, "Deus est
anima brutorum:"

In this 'tis God directs.

Ver. 45. See all things for my use!] On the contrary, the wise man
hath said, "The Lord hath made all things for himself." Prov. xvi. 4.
Ver. 50. Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole:] Alluding to the
witty system of that philosopher,[1596] which made animals mere
machines, insensible of pain or pleasure; and so encouraged men in
the exercise of that tyranny over their fellow-creatures, consequent
on such a principle.
Ver. 152. Man walked with beast, joint tenant of the shade;] The
poet still takes his imagery from Platonic ideas, for the reason given
above. Plato had said, from old tradition, that, during the golden
age, and under the reign of Saturn, the primitive language then in
use was common to man and beasts. Moral instructors took
advantage of the popular sense of this tradition, to convey their
precepts under those fables which gave speech to the whole brute
creation. The naturalists understood the tradition in the contrary
sense, to signify, that, in the first ages, men used inarticulate
sounds, like beasts, to express their wants and sensations; and that
it was by slow degrees they came to the use of speech. This opinion
was afterwards held by Lucretius, Diodorus Sic., and Gregory of
Nyss.
Ver. 156. All vocal beings, &c.] This may be well explained by a
sublime passage of the Psalmist, who, calling to mind the age of
innocence, and full of the great ideas of those

Chains of love
Combining all below and all above,
Which to one point, and to one centre bring,
Beast, man, or angel, servant, lord, or king;

breaks out into this rapturous and divine apostrophe, to call back the
devious creation to its pristine rectitude; that very state our author
describes above: "Praise the Lord, all his angels; praise ye him, all
his hosts. Praise ye him, sun and moon; praise him, all ye stars of
light," &c. Psalm cxlviii.
Ver. 158. Unbribed, unbloody, &c.] i.e. the state described from ver.
263 to 269 was not yet arrived. For then, when superstition was
become so extreme as to bribe the gods with human sacrifices,
tyranny became necessitated to woo the priest for a favourable
answer.
Ver. 159. Heav'n's attribute, &c.] The poet supposeth the truth of the
Scripture account, that man was created lord of this inferior world
(Ep. i. ver. 230).
Subjected these to those, and all to thee.
What hath misled some to imagine that our author hath here fallen
into a contradiction, was, I suppose, such passages as these, "Ask
for what end the heav'nly bodies shine," &c.; and again, "Has God,
thou fool! worked solely for thy good," &c. But, in truth, this is so far
from contradicting what he had said of man's prerogative, that it
greatly confirms it, and the Scripture account concerning it. And
because the licentious manner in which this subject has been
treated, has made some readers jealous and mistrustful of the
author's sober meaning, I shall endeavour to explain it. Scripture
says, that man was made lord of this sublunary world. But
intoxicated with pride, the common effect of sovereignty, he erected
himself, like little partial monarchs, into a tyrant. And as tyranny
consists in supposing all made for the use of one, he took those
freedoms with all, which are the consequence of such a principle. He
soon began to consider the whole animal creation as his slaves
rather than his subjects, as created for no use of their own, but for
his use only, and therefore treated them with the utmost cruelty;
and not content, to add insult to his cruelty, he endeavoured to
philosophize himself into an opinion that these animals were mere
machines, insensible of pain or pleasure. Thus man affected to be
the wit as well as tyrant of the whole. So that it became one who
adhered to the Scripture account of man's dominion to reprove this
abuse of it, and to show that

Heav'n's attribute was universal care,

And man's prerogative to rule, but spare.

Ver. 171. Thus then to man, &c.]

M. du Resnel has translated the lines thus:

La nature indignée alors se fit entendre;

Va, malheureux mortel, va, lui dit-elle, apprendre;

One would wonder what should make the translator represent

nature in such a passion with man, and calling him names, at a time
when Mr. Pope supposed her in her best good-humour. But what led
him into this mistake was another as gross. His author having
described the state of innocence which ends at these lines,

Heav'n's attribute was universal care,

And man's prerogative to rule, but spare,

turns from those times, to a view of these latter ages, and breaks
out into this tender and humane complaint,

Ah! how unlike the man of times to come,

Of half that live the butcher and the tomb, &c.

Unluckily, M. du Resnel took this man of times to come for the

corrupter of that first age, and so imagined the poet had introduced
nature only to set things right: he then supposed, of course, she was
to be very angry; and not finding the author had represented her in
any great emotion, he was willing to improve upon his original.
Ver. 174. Learn from the beasts, &c.] See Pliny's Nat. Hist. 1. viii. c.
27, where several instances are given of animals discovering the
medicinal efficacy of herbs, by their own use of them; and pointing
out to some operations in the art of healing, by their own practice.
Ver. 199. observant men obeyed;] The epithet is beautiful, as
signifying both obedience to the voice of nature, and attention to the
lessons of the animal creation. But M. l'Abbé, who has a strange
fatality of contradicting his original, whenever he attempts to
paraphrase, as he calls it, the sense, turns the lines in this manner:

Par ces mots la nature excita l'industrie,

Et de l'homme féroce enchaina la furie.
"Chained up the fury of savage man"; and so contradicts the
author's whole system of benevolence, and goes over to the
atheist's, who supposes the state of nature to be a state of war.
What seems to have misled him was these lines:

What war could ravish, commerce could bestow,

And he returned a friend who came a foe.

But M. du Resnel should have considered, that though the author

holds a state of nature to be a state of peace, yet he never imagined
it impossible that there should be quarrels in it. He had said,

So drives self-love through just and through unjust.

He pushes no system to an extravagance, but steers (as he says in

his preface) through doctrines seemingly opposite, or, in other
words, follows truth uniformly throughout.
Ver. 208. When love was liberty,] i.e. When men had no need to
guard their native liberty from their governors by civil pactions, the
love which each master of a family had for those under his care
being their best security.
Ver. 211. 'Twas virtue only, &c.] Our author hath good authority for
this account of the origin of kingship. Aristotle assures us, that it was
virtue only, or in arts or arms: Καθισταται βασιλευς εκ των επιεικων
καθ' ὑπεροχην αρετης, η πραξεων των απο της αρετης, η καθ'
ὑπεροχην τοιουτου γενους.
Ver. 219. He from the wond'ring furrow, &c.] i.e. He subdued the
intractability of all the four elements, and made them subservient to
the use of man.
Ver. 225. Then, looking up, &c.] The poet here maketh their more
serious attention to religion to have arisen, not from their gratitude
amidst abundance, but from their inability in distress, by showing
that, in prosperity, they rested in second causes, the immediate
authors of their blessings, whom they revered as God; but that, in
adversity, they reasoned up to the First:

Then, looking up from sire to sire, &c.

This, I am afraid, is but too true a representation of humanity.

Ver. 225 to 240.] M. du Resnel, not apprehending that the poet was
here returned to finish his description of the state of nature, has
fallen into one of the grossest errors that ever was committed. He
has mistaken this account of true religion for an account of the
origin of idolatry, and thus he fatally embellishes his own blunder:

Jaloux d'en conserver les traits et la figure,

Leur zèle industrieux inventa la peinture.
Leurs neveux, attentifs à ces hommes fameux,
Qui par le droit du sang avoient régné sur eux,
Trouvent-ils dans leur suite un grand, un premier père,
Leur aveugle respect l'adore et le révère.

Here you have one of the finest pieces of reasoning turned at once
into a heap of nonsense. The unlucky term of "Great first Father,"
was mistaken by our translator to signify a "great grandfather." But
he should have considered, that Mr. Pope always represents God
under the idea of a Father. He should have observed, that the poet is
here describing those men who

To virtue, in the paths of pleasure trod,

And owned a father, where they own'd a God!
Ver. 231. Ere wit oblique, &c.] A beautiful allusion to the effects of
the prismatic glass on the rays of light.
Ver. 242. Th' enormous faith, &c.] In this Aristotle placeth the
difference between a king and a tyrant, that the first supposeth
himself made for the people; the other, that the people are made for
him: Βουλεται δ' ὁ βασιλευς ειναι φυλαξ, ὁπως ὁι μεν κεκτημενοι τας
ουσιας μηθεν αδικον πασχωσιν, ὁ δε δημος μη hυβριζηται μηθεν· ἡ
δε τυραννις προς ουδεν αποβλεπει κοινον, ει μη της ιδιας ωφελειας
χαριν.
Pol. lib. V. cap. 10.
Ver. 245. Force first made conquest, &c.] All this is agreeable to fact,
and shows our author's knowledge of human nature. For that
impotency of mind, as the Latin writers call it, which gives birth to
the enormous crimes necessary to support a tyranny, naturally
subjects its owner to all the vain, as well as real, terrors of
conscience. Hence the whole machinery of superstition. It is true,
the poet observes, that afterwards, when the tyrant's fright was
over, he had cunning enough, from the experience of the effect of
superstition upon himself, to turn it, by the assistance of the priest
(who for his reward went shares with him in the tyranny) against the
justly dreaded resentment of his subjects. For a tyrant naturally and
reasonably supposeth all his slaves to be his enemies. Having given
the causes of superstition, he next describeth its objects:

Gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust, &c.

The ancient pagan gods are here very exactly described. This fact
evinceth the truth of that original, which the poet gives to
superstition; for if these phantasms were first raised in the
imagination of tyrants, they must needs have the qualities here
assigned to them. For force being the tyrant's virtue, and luxury his
happiness, the attributes of his god would of course be revenge and
lust; in a word, the antitype of himself. But there was another, and
more substantial cause, of the resemblance between a tyrant and a
pagan god; and that was the making gods of conquerors, as the
poet says, and so canonizing a tyrant's vices with his person. That
these gods should suit a people humbled to the stroke of a master
will be no wonder, if we recollect a generous saying of the ancients,
—"that day which sees a man a slave takes away half his virtue."
Ver. 262. and heav'n on pride.] This might be very well said of those
times when no one was content to go to heaven without being
received there on the footing of a god, with a ceremony of an
Αποθεωσις.
Ver. 283. 'Twas then, the studious head, &c.] The poet seemeth here
to mean the polite and nourishing age of Greece; and those
benefactors to mankind, which he had principally in view, were
Socrates and Aristotle; who, of all the pagan world, spoke best of
God, and wrote best of government.
Ver. 295. Such is the world's great harmony, &c.] A harmony very
different from the pre-established harmony of the celebrated
Leibnitz, which introduceth a fatality destructive of all religion and
morality. Yet hath the learned M. de Crousaz ventured to accuse our
poet of espousing that dangerous whimsy. The pre-established
harmony was built upon, and is an outrageous extension of a
conception of Plato, who, combating the atheistical objections about
the origin of evil, employs this argument in defence of Providence:
"That amongst an infinite number of possible worlds in God's idea,
this which he hath created and brought into being, and which admits
of a mixture of evil, is the best. But if the best, then evil
consequently is partial, comparatively small, and tendeth to the
greater perfection of the whole." This principle is espoused and
supported by Mr. Pope with all the power of reason and poetry. But
neither was Plato a fatalist, nor is there any fatalism in the
argument. As to the truth of the notion, that is another question;
and how far it cleareth up the very difficult controversy about the
origin of evil, is still another. That it is a full solution of the difficulty,
I cannot think, for reasons too long to be given in this place.
Perhaps we shall never have a full solution here, and it may be no
great matter though we have not, as we are demonstrably certain of
the moral attributes of the Deity. Yet this will never hinder writers
from exposing themselves on this subject. A late author[1597] thinks
he can account for the origin of evil, and therefore he will write: he
thinks too, that the clearing up this difficulty is necessary to secure
the foundation of religion, and therefore he will print. But he is
doubly mistaken: he must know little of philosophy to fancy that he
has found the solution; and still less of religion, to imagine that the
want of his solution can affect our belief in God. Such writers

Amuse th' unlearn'd, and make the learned smile.

However, Mr. Pope may be justified in receiving and enforcing this

Platonic notion, as it hath been adopted by the most celebrated and
orthodox divines both of the ancient and modern church. This
doctrine was taken up by Leibnitz; but it was to ingraft upon it a
most pernicious fatalism. Plato said, God chose the best: Leibnitz
said, he could not but choose the best, as he could not act without,
what this philosopher called, a sufficient reason. Plato supposed
freedom in God to choose one of two things equally good: Leibnitz
held the supposition to be absurd: but, however, admitting the case,
he still held that God could not choose one of two things equally
good. Thus it appears, the first went on the system of freedom; and
that the latter, notwithstanding the most artful disguises of his
principles, in his Theodicée, was a thorough fatalist: for we cannot
well suppose he would give that freedom to man which he had taken
away from God. The truth of the matter seems to be this: he saw,
on the one hand, the monstrous absurdity of supposing, with
Spinoza, that blind fate was the author of a coherent universe; but
yet, on the other, he could not conceive with Plato, how God could
foresee and conduct, according to an archetypal idea, a world, of all
possible worlds the best, inhabited by free agents. This difficulty,
therefore, which made the socinians take prescience from God,
disposed Leibnitz to take free-will from man: and thus he fashioned
his fantastical hypothesis; he supposed that when God made the
body, he impressed on his new-created machine a certain series or
suite of motions; and that when he made the fellow soul, he
impressed a correspondent series of ideas; whose operations,
throughout the whole duration of the union, were so exactly timed,
that whenever an idea was excited, a correspondent motion was
ever ready to satisfy the volition. Thus, for instance, when the mind
had the will to raise the arm to the head, the body was so pre-
contrived, as to raise, at that very moment, the part required. This
he called the pre-established harmony; and with this he promised to
do wonders. "Yet after all," says an excellent philosopher and best
interpreter of Newton, "he owned to his friends, that this
extraordinary notion was only a lusus ingenii (un jeu d'esprit) to try
his parts, and laugh at the credulity of philosophers; who are as fond
of a new paradox, as enthusiasts of a new light. If at other times he
was so pleased with his own notions in his Theodicée, as to defend
them seriously against the learned Dr. Clarke, that shows only that
he angled for two different sorts of reputation, from the same
performance; and unluckily he lost both. The subject was too serious
to pass for a romance; and the principles too absurd to be admitted
for truth." Mr. Baxter's Appendix to the Inquiry into the Nature of the
Human Soul, p. 162. As this was the case, none would have thought
it amiss in M. Voltaire to oppose one romance to another, had he
rested there. But his tale of Candide, which professes to ridicule the
optimism of Leibnitz, was apparently composed in favour of an
irreligious naturalism, which he makes the solution of all the
difficulties in the story.
Ver. 303. For forms of government, &c.] Such as Harrington,
Wildman, Neville,[1598] &c. about the several forms of a legitimate
policy. These fine lines have been strangely misunderstood. The
author, against his own express words, against the plain sense of his
system, hath been conceived to mean, that all governments and all
religions were, as to their forms and objects, indifferent. But as this
wrong judgment proceeded from ignorance of the reason of the
reproof, as explained above,[1599] that explanation is alone sufficient
to rectify the mistake. However, not to leave him under the least
suspicion in a matter of so much importance, I shall justify the sense
here given to this passage, more at large:
I. And first, as to society: Let us consider the words themselves; and
then compare this mistaken sense with the context. The poet, we
may observe, is here speaking, not of civil society at large, but of a
just legitimate policy:

Th' according music of a well-mixed state.

Now mixed states are of various kinds; in some of which the

democratic, in others the aristocratic, and in others the monarchic
form prevails. Now, as each of these mixed forms is equally
legitimate, as being founded on the principles of natural liberty, that
man is guilty of the highest folly, who chooseth rather to employ
himself in a speculative contest for the superior excellence of one of
these forms to the rest, than in promoting the good administration
of that settled form to which he is subject. And yet most of our
warm disputes about government have been of this kind. Again, if by
forms of government must needs be meant legitimate government,
because that is the subject under debate, then by modes of faith,
which is the correspondent idea, must needs be meant the modes or
explanations of the true faith, because the author is here too on the
subject of true religion:

Relumed her ancient light, not kindled new.

Besides, the very expression (than which nothing can be more

precise) confineth us to understand by modes of faith, those human
explanations of christian mysteries, in contending about which zeal
and ignorance have so perpetually violated charity. Secondly, If we
consider the context; to suppose him to mean, that all forms of
government are indifferent, is making him directly contradict the
preceding paragraph, where he extols the patriot for discriminating
the true from the false modes of government. He, says the poet,

Taught pow'r's due use to people and to kings,

Taught not to slack, nor strain its tender strings;
The less, or greater, set so justly true,
That touching one must strike the other too;
Till jarring interests of themselves create
Th' according music of a well mixed state.

Here he recommendeth the true form of government, which is the

mixed. In another place he as strongly condemneth the false, or the
absolute jure divino form:

For nature knew no right divine in men.

But the reader will not be displeased to see the poet's own apology,
as I find it written in the year 1740, in his own hand, in the margin
of a pamphlet, where he found these two celebrated lines very much
misapplied: "The author of these lines was far from meaning that no
one form of government is, in itself, better than another, (as, that
mixed or limited monarchy, for example, is not preferable to
absolute), but that no form of government, however excellent or
preferable, in itself, can be sufficient to make a people happy, unless
it be administered with integrity. On the contrary, the best sort of
government, when the form of it is preserved, and the
administration corrupt, is most dangerous."
II. Again, to suppose the poet to mean, that all religions are
indifferent, is an equally wrong, as well as uncharitable suspicion.
Mr. Pope, though his subject, in this Essay on Man, confineth him to
natural religion, his purpose being to vindicate God's natural
dispensations to mankind against the atheist, yet he giveth frequent
intimations of a more sublime dispensation, and even of the
necessity of it, particularly in his second Epistle, ver. 149, &c., where
he confesseth the weakness and insufficiency of human reason. And
likewise in his fourth Epistle, where, speaking of the good man, the
favourite of heaven, he saith,

For him alone, hope leads from goal to goal,

And opens still, and opens on his soul:
Till, lengthened on to faith, and unconfined,
It pours the bliss that fills up all the mind.

But natural religion never lengthened hope on to faith; nor did any
religion, but the christian, ever conceive that faith could fill the mind
with happiness. Lastly, In this very Epistle, and in this very place,
speaking of the great restorers of the religion of nature, he intimates
that they could only draw God's shadow, not his image:

Relumed her ancient light, not kindled new,

If not God's image, yet his shadow drew:

as reverencing that truth, which telleth us, this discovery was

reserved for the "glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God."
2 Cor. iv. 4.
Ver. 305. For modes of faith let graceless zealots fight;] These latter
ages have seen so many scandalous contentions for modes of faith,
to the violation of Christian charity, and dishonour of sacred
Scripture, that it is not at all strange they should become the object
of so benevolent and wise an author's resentment. But that which he
here seemed to have more particularly in his eye, was the long and
mischievous squabble between Waterland and Jackson,[1600] on a
point confessedly above reason, and amongst those adorable
mysteries, which it is the honour of our religion to find
unfathomable. In this, by the weight of answers and replies,
redoubled upon one another without mercy, they made so profound
a progress, that the one proved, nothing hindered in nature, but that
the Son might have been the Father; and the other, that nothing
hindered in grace, but that the Son may be a mere creature. But if,
instead of throwing so many Greek Fathers at one another's heads,
they had but chanced to reflect on the sense of one Greek word,
απειρια, that it signifies both infinity and ignorance, this single
equivocation might have saved them ten thousand, which they
expended in carrying on the controversy. However, those mists that
magnified the scene enlarged the character of the combatants, and
nobody expecting common sense on a subject where we have no
ideas, the defects of dulness disappeared, and its advantages (for,
advantages it has) were all provided for. The worst is, such kind of
writers seldom know when to have done. For writing themselves up
into the same delusion with their readers, they are apt to venture
out into the more open paths of literature, where their reputation,
made out of that stuff which Lucian calls σκοτος ὁλοχροος, presently
falls from them, and their nakedness appears. And thus it fared with
our two worthies. The world, which must have always something to
amuse it, was now, and it was time, grown weary of its playthings;
and catched at a new object, that promised them more agreeable
entertainment. Tindal, a kind of bastard Socrates, had brought our
speculations from heaven to earth, and, under the pretence of
advancing the antiquity of christianity, laboured to undermine its
original. This was a controversy that required another management.
Clear sense, severe reasoning, a thorough knowledge of prophane
and sacred antiquity, and an intimate acquaintance with human
nature, were the qualities proper for such as engaged in this subject.
A very unpromising adventure for these metaphysical nurslings, bred
up under the shade of chimeras. Yet they would needs venture out.
[1601] What they got by it was only to be once well laughed at, and
then, forgotten.
But one odd circumstance deserves to be remembered; though they
wrote not, we may be sure, in concert, yet each attacked his
adversary at the same time; fastened upon him in the same place;
and mumbled him with just the same toothless rage. But the ill
success of this escape soon brought them to themselves. The one
made a fruitless effort to revive the old game, in a discourse on The
Importance of the Doctrine of the Trinity; and the other has been
ever since rambling in Space and Time.[1602] This short history, as
insignificant as the subjects of it are, may not be altogether unuseful
to posterity. Divines may learn by these examples to avoid the
mischiefs done to religion and literature, through the affectation of
being wise above what is written, and knowing beyond what can be
understood.
Ver. 318. And bade self-love and social be the same.] True self-love
is an appetite for that proper good, for the enjoyment of which we
were made as we are. Now that good is commensurate with all
other good, and a part and portion of universal good: it is, therefore,
the same with social, which hath these properties.

NOTES ON EPISTLE IV.

Ver. 6. O'erlooked, seen double, &c.] O'erlooked by those who place
happiness in any thing exclusive of virtue; seen double by those who
admit any thing else to have a share with virtue in procuring
happiness, these being the two general mistakes which this Epistle is
employed to confute.

Ver. 21, 23. Some place the bliss in action,—

Some sunk to beasts, &c.]
1. Those who place happiness, or the summum bonum, in pleasure,
Ἡδονη; such as the Cyrenaic sect, called, on that account, the
Hedonic. 2. Those who place it in a certain tranquillity or calmness of
mind, which they call Ευθυμια; such as the Democritic sect. 3. The
Epicurean. 4. The Stoic. 5. The Protagorean, which held that Man
was παντων χρηματων μετρον, the measure of all things; for that all
things which appear to him, are, and those things which appear not
to any man, are not; so that every imagination or opinion of every
man was true. 6. The Sceptic; whose absolute doubt is, with great
judgment, said to be the effect of indolence, as well as the absolute
trust of the Protagorean. For the same dread of labour attending the
search of truth, which makes the Protagorean presume it is always
at hand, makes the Sceptic conclude it is never to be found. The
only difference is, that the laziness of the one is desponding, and the
laziness of the other sanguine; yet both can give it a good name,
and call it happiness.
Ver. 23. Some sunk to beasts, &c.] These four lines added in the last
edition, as necessary to complete the summary of the false pursuits
after happiness among the Greek philosophers.
Ver. 35. Remember, man, "the Universal Cause
"Acts not by partial, but by gen'ral laws:"]
I reckon it for nothing that M. du Resnel saw none of the fine
reasoning from these two lines to ver. 73, in which the poet confutes
both the philosophic and popular errors concerning happiness. What
I can least bear is his perverting these two lines to a horrid and
senseless fatalism, foreign to the argument in hand, and directly
contrary to the poet's general principles:

Une loi générale

Détermine toujours la cause principale;

i.e. a general law always determines the first cause: which is the
very Fate of the ancient pagans; who supposed that the destinies
gave law to the father of gods and men. The poet says again, soon
after, ver. 49, "Order is heaven's first law," i. e. the first law made by
God relates to order, which is a beautiful allusion to the Scripture
history of the creation, when God first appeased the disorders of
chaos, and separated the light from the darkness. Let us now hear
his translator:
 L'ordre, cet inflexible et grand législateur,
Qui des décrets du ciel est le premier auteur.

Order, that inflexible and grand legislator, who is the first author of
the law of heaven. A proposition abominable in most senses; absurd
in all.
Ver. 79. Reason's whole pleasure, &c.] This is a beautiful periphrasis
for happiness; for all we feel of good is by sensation and reflection.
But the translator, who seemed little to concern himself with the
poet's philosophy or argument, mistook this description of happiness
for a description of the intellectual and sensitive faculties, opposed
to one another, and therefore turns it thus,

Le charme séducteur, dont s'enivrant les sens,

Les plaisirs de l'esprit, encore plus ravissans;

And so, with the highest absurdity, not only makes the poet
constitute sensual excesses a part of human happiness, but likewise
the product of virtue.
Ver. 82. And peace, &c.] Conscious innocence, says the poet, is the
only source of internal peace; and known innocence, of external;
therefore, peace is the sole issue of virtue, or, in his own emphatic
words, peace is all thy own; a conclusive observation in his
argument; which stands thus: Is happiness rightly placed in
externals? No; for it consists in health, peace, and competence;
health and competence are the product of temperance; and peace,
of perfect innocence.
Ver. 100. See god-like Turenne] This epithet has a peculiar justness,
the great man to whom it is applied not being distinguished from
other generals, for any of his superior qualities, so much as for his
providential care of those whom he led to war, in which he was so
intent, that his chief purpose in taking on himself the command of
armies, seems to have been the preservation of mankind. In this
god-like care he was more remarkably employed throughout the
whole course of that famous campaign in which he lost his life.
Ver. 110. Lent heav'n a parent, &c.] This last instance of the poet's
illustration of the ways of Providence, the reader sees has a peculiar
elegance, where a tribute of piety to a parent is paid in return of
thanks to, and made subservient of his vindication of, the great Giver
and Father of all things. The mother of the author, a person of great
piety and charity, died the year this poem was finished, viz. 1733.
Ver. 121. Think we, like some weak prince, &c.] Agreeable hereunto,
Holy Scripture, in its account of things under the common
Providence of heaven, never represents miracles as wrought for the
sake of him who is the object of them, but in order to give credit to
some of God's extraordinary dispensations to mankind.
Ver. 123. Shall burning Etna, &c.] Alluding to the fate of those two
great naturalists, Empedocles and Pliny, who both perished by too
near an approach to Etna and Vesuvius, while they were exploring
the cause of their eruptions.
Ver. 142. After ver. 142 in some editions:

Give each a system, all must be at strife;

What different systems for a man and wife!

The joke, though lively, was ill placed, and therefore struck out of
the text.
Ver. 177. Go, like the Indian, &c.] Alluding to the example of the
Indian, in Epist. i. ver. 99, which shows, that that example was not
given to discredit any rational hopes of future happiness, but only to
reprove the folly of separating them from charity, as when
 Zeal, not charity, became the guide,
And hell was built on spite, and heav'n on pride.

Ver. 219. Heroes are much the same, &c.] This character might have
been drawn with greater force; and deserved the poet's care. But
Milton supplies what is here wanting.

They err who count it glorious to subdue

By conquest far and wide, to over-run
Large countries, and in field great battles win,
Great cities by assault. What do these worthies,
But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter, and enslave
Peaceable nations, neighb'ring or remote,
Made captive, yet deserving freedom more
Than those their conqu'rors; who leave behind
Nothing but ruin wheresoe'er they rove,
And all the flourishing works of peace destroy?
Then swell with pride, and must be titled gods;
Till conqu'ror death discovers them scarce men,
Rolling in brutish vices and deformed,
Violent or shameful death their due reward.—Par. Reg. b. iii.

Ver. 222. an enemy of all mankind!] Had all nations, with regard to
their heroes, been of the humour with the Normans, who called
Robert II., the greatest of their Dukes, by the name of Robert the
Devil, the races of heroes might have been less numerous, or,
however, less mischievous.
Ver. 267. Painful pre-eminence, &c.] This, to his friend, nor does it at
all contradict what he had said to him concerning happiness, in the
beginning of the Epistle:
 'Tis never to be bought, but always free,
And fled from monarchs, St. John! dwells with thee.

For there he compliments his virtue; here he estimates the value of

his politics, which he calls wisdom. He is now proving that nothing
either external to man, or what is not in man's power, and of his
own acquirement, can make him happy here. The most plausible
rival of virtue is human wisdom: yet even this is so far from giving
any degree of real happiness, that it deprives us of those common
comforts of life, which are a kind of support, under the want of
happiness. Such as the more innocent of those delusions which he
speaks of in the second Epistle,

Those painted clouds that beautify our days, &c.

Now knowledge destroyeth all those comforts, by setting man above

life's weaknesses; so that in him, who thinketh to attain happiness
by knowledge alone, independent of virtue, the fable is reversed,
and in a preposterous attempt to gain the substance, he loseth even
the shadow. This I take to be the sense of this fine stroke of satire
on the wrong pursuits after happiness.
Ver. 281, 283. If parts allure thee,—
Or ravished with the whistling of a name,]
These two instances are chosen with great judgment. The world,
perhaps, doth not afford two such other. Bacon discovered and laid
down those true principles of science, by whose assistance Newton
was enabled to unfold the whole law of nature. He was no less
eminent for the creative power of his imagination, the brightness of
his conceptions, and the force of his expression; yet being convicted
on his own confession for bribery and corruption in the
administration of justice, while he presided in the supreme court of
equity, he endeavoured to repair his ruined fortunes by the most
profligate flattery to the court, which, indeed, from his very first
entrance into it, he had accustomed himself to practise with a
prostitution that disgraceth the very profession of letters or of
science.
Cromwell seemeth to be distinguished in the most eminent manner,
with regard to his abilities, from all other great and wicked men,
who have overturned the liberties of their country. The times in
which others have succeeded in this attempt, were such as saw the
spirit of liberty suppressed and stifled by a general luxury and
venality; but Cromwell subdued his country, when this spirit was at
its height, by a successful struggle against court-oppression; and
while it was conducted and supported by a set of the greatest
geniuses for government the world ever saw embarked together in
one common cause.
Ver. 283. Or ravished with the whistling of a name,] And even this
fantastic glory sometimes sutlers a terrible reverse. Sacheverel, in
his Voyage to Icolm-kill, describing the church there, tells us, that "in
one corner is a peculiar enclosure, in which were the monuments of
the kings of many different nations, as Scotland, Ireland, Norway,
and the Isle of Man. This (said the person who showed me the
place, pointing to a plain stone) was the monument of the great
Teague, king of Ireland. I had never heard of him, and could not but
reflect of how little value is greatness, that has barely left a name
scandalous to a nation, and a grave which the meanest of mankind
would never envy."

Ver. 309. Know then this truth, enough for man to know,
"Virtue alone is happiness below."]
M. du Resnel translates the line thus:

Apprend donc, qu'il n'est point ici bas de bonheur,

Si la vertu no règle et l'esprit et le cœur.
i.e. Learn then, that there is no happiness here below, unless virtue
regulates the heart and the understanding, which destroys all the
force of his author's conclusion. He had proved, that happiness
consists neither in external goods, as the vulgar imagined, nor yet in
the visions of the philosophers: he concludes, therefore, that it
consists in virtue alone. His translator says, that without virtue, there
can be no happiness. And so say the men whom his author is here
confuting. For though they supposed external goods requisite to
happiness, it was when in conjunction with virtue. Mr. Pope says,

Virtue alone is happiness below:

And so ought a faithful translator to have said after him.

Ver. 316. After ver. 316, in the MS.

Ev'n while it seems unequal to dispose,

And chequers all the good man's joys with woes,
'Tis but to teach him to support each state,
With patience this, with moderation that;
And raise his base on that one solid joy,
Which conscience gives, and nothing can destroy.

These lines are extremely finished. In which there is such a soothing

sweetness in the melancholy harmony of the versification, as if the
poet was then in that tender office in which he was most officious,
and in which all his soul came out, the condoling with some good
man in affliction.
Ver. 341. For him alone, hope leads from goal to goal, &c.] Plato, in
his first book of a Republic, hath a remarkable passage to this
purpose: "He whose conscience does not reproach him, has cheerful
hope for his companion, and the support and comfort of his old age,
according to Pindar. For this great poet, O Socrates, very elegantly
says, That he who leads a just and holy life, has always amiable
hope for his companion, which fills his heart with joy, and is the
support and comfort of his old age. Hope, the most powerful of the
divinities, in governing the ever-changing and inconstant temper of
mortal men." In the same manner Euripides speaks in his Hercules
Furens: "He is the good man in whose breast hope springs eternally.
But to be without hope in the world, is the portion of the wicked."
Ver. 373. Come then, my friend! &c.] This noble apostrophe, by
which the poet concludes the Essay in an address to his friend, will
furnish a critic with examples of every one of those five species of
elocution, from which, as from its sources, Longinus deduceth the
sublime.
1. The first and chief is a grandeur and sublimity of conception:

Come then, my friend! my genius! come along;

O master of the poet, and the song!
And while the muse now stoops, and now ascends,
To man's low passions, or their glorious ends.

2. The second, that pathetic enthusiasm, which, at the same time,

melts and inflames:

Teach me, like thee, in various nature wise,

To fall with dignity, with temper rise;
Formed by thy converse, happily to steer
From grave to gay, from lively to severe;
Correct with spirit, eloquent with ease,
Intent to reason, or polite to please.

3. A certain elegant formation and ordonance of figures:

 Oh! while along the stream of time thy name
Expanded flies, and gathers all its fame,
Say, shall my little bark attendant sail,
Pursue the triumph, and partake the gale?

4. A splendid diction:

When statesmen, heroes, kings, in dust repose

Whose sons shall blush their fathers were thy foes,
Shall then this verse to future age pretend
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend?
That urged by thee, I turned the tuneful art,
From sounds to things, from fancy to the heart;
For wit's false mirror held up nature's light.

5. And fifthly, which includes in itself all the rest, a weight and
dignity in the composition:

Shew'd erring pride, whatever is, is right;

That reason, passion, answer one great aim;
That true self-love and social are the same;
That virtue only makes our bliss below;
And all our knowledge is, ourselves to know. [1603]
 NOTES OF W. WARBURTON ON THE UNIVERSAL
PRAYER.
Universal Prayer.] It may be proper to observe, that some passages
in the preceding Essay, having been unjustly suspected of a
tendency towards fate and naturalism, the author composed this
prayer as the sum of all, to show that his system was founded in
free-will, and terminated in piety; that the First Cause was as well
the Lord and Governor of the Universe as the Creator of it; and that,
by submission to his will (the great principle enforced throughout the
Essay), was not meant suffering ourselves to be carried along by a
blind determination, but resting in a religious acquiescence, and
confidence full of hope and immortality. To give all this the greater
weight, the poet chose for his model the Lord's Prayer, which, of all
others, best deserves the title prefixed to his paraphrase.
Ver. 29. If I am right, thy grace impart,—
I am wrong, O teach my heart]
As the imparting of grace, on the Christian system, is a stronger
exertion of the divine power than the natural illumination of the
heart, one would expect that right and wrong should change places,
more aid being required to restore men to right, than to keep them
in it. But as it was the poet's purpose to insinuate that revelation
was the right, nothing could better express his purpose, than making
the right secured by the guards of grace.
END OF VOL. II.
BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
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